Ecosystem

Ecology
• The term Ecology was coined by German zoologist, naturalist Earnst
Haeckel in 1869.

• It is derived from the Greek words Oikos-home and logos-study.

• Ecology is the branch of Biology that deals with the inter-

relationship between organisms.

• Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms,

including humans, and their physical environment.

• Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the structure and
function of nature.
 Ecosystem
• The term Ecosystem was coined by British
ecologist Arthur George Tansley in 1935.

• What is mean by Ecosystem?

– An animal can not live in isolation and interact with

biota and abiotic factors, these relationship constitute
the ecological system or ecosystem.

– Ecosystem is defined as structural and functional unit

of the biosphere, comprising living and non-living
factors and their interaction.
 Types of Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is an open system and material can
exchange from one ecosystem to another
ecosystem.
– For ex. Frog move from the pond to the land and
vice-versa.

• The ecosystem can be classified based on-

1. Nature
2. Size
3. Duration
 Based on Nature

• Natural Ecosystem:
– This ecosystem forms naturally without interference
of human.
– Example include are river, forest, village, hill etc.

• Artificial Ecosystem:
– This ecosystem is developed and maintained by
human.
– Example include are flowerbed, backyard, aquarium
etc.
 Based on Duration

• Temporary ecosystem:
– It is short lived and man made or natural.
– Example include rain fed pond.

• Permanent ecosystem:
– It is long lived and self supported natural
ecosystem for very long period.
– Example includes forest, river etc.
 Based on Size

• Small Ecosystem:
– It is small and also known as microecosystem.
– It can be temporary or permanent.
– For ex. Pond, flowerpot etc

• Large Ecosystem:
– It is large in size and also known as macroecosystem.
– It is always permanent and mostly natural.
– For ex. Ocean, river, forest and desert.
 Components of Ecosystem
• Any ecosystem
needs matter (water,
oxygen, mineral,
carbon dioxide),
different types of
organisms and
continuous recycling
of energy.
• These requirements
are met by-
1. Biotic
components
2. Abiotic
components.
 Biotic Components
• The living organisms present in an ecosystem
form the biotic component.
– They are connected through food.
– In this series, few organisms are producing food
whereas others are consuming the food.

1. Producers: The role of producers is to prepare

food to provide nutrition to the other organisms
present in the ecosystem.
• There are two types of producers; photoautotrophs
and chemotrophs.
 Producers
• Photoautotrophs:
– Green plants which can use sun light to form carbohydrate,
simple sugar from carbon di-oxide and water.
– This process is known as photosynthesis and these
organisms are called as photoautotrophs.

• Chemoautotrophs:
– Few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, are
able to utilize energy released from the chemical reactions
to prepare organic food.
– They are called chemoautotrophs and the process is
known as chemosynthesis.
 Consumers and Decomposers
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs):
– The animals.
– They are unable synthesize their own food and depends on
producers.
– They utilizes the oxygen being released from the producers as
well.
– Several comsumers doesn’t get the food from the producers but
they are depended on consumers it self.
– As a result, consumers are related to each other through multiple
food chains.
– There are many types of consumers.

3. Decomposers:
– Bacteria and fungi.
– Their primary purpose in the ecosystem is to decompose the
complex organic material into the simple inorganic material so
that it can be used by producers to prepare food.
 Abiotic Components
• Inorganic substances: Inorganic substances like carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, calcium,
phosphorus and their inorganic compounds.
– These are available as free form or dissolved in water and
may be adsorbed on the soil particles.

• Organic compounds: These are carbohydrates, proteins,

lipids, nucleic acids etc.
– This material is present in dead organic matter.
– These are broken into the simple compounds by
decomposers in ecosystem for recycling of matter.

• Climatic factors: These are factors present in the

environment such as temperature, humidity, light, wind,
rainfall an atmospheric gaseous etc.
Aquatic Ecosystem Components
 Food Chain
• The sequential inter-linking of organisms involving transfer of food
energy from the producers, through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten is referred as “food chain”.

• The biotic components of the ecosystem are linked to each other

through food chain.

• In a typical food chain, producers are at the bottom and their role is
to provide food for rest of the community utilizing solar energy.

• Other organisms belongs to the consumers and finally decomposer

are present at the bottom to recycle the organic content.

• In this manner, a nutritive interaction relationship exist between

the living organisms of an ecosystem.
 Trophic Levels in Food Chains
• It is always straight and always follow progressive straight line.

• The flow of energy is also unidirectional, from sun to producer and

then different series of consumers.

• The distinct sequential steps in the straight food chains are referred
as different TROPHIC LEVELS.
– For ex. Green plants stand at the first trophic level; the herbivorous are
the second trophic level; and flesh eaters represent the third trophic
levels.
– In a typical food chain, there are always 4 or 5 trophic level in the food
chain.

• The position of plant is at the bottom but the position of other

organism varies to different trophic level in different food chains.
Trophic Levels
Typical Food Chains in Different
Ecosystems
 Types of Food Chains
1. Grazing Food Chains
2. Detritus Food Chains

• Grazing Food Chain: In the grazing food chain, solar

energy is entrapped by the plants and then biomass,
then eaten by the herbivorous, and these are
subsequently been consumed by a variety of
carnivorous.
– These are longer food chains and end at the decomposer
level.
– Two typical example are-
• Food chain in pond and Food Chain on Land
 Types of Food Chains
2. Detritus Food Chains:
– Unlike grazing food chain, detritus food chain starts with the dead
organic matter either from fallen leaves or dead animal bodies.
– This food chain doesn’t depends on solar energy.
– Common example of detritus food chain is marsh land where
mangrove leaves fall into the warm, shallow water.
– The detritus eating animals ex. Bacteria, fungi and protozoan act
upon the dead matter of dead leaves to covert them into simple
inorganic substances. The detritivorous are subsequently eaten by
insect larvae, grass shrimp, copepods, crabs, nematodes, bivalve
mollusks, amphipods, mysids etc. In the last step, the detritus
consumers are finally eaten by fishes.
 Food Web
• Most of the animals are polyphagous and they feed on more than
one kind of organism.

• If the availability of one particular animal is decreasing in the

ecosystem, they start eating alternate animal. As a result, it gives
chance to other animal to reproduce and grow in number and in
addition, it gives chance to predator to survive.

– For example, in grassland ecosystem, grass is consumed by the rabbit

but in their absence, it may be eaten by the grazing cattle.
– Similarly, rat or mouse is eaten by cats/dogs but snakes can also be
predators of rats.

• The different food chains are inter connected at various trophic

level to develop a food web.
Food Web
Food Web
 Features of Food Web

• Food web has several distinct characteristic-

1. Food web are never straight.
2. Food web is formed due to interlinking of food
chains.
3. A food web in the ecosystem brings alternate
source of food.
4. The complex food web gives better stability to
the ecosystem.
 Flow of Energy in Food Chains
• Sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth and plants
utilizes it to produce food for rest of the member of the
ecosystem.

• Only the 1% of the total energy fallen on green part of

leaves is changed into the potential energy of the organic
substances, the rest of the energy dissipates as heat.

• To explain the flow of energy, Lindermann proposed the law

of ten per cent.
– This law proposed that during transfer of food energy from one
trophic level to the other, only 10% is stored at higher trophic
and the rest 90% is lost in respiration, decomposition and waste
in the form of heat
Flow of Energy in Food Chains
 Ecological Pyramids
• In a food chain, producers and consumers at different
trophic level are connected in terms of number,
biomass and energy.

• These properties reduces from producers to consumers

and representing these parameters for food chain
gives a pyramid with a broad base and a tapering
apex.

• Ecological pyramids can be of three types:

1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy
Ecological Succession
 Ecological Succession
• Definition: Ecological succession is the process
by which an ecosystem undergoes gradual,
often predictable, changes over time.

• Importance: It plays a crucial role in the

recovery and development of ecosystems
after disturbances.
 Types of Ecological Succession
1. Primary Succession: Occurs in an area devoid
of soil, typically after a major disturbance like
a volcanic eruption or glacier retreat.

2. Secondary Succession: Happens in areas with

existing soil, following disturbances such as
fires or logging.
 Stages of Primary Succession
1. Pioneer Stage:
– Example: Lichens and mosses colonizing bare rock after a volcanic
eruption.

2. Intermediate Stage:
– Example: Grasses and small plants establishing in the soil created by
decomposing pioneer species.

3. Climax Community:
– Example: Mature forest with a diverse range of plant and animal
species.

• Mount St. Helens Example: Primary succession occurred after the

volcanic eruption.
 Stages of Secondary Succession
1. Initial Colonization:
– Example: Plants like fireweed growing in an area cleared by a
forest fire.

2. Establishment of Vegetation:
– Example: Shrubs and small trees growing as the soil improves.

3. Maturation and Stability:

– Example: A diverse woodland ecosystem reaching stability over
time.

Yellowstone National Park Example: (Recovery of vegetation

after the 1988 wildfires).
 Factors Influencing Succession
• Disturbances: Natural events like fires or
human activities.

• Climate: Different climates influence the rate

and type of succession.

• Soil Conditions: Soil fertility and composition

impact the types of species that can thrive.
NUTRIENT CYCLES
 Nutrient Exchange

• The nutrient cycle is a

system where energy and
matter are transferred
between living organisms
and non-living parts of the
environment.

• This occurs as animals and

plants consume nutrients
found in the soil, and these
nutrients are then released
back into the environment
via death and
decomposition.
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 Compartments of System
• The atmosphere consists of gases and small concentrations of
suspended particulates and water vapour.

• Rocks and soil consist of insoluble minerals that are not directly
available for uptake by organisms.

• Available nutrients are present in chemical forms that are water

soluble to some degree, so they can be absorbed by organisms from
their environment and contribute to their mineral nutrition.

• The organic compartment consists of nutrients present within living

and dead organic matter. This compartment can be divided into three
functional groups: (a) living biomass of autotrophs such as plants,
algae, and autotrophic bacteria, (b) living heterotrophs including
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and detritivores, and (c) and all
forms of dead organic matter.

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 Cycling
• The nutrient cycle involves animals, plants, fungi and bacteria living
above- and below-ground, as well as mineral components of soil, dead
leaves and wood, and water from rain and snowfall.

• Trees and other plants take up mineral and non-mineral nutrients from
the soil through their roots. These nutrients are stored in the leaves,
flowers and other parts of plants.

• The nutrients are either transferred to animals when animals eat the
plants or they are transferred back into the soil.

• For instance, when plants and animals die, arthropods, earthworms, fungi
and bacteria in the soil break them down. Arthropods are insects such as
mites. Arthropods and earthworms grind up the decaying material and
they mix this material with the soil. Fungi can break apart some of the
more complex compounds and break them down into smaller
components. All of these organisms ultimately consume and respire much
of the material back into carbon dioxide gas, which is why it disappears
over time.
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 Nutrient Cycle
• A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange
of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of matter.

• “A nutrient cycle is defined as the cyclic pathway by which nutrients pass-

through, in order to be recycled and reutilized. The pathway comprises cells,
organisms, community and ecosystem.”

• In the process, nutrients get absorbed, transferred, released and reabsorbed.

• Energy flow is a unidirectional and non-cyclic pathway, whereas the movement

of mineral nutrients is cyclic.

• Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle.

• The nutrient cycle is nature's recycling system.

• Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain
and contribute to the well-being of human societies
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 Essential Elements
1. Non-mineral elements
– Make up 95% of the mass of all living organisms
– The non-mineral elements are Carbon (C), Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O)
– These nutrients are often obtained from carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the air and water (H2O)

2. Mineral Elements
– Macronutrients
– Micronutrients

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 Mineral Elements
1. Macronutrients are chemical elements that plants
need in large quantities to perform basic functions,
and their availability can limit the growth of
organisms.

– They include the elements (N), phosphorus (P),

potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg)

2. Micronutrients are taken up in much smaller

amounts than macronutrients, but are still vital for
growth and metabolism.

– The micronutrients include boron (B), copper (Cu), iron

(Fe), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn).
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 Importance of Nutrient Cycling
• All living organisms, biomolecules and cells are made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus.

• These elements are essential for life. It is important to recycle and

continuously replenish nutrients into the environment for life to exist.

• Nutrient cycling is important for:

– It is required for the transformation of nutrients from one form to another so
that it can be readily utilized by different organisms, e.g. plants cannot take
atmospheric nitrogen and it has to be fixed and converted to ammonium and
nitrate for uptake.

– Transfer of nutrients from one place to another for utilization, e.g. air to soil or
water

– Nutrient cycles keep the ecosystem in equilibrium and help in storing nutrients
for future uptake

– Through nutrient cycling, living organisms interact with the abiotic

components of their surroundings
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 Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is the main constituent of all the living cells. All the organic matter and
biomolecules contain carbon. Carbon is the basic building block of
all organic materials, and therefore, of living organisms.

• Most of the carbon on earth can be found in the crust. Other reservoirs of
carbon include the oceans and atmosphere.

• Carbon is present mainly as carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.

• There is a continuous exchange of carbon between biotic and abiotic components by

the process of photosynthesis and respiration

• Atmospheric carbon dioxide is fixed by plants in the process of photosynthesis

• All the living organisms release carbon dioxide during respiration

• Carbon is released into the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and auto emissions

• Organic carbon from dead and decaying organisms and waste products is released into
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 Photosynthesis and gaseous exchange are the main carbon cycling processes
involving living organisms.

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 Carbon Cycle
• Carbon moves from one reservoir to another by these processes:
1. Combustion: Burning of wood and fossil fuels by factory and auto emissions
transfers carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

2. Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide is taken up by plants during photosynthesis

and is converted into energy rich organic molecules, such as glucose, which
contains carbon.
3. Metabolism: Autotrophs convert carbon into organic molecules like fats,
carbohydrates and proteins, which animals can eat.
4. Cellular respiration: Animals eat plants for food, taking up the organic carbon
(carbohydrates). Plants and animals break down these organic molecules
during the process of cellular respiration and release energy, water and
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere during gaseous
exchange.
5. Precipitate: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also precipitate as
carbonate in ocean sediments.
6. Decay: Carbon dioxide gas is also released into the atmosphere during the
decay of all organisms.
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 Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is also an essential component of life. Nitrogen cannot be
directly utilized by living organisms and has to be converted to other
forms.

• By the process of nitrogen fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria fix

atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia and nitrifying bacteria convert
ammonia to nitrate. It is then taken up by plants.

• Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrates directly by lightning and

assimilated by plants.

• Decomposers break down proteins and amino acids of dead and decaying
organic matters and waste product

• Denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia and nitrates to nitrogen and

nitrous oxide by the process of denitrification. In this way, nitrogen is
released back into the atmosphere.
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• Nitrogen gas present in the air is not available to
organisms and thus has to be made available in a
form absorbable by plants and animals.

• Only a few single-cell organisms, like bacteria can

use nitrogen from the atmosphere directly.

• For plants, nitrogen has to be changed into other

forms, eg. nitrates or ammonia. This process is
known as nitrogen fixation.

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 Nitrogen Cycle Steps
• The nitrogen cycle involves the following steps:

• Lightning: Nitrogen can be changed to nitrates directly by lightning. The rapid growth of
algae after thunderstorms is because of this process, which increases the amount of
nitrates that fall onto the earth in rain water, acting as fertiliser.

• Absorption: Ammonia and nitrates are absorbed by plants through their roots.

• Ingestion: Humans and animals get their nitrogen supplies by eating plants or plant-
eating animals.

• Decomposition: During decomposition, bacteria and fungi break down proteins and
amino acids from plants and animals.

• Ammonification: The nitrogenous breakdown products of amino acids are converted

into ammonia (NH3 ) by these decomposing bacteria.

• Nitrification: Is the conversion of the ammonia to nitrates (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria.

• Denitrification: In a process called denitrification, bacteria convert ammonia and nitrate

into nitrogen and nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere to start
the cycle over again.
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 Nitrogen Fixation Process
• It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is
primarily available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -ammonia
(NH3).

• During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited
into soils from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation.
Later, the nitrogen undergoes a set of changes, in which two nitrogen atoms get
separated and combine with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH4+).

• The entire process of Nitrogen fixation is completed by symbiotic bacteria which are
known as Diazotrophs. Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a major role in this
process. These bacteria consist of a nitrogenase enzyme which has the capability to
combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.

• Nitrogen fixation can occur either by atmospheric fixation- which involves lightening
or industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under high temperature and
pressure condition. This can also be fixed through man-made processes, primarily
industrial processes that create ammonia and nitrogen-rich fertilizers.

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 Water Cycle
• Over two thirds of the Earth's surface is covered by water.

• It forms an important component of most life forms, with up

to 70% of plants and animals being composed of water.

• Vast quantities of water cycle through Earth's atmosphere,

oceans, land and biosphere.

• This cycling of water is called

the water or hydrological cycle.

• The cycling of water is important in determining our weather

and climate, supports plant growth and makes life possible.
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 Water Cycle Steps
• Evaporation: Most water evaporates from the oceans, where
water is found in highest abundance. However some evaporation
also occurs from lakes, rivers, streams and following rain.

• Transpiration: Is the water loss from the surface area (particularly

the stomata) of plants. Transpiration accounts for a
massive 50% of land-based evaporation, and 10% of total
evaporation.

• Evapotranspiration: The processes of evaporation and

transpiration are often collectively referred to as
evapotranspiration.

• Condensation: The process by which water vapour is converted

back into liquid is called condensation. You may have observed a
similar process occurring when dew drops form on a blade of
grass or on cold glass. Water in the atmosphere condenses to
form clouds.
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 Water Cycle Steps
• Precipitation: Water returns to Earth through precipitation in
the form of rain, sleet, snow or ice (hail). When rain occurs
due to precipitation, most of it runs off into lakes and rivers
while a significant portion of it sinks into the ground.

• Infiltration: The process through which water sinks into the

ground is known as infiltration and is determined by the soil or
rock type through which water moves. During the process of
sinking into the Earth's surface, water is filtered and purified.
Depending on the soil type and the depth to which the water
has sunk, the ground water becomes increasingly purified: the
deeper the water, the cleaner it becomes.

• Melting and freezing: Some water freezes and is 'locked up' in

ice, such as in glaciers and ice sheets. Similarly, water
sometimes melts and is returned to oceans and seas.
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 Phosphorous Cycle
• Phosphorus is a key constituent of many biochemicals, including fats
and lipids, nucleic acids such as the genetic materials DNA and RNA,
and energy-carrying molecules such as ATP.

• Humans contain 80% of phosphorus in teeth and bones.

• However, phosphorus is required by organisms in much smaller

quantities than nitrogen or carbon.

• Phosphorus cycle is a very slow process. Various weather processes

help to wash the phosphorus present in the rocks into the soil.
Phosphorus is absorbed by the organic matter in the soil which is used
for various biological processes.

• Since phosphorus and phosphorus-containing compounds are present

only on land, atmosphere plays no significant role in the phosphorus
cycle.
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 Phosphorous Cycle Steps
• Weathering
– Phosphorus is found in the rocks in abundance. That is why the phosphorus cycle starts in the
earth’s crust. The phosphate salts are broken down from the rocks. These salts are washed away
into the ground where they mix in the soil.

• Absorption by Plants
– The phosphate salts dissolved in water are absorbed by the plants. However, the amount of
phosphorus present in the soil is very less. That is why the farmers apply phosphate fertilizers on
agricultural land.
– The aquatic plants absorb inorganic phosphorus from lower layers of water bodies. Since
phosphate salts do not dissolve in water properly, they affect plant growth in aquatic ecosystems.
• Absorption by Animals
– The animals absorb phosphorus from the plants or by consuming plant-eating animals. The rate of
the phosphorus cycle is faster in plants and animals when compared to rocks.
• Return of Phosphorus Back to the Ecosystem
– When the plants and animals die they are decomposed by microorganisms During this process,
the organic form of phosphorus is converted into the inorganic form, which is recycled to soil and
water.
– Soil and water will end up in sediments and rocks, which will again release phosphorus by
weathering. Thus, the phosphorus cycle starts over.
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 Human Impacts on P cycle
• A number of human activities, use of fertilizers, artificial
eutrophication, etc. has a great impact on the phosphorus cycle.

• The phosphorus fertilizers increase the level of phosphorus in the soil.

• Overuse of these fertilizers reduces the fertility of the soil and is also
harmful to the microorganisms present in the soil.

• When these are washed away into the nearby water bodies, they are
hazardous to aquatic life.

• During the shipping of food from farms to cities, the amount of

phosphorus that is washed away in water causes eutrophication. This
leads to the growth of algae.
• These form algal blooms or die, which is toxic to the aquatic
ecosystem.

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