CC 5

UNIT 3

A Third Force in Psychology: Humanistic Psychology

Beginning in the early 1960s a new movement arose within American psychology known as
humanistic psychology or the “third force.” Humanistic psychologists emerged in opposition to what
were at that time the two most influential theoretical forces in psychology, namely, behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychology was known by the name “third- force psychology” to signify
its presence as a third alternative to these two powerful rivals. The basic underlying assumptions
separating humanistic psychology from behaviorism and psychoanalysis include:

• An emphasis on conscious (not unconscious) experience.

• A belief in the wholeness of human nature.

• A focus on free will, spontaneity, and the creative power of the individual.

• The study of all factors relevant to the human condition.

Humanism is a system of thought in which human interests and values are of primary importance.
The humanistic approach to personality is part of the humanistic movement in psychology that
flourished in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to influence psychology today. The goal of the
proponents of this movement was to alter psychology’s methods and subject matter. Humanistic
psychologists objected to psychoanalysis and to behaviorism, then the two major forces in American
psychology, arguing that these systems presented too limited and demeaning an image of human
nature.

Humanistic psychologists criticized Freud and others following the psychoanalytic tradition for
studying only the emotionally disturbed side of human nature. They questioned how we could hope
to learn about positive human characteristics and qualities if we focused on neuroses and psychoses.
Instead, humanistic psychologists studied our strengths and virtues and explored human behavior at
its best, not worst.

The humanistic psychologists thought that the behavioral psychologists were narrow and sterile in
their outlook because they disavowed conscious and unconscious forces to focus exclusively on the
objective observation of overt behavior. But a psychology based on conditioned responses to stimuli
depicts human beings as little more than mechanized robots, reacting to events in predetermined
ways. The humanistic psychologists objected to this view, arguing that people are not big white rats
or slow computers. Human behavior is too complex to be explained by the behaviorists’ methods.

The term humanistic psychology was first used by Gordon Allport in 1930. Allport and Henry Murray
are considered forerunners of the humanistic approach to personality, represented in this section by
the works of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Their theories emphasize human strengths and
aspirations, conscious free will, and the fulfillment of our potential. They present a flattering and
optimistic image of human nature and describe people as active, creative beings concerned with
growth and self-actualization.

The Existential Perspective

The existential perspective resembles the humanistic view in its emphasis on the uniqueness of each
individual, the quest for values and meaning, and the existence of freedom for self-direction and
self-fulfillment. However, it takes a less optimistic view of human beings and places more emphasis
on their irrational tendencies and the difficulties inherent in self-fulfillment—particularly in a
modern, bureaucratic, and dehumanizing mass society. In short, living is much more of a
“confrontation” for the existentialists than for the humanists.

Existential thinkers are especially concerned with the inner experiences of an individual in his or her
attempts to understand and deal with the deepest human problems. There are several basic themes
of existentialism:

• Existence and essence. Our existence is a given, but what we make of it—our essence—is up to us.
Our essence is created by our choices because our choices reflect the values on which we base and
order our lives.

• Meaning and value. The will-to-meaning is a basic human tendency to find satisfying values and
guide one’s life by them.

• Existential anxiety and the encounter with nothingness.

Nonbeing, or nothingness, which in its final form is death, is the inescapable fate of all human
beings. The awareness of our inevitable death and its implications for our living can lead to
existential anxiety, a deep concern over whether we are living meaningful and fulfilling lives.

Thus existential psychologists focus on the importance of establishing values and acquiring a level of
spiritual maturity worthy of the freedom and dignity bestowed by one’s humanness.

Avoiding such central issues creates corrupted, meaningless, and wasted lives. Much abnormal
behavior, therefore, is seen as the product of a failure to deal constructively with existential despair
and frustration.

In other words, acknowledgement of one’s constitutional or socially created drives / wishes is the
key to psychological health: PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH.

Failure to acknowledge and inappropriately express one’s feelings, wishes or impulses: Essence of
NEUROTIC FUNCTIONING.

MARTIN HEIDEGGER (1889–1971)

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that became associated with the philosophy of Jean-Paul
Sartre (who rejected the name as too confining) and whose roots extend to the works of Søren
Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger.

Heidegger's "existentialist" philosophy begins with an uncompromising holism that rejects any
dualism regarding mind and body, the distinction between subject and object, and the very language
of "consciousness," "experience," and "mind." Thus he begins with an analysis of Dasein (literally,
"being-there"). But the question emerges, because we are the "ontological" (self-questioning)
creatures we are, just who this Dasein is. Thus Heidegger's philosophy becomes a search for
authenticity or "own-ness", or personal integrity.

The "ontological" problem for Heidegger, "the problem of being," was to find out who one is and
what to do with oneself or, how one is to become what one is. Phenomenology, for Heidegger,
becomes a method for "disclosing [one's] being."
This search for authenticity includes questions about the nature of the self, and the meaning of life,
as well as Heidegger's somewhat morbid central conception of "Being-unto-Death." It will also lead
to Heidegger's celebration of tradition and "heritage," the importance of resolutely committing
oneself to one's given culture.

One might generalize that existentialism represents a certain attitude particularly appropriate for
modern (and post-modern) mass society. The existentialists share a concern for the individual and
personal responsibility (whether or not they embrace "free will"). They tend to resist the submersion
of the individual in larger public groups or forces.

Three main points in Heidegger’s theory are:

1. Understanding of being-in-the-world: KEY TO AUTHENTIC LIVING

2. Appreciation of dasein (being-in-the-world) itself leads to AUTHENTIC LIVING.
3. Authenticity exhibited through acts of COMMITMENT, ABSORPTION AND AFFECTEDNESS,
despite full awareness of the contingency of the world and our interpretation.

MASLOW’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY

ABRAHAM MASLOW is the spiritual father of the HUMANISTIC OR THIRD FORCE MOVEMENT.

According to his view, every individual must be studied as an integrated, unique, organized whole.

Key features of Maslow’s Personological theory :

1. Irrelevance of animal research

2. Man’s inner nature
3. Human creative potential
4. Emphasis on psychological health

OVERVIEW OF MASLOW’S HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY

The personality theory of Abraham Maslow has variously been called humanistic theory,
transpersonal theory, the third force in psychology, the fourth force in personality, needs theory,
and self-actualization theory. However, Maslow (1970) referred to it as a holistic-dynamic theory
because it assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and
that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, that is, self-actualization. To
attain self-actualization, people must satisfy lower-level needs such as hunger, safety, love, and
esteem. Only after they are relatively satisfied in each of these needs can they reach self-
actualization.

Like other humanist theorists, Maslow accepted some of the tenets of psychoanalysis and
behaviorism. In his mature theory, however, Maslow criticized both psychoanalysis and behaviorism
for their limited views of humanity and their inadequate understanding of the psychologically
healthy person. Maslow believed that humans have a higher nature than either psychoanalysis or
behaviorism would suggest; and he spent the latter years of his life trying to discover the nature of
psychologically healthy individuals.

Maslow’s View of Motivation

Maslow’s theory of personality rests on several basic assumptions regarding motivation. First,
Maslow (1970) adopted a holistic approach to motivation: That is, the whole person, not any single
part or function, is motivated.
Second, motivation is usually complex, meaning that a person’s behavior may spring from several
separate motives.

A third assumption is that people are continually motivated by one need or another. When one need
is satisfied, it ordinarily loses its motivational power and is then replaced by another need.

Another assumption is that all people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs.

A final assumption concerning motivation is that needs can be arranged on a hierarchy (Maslow,
1943, 1970).

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept assumes that lower level needs must be satisfied or at least
relatively satisfied before higher level needs become motivators. The five needs composing this
hierarchy are conative needs, meaning that they have a striving or motivational character. These
needs, which Maslow often referred to as basic needs, can be arranged on a hierarchy or staircase,
with each ascending step representing a higher need but one less basic to survival. They are the
physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs

Maslow described these needs as instinctoid, by which he meant that they have a hereditary
component. However, these needs can be affected or overridden by learning, social expectations,
and fear of disapproval. Although we come equipped with these needs at birth, the behaviors we
use to satisfy them are learned and therefore to variation from one person to another. The needs
are arranged in order from strongest to weakest. Lower needs must be at least partially satisfied
before higher needs become influential. For example, hungry people feel no urge to satisfy the
higher need for esteem.

Characteristics of Needs

Maslow described several characteristics of needs.

• The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the greater are its strength, potency, and priority.
The higher needs are weaker needs.
• Higher needs appear later in life. Physiological and safety needs arise in infancy.
Belongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence. The need for self-actualization does
not arise until midlife.
• Because higher needs are less necessary for actual survival, their gratification can be
postponed. Failure to satisfy a higher need does not produce a crisis. Failure to satisfy a
 lower need does produce a crisis. For this reason, Maslow called lower needs deficit, or
deficiency needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficit or lack in the individual.
• Although higher needs are less necessary for survival, they contribute to survival and
growth. Satisfaction of higher needs leads to improved health and longevity. For this reason,
Maslow called higher needs growth, or being needs.
• Satisfaction of higher needs is also beneficial psychologically. Satisfaction of higher needs
leads to contentment, happiness, and fulfillment.
• Gratification of higher needs requires better external circumstances (social, economic, and
political) than does gratification of lower needs. For example, pursuing self-actualization
requires greater freedom of expression and opportunity than pursuing safety needs.
• A need does not have to be satisfied fully before the next need in the hierarchy becomes
important. Maslow proposed a declining percentage of satisfaction for each need. Offering a
hypothetical example, he described a person who satisfied, in turn, 85 percent of the
physiological needs, 70 percent of the safety needs, 50 percent of the belongingness and
love needs, 40 percent of the esteem needs, and 10 percent of the self-actualization need.

METAMOTIVATION

According to Maslow’s theory, self-actualizing persons differ from others in terms of their basic
motivation. Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for selfactualizers called metamotivation
(sometimes called B-motivation or Being). The prefix meta- means after or beyond. Metamotivation,
then, indicates that it goes beyond psychology’s traditional idea of motivation.
Metamotivation implies a condition in which motivation as we know it plays no role. Self-actualizing
persons are not motivated to strive for a particular goal. Instead, they are said to be developing from
within. Maslow described the motivation of people who are not self-actualizers as a condition of D-
motivation or Deficiency. D-motivation involves striving for something specific to make up for
something that is lacking within us.

METANEEDS AND METAPATHOLOGY

Having explained that self-actualizers are thus, in a sense, unmotivated, Maslow proposed a list of
metaneeds toward which self-actualizers evolve.

Metaneeds are states of being—such as goodness, uniqueness, and perfection— rather than specific
goal objects. Failure to satisfy metaneeds is harmful and produces a kind of metapathology, which
thwarts the full development of the personality.

Metapathology prevents self-actualizers from expressing, using, and fulfilling their potential. They
may come to feel helpless and depressed, unable to pinpoint a source for these feelings or identify a
goal that might alleviate the distress.

Characteristics of self-actualizing people

Clear perception of reality

Acceptance of self, others, and nature

Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness

Dedication to a cause

Independence and need for privacy

Freshness of appreciation
Peak experiences

Social interest

Deep interpersonal relationships

Tolerance and acceptance of others

Creativeness and originality

Resistance to social pressures

Mystical or peak experiences. Self-actualizers know moments of intense ecstasy, not unlike deep
religious experiences, that can occur with virtually any activity. Maslow called these events peak
experiences, during which the self is transcended and the person feels supremely powerful,
confident, Maslow noted differences among self-actualizers in the quantity and quality of their peak
experiences. So-called peakers have more peak experiences than nonpeakers, and the experiences
of peakers tend to be more mystical and religious.

Indeed, peakers may be described as more saintly and poetical than nonpeakers. Nonpeakers are
more practical and more concerned with worldly affairs.

Peakers have been identified among diverse occupational groups including artists, writers, scientists,
business leaders, educators, and politicians. Maslow noted that it was possible for a person who is
not self-actualizing occasionally to have a peak experience.

Failure to Become Self-Actualizing

One reason is that the higher the need in Maslow’s proposed hierarchy, the weaker it is. As the
highest need, self-actualization is the least potent. Thus, it can easily be inhibited. For example,
hostile or rejecting parents make it difficult for a person to satisfy love and esteem needs. In this
case, the self-actualization need may not emerge. At a lower level, poor economic conditions can
make it difficult to satisfy physiological and safety needs, so self-actualization assumes less
importance.

Inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization
in adulthood.

If children are overprotected and not permitted to try new behaviors, explore new ideas, or practice
new skills, then they are likely to be inhibited as adults, unable to express themselves fully in
activities vital to self-actualization. The opposite behavior— excessive parental permissiveness—can
also be harmful. Too much freedom in childhood can lead to anxiety and insecurity, Sufficient love in
childhood is a prerequisite for self-actualization, as well as satisfaction of physiological and safety
needs within the first two years of life. If children feel secure and confident in the early years, they
will remain so as adults.

Another reason for the failure to self-actualize is what Maslow called the Jonah complex, after the
biblical tale of Jonah. It refers to the fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a situation with
which we will be unable to cope.

Maslow’s image of human nature is optimistic, emphasizing free will, conscious choice, uniqueness,
the ability to overcome childhood experiences, and innate goodness. Personality is influenced both
by heredity and by environment. Our ultimate goal is self-actualization.
Maslow used interviews, free association, projective techniques, and biographical material to assess
personality. The Personal Orientation Inventory is a self-report test to measure self-actualization. A
contemporary outgrowth of Maslow’s work is self-determination theory, which posits three needs:
competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

CRITICISM

Maslow has been criticized for using too small a sample as the basis for his theory and for not
making explicit his criteria for selecting self-actualizing research participants.

His theory has had a broad impact in education, counseling, health care, and business and
government. It has proven to be a stimulus for the positive psychology movement, which focuses on
subjective well-being.

CARL ROGER’S PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY

PHENOMENA

Phenomena is THAT WHICH EXISTS in an environment (either internal or external), and also the
PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT that is responsible for the production of behavior. Events
cannot cause our behavior, but it is the perception of the events that bring about changes in
behavior.

Basic Assumptions

• FORMATIVE TENDENCY

• Rogers believes that there is a tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to
evolve from simpler to more complex forms.

• ACTUALIZING TENDENCY

• It refers to the tendency within all human beings to move toward the completion or
fulfillment of potentials (Rogers, 1980). The organism moves as a whole toward
actualization.

SELF

It is the central concept in Roger’s theory. Rogers (1959) postulated two self-subsystems, the self-
concept and the ideal self.

The Self-Concept

The self-concept includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived
in awareness (though not always accurately) by the individual. The self-concept is not identical with
the organismic self. Portions of the organismic self may be beyond a person’s awareness or simply
not owned by that person. For example, the stomach is part of the organismic self, but unless it
malfunctions and causes concern, it is not likely to be part of one’s self-concept. Similarly, people
can disown certain aspects of their selves, such as experiences of dishonesty, when such experiences
are not consistent with their self-concept. Thus, once people form their self-concept, they find
change and significant learnings quite difficult. Experiences that are inconsistent with their self-
concept usually are either denied or accepted only in distorted forms.
An established self-concept does not make change impossible, merely difficult. Change most readily
occurs in an atmosphere of acceptance by others, which allows a person to reduce anxiety and
threat and to take ownership of previously rejected experiences.

The Ideal Self

The second subsystem of the self is the ideal self, defined as one’s view of self as one wishes to be.
The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually positive, that people aspire to possess. A wide gap
between the ideal self and the self-concept indicates incongruence and an unhealthy personality.
Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy between their self-concept and what
they ideally would like to be.

Thus, phenomenology is the study of the individual’s subjective experience, feelings and private
concepts as well as his/ her personal views of the world and self.

Becoming a Person

Rogers (1959) discussed the processes necessary to becoming a person. First, an individual must
make contact—positive or negative—with another person. This contact is the minimum experience
necessary for becoming a person. In order to survive, an infant must experience some contact from
a parent or other caregiver.

As children (or adults) become aware that another person has some measure of regard for them,
they begin to value positive regard and devalue negative regard. That is, the person develops a need
to be loved, liked, or accepted by another person, a need that Rogers (1959) referred to as positive
regard. Positive regard is a prerequisite for positive self-regard, defined as the experience of prizing
or valuing one’s self. Rogers (1959) believed that receiving positive regard from others is necessary
for positive self-regard, but once positive self-regard is established, it becomes independent of the
continual need to be loved.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Positive regard is the need to be liked, prized, or accepted by another person. When this need exists
without any conditions or qualifications, unconditional positive regard occurs (Rogers, 1980).
Therapists have unconditional positive regard when they are “experiencing a warm, positive and
accepting attitude toward what is the client” (Rogers, 1961, p. 62). The attitude is without
possessiveness, without evaluations, and without reservations.

FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON

The fully functioning person represents the peak of psychological development. Characteristics of
the fully functioning person are an awareness of all experiences, no conditions to defend against, the
ability to live fully in each moment, trust in one’s self, a sense of freedom and personal power,
creativity, and spontaneity.

Rogers’s optimistic image of human nature encompassed a belief in free will, the prominence of
environment over heredity, and some universality in personality. Individuals and societies can grow
unhampered by past events.

CRITICISM

Rogers’s work has been criticized for failing to define precisely the nature of selfactualization and for
ignoring the impact of unconscious forces and the possible distortion of a client’s subjective
experiences in self-reports.
REFERENCE

Feist, J., Feist, G.J. (2009) Theories of Personality. McGraw-Hills.

Schultz, D.P., Schultz, S.E. (2005) Theories of Personality. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Existentialism - Martin Heidegger (1889–1971) - Self, World, Dasein, and Philosophy - JRank Articles
https://science.jrank.org/pages/9283/Existentialism-Martin-Heidegger-1889-
1971.html#ixzz6oG6Hnds9

Prepared by Dr Chandana Aditya

Asst. Professor, Psychology

Women’s College, Calcutta