The 4 Major Personality Perspectives

The study of personality is one of the significant topics of interest in psychology.

Numerous personality theories exist, and most major ones fall into one of four major
perspectives. Each of these perspectives on personality attempts to describe different
patterns in personality, including how these patterns form and how people differ on an
individual level.

This article discusses four of the major perspectives on personality, the theorists
associated with each theory, and the core ideas that are central to each perspective.
Learning more about these theories can give you greater insight into the many different
aspects of human personality.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

The psychoanalytic perspective of personality emphasizes the importance of early

childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. This perspective on personality was
created by psychiatrist Sigmund Freud who believed that things hidden in the
unconscious could be revealed in a number of different ways, including through
dreams, free association, and slips of the tongue.

Neo-Freudian theorists, including Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen
Horney, believed in the importance of the unconscious but disagreed with other aspects
of Freud's theories.1

Major Theorists

Below are the most prominent psychoanalytic perspective theorists:

 Sigmund Freud: Stressed the importance of early childhood events, the

influence of the unconscious, and sexual instincts in the development and
formation of personality.
 Erik Erikson: Emphasized the social elements of personality development, the
identity crisis, and how personality is shaped over the course of the entire
lifespan.
 Carl Jung: Focused on concepts such as the collective unconscious, archetypes,
and psychological types.
 Alfred Adler: Believed the core motive behind personality involves striving for
superiority, or the desire to overcome challenges and move closer toward self-
realization. This desire to achieve superiority stems from underlying feelings of
inferiority that Adler believed were universal.
 Karen Horney: Focused on the need to overcome basic anxiety, the sense of
being isolated and alone in the world. She emphasized the societal and cultural
 factors that also play a role in personality, including the importance of the
parent-child relationship.2

Modern Relevance

Classical Freudian psychoanalysis is viewed with skepticism and there has been an
overall decline in the approach in recent years.3 While many of Freud's theories have
fallen out of favor, the psychodynamic tradition is still an essential part of psychology.

Research has shown that psychodynamic approaches can be an effective tool for self-
examination. This approach to treatment can also help foster long-term emotional
growth.4

 Overview of Personality Psychology

Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective of personality focuses on psychological growth, free will,

and personal awareness. It takes a more positive outlook on human nature and is
centered on how each person can achieve their individual potential. 5

Major Theorists

The following are the most influential humanistic perspective theorists:

 Carl Rogers: Believed in the inherent goodness of people and emphasized the

importance of free will and psychological growth. He suggested that the
actualizing tendency is the driving force behind human behavior. 6
 Abraham Maslow: Suggested that people are motivated by a hierarchy of
needs. The most basic needs are centered on things necessary for life such as
food and water, but as people move up the hierarchy these needs become
centered on things such as esteem and self-actualization. 7

Modern Relevance

Humanistic psychology continues to have a tremendous influence today, particularly in

psychotherapy. The field of positive psychology, which is focused on helping people live
better lives, has also grown out of the humanist tradition.

Humanistic therapy can effectively treat various mental health conditions, including
anxiety, depression, substance use, interpersonal issues, and personality disorders. 8

Trait Perspective
The trait perspective of personality is centered on identifying, describing, and
measuring the specific traits that make up human personality. By understanding these
traits, researchers believe they can better comprehend the differences between
individuals.9

Major Theorists

Below are the most important trait perspective theorists:

 Hans Eysenck: Suggested that there are three dimensions of personality: 1)

extraversion-introversion, 2) emotional stability-neuroticism, and 3)
10
psychoticism.
 Raymond Cattell: Identified 16 personality traits that he believed could be
utilized to understand and measure individual differences in personality. 11
 Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: Introduced the big five theory, which
identifies five key dimensions of personality: 1) extraversion, 2) neuroticism, 3)
openness to experience, 4) conscientiousness, and 5) agreeableness. 12

Modern Relevance

Trait theory is still a standard approach for understanding human personality. Today,
many experts agree that personality is composed of a number of broad dimensions,
although they don't completely agree on the labels for each dimension. 13

However, modern researchers are now also interested in understanding more about
how these traits develop and how understanding them can help improve mental well-
being.14

For example, research has found that while people may have certain traits, these
qualities don't necessarily serve as accurate predictors of behavior. Contemporary
research may focus more on understanding how these traits shape people's behavior
rather than just labeling the existing traits.

Social Cognitive Perspective

The social cognitive perspective of personality emphasizes the importance

of observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes. 15

According to this approach, personality is shaped by observation, imitation, and

modeling. Cognitive factors such as attention, attitudes, motivation, and emotion also
play a pivotal role. The interaction between the individual, their environment, and their
thoughts contributes to their personality and behavior.

Major Theorists
The main proponent of the social cognitive perspective is:

 Albert Bandura: Emphasized the importance of social learning, or learning

through observation. His theory emphasized the role of conscious thoughts
including self-efficacy, or our own beliefs in our abilities.16

Modern Relevance

The social cognitive perspective remains relevant today in understanding how learning
occurs in social contexts. It also allows researchers and educators to consider the
dynamic between the individual, their environment, and their behavior. 

Social cognitive theory is also utilized in the field of public health to develop programs
aimed at health promotion. Understanding how observational learning and self-efficacy
influence health behaviors allows researchers to create programs that foster healthier
behaviors and choices.17

Theories of Personality
Since personality variables reflect consistent and enduring patterns of behaviour, these
patterns can be classified into certain categories. so that the behaviour can be
predictable once we identify the pattern of behaviour as belonging to a given category.

The theories of personality have been grouped as:

1. Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Type Theories
3. Trait Theories
4. Self Theory Theories of
Personality
Psychoanalytic Theory
The Psychoanalytic theory of personality has held the interest of psychologists and
psychiatrists for a long time. Sigmund Freud, its formulator, was quite an influence. It
attends to emphasizes three main issues i.e. the id, the ego and the superego.
Components of Psychoanalytic Theory
Id
The id is the only part of the personality that is present at birth. It is inherited,
primitive, inaccessible and completely unconscious.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle, that is, to seek pleasure,
avoid pain and gain immediate gratification of its wishes.
The id contains:
(a) The life instincts, which are sexual instincts and biological urges such as hunger and
thirst
(b) The death instinct, which accounts for our aggressive and destructive impulses.
Ego
The ego is the logical, rational, realistic part of the personality. The ego evolves from
the id and draws its energy from the id.
One of the functions of the ego is to satisfy the id’s urges. But the ego, which is
mostly conscious, acts according to the reality principle. It must consider the constraints
of the real world in determining appropriate times, places, and object for gratification of
the id’s wishes.
Superego
When the child is age 5 or 6 the superego – the moral component of the personality –
is formed.
The superego has two parts:
(a) The “conscience“, consisting of all the behaviours for which we have been
punished and about which we feel guilty

(b) The “ego ideal“, containing the behaviours for which we have been praised and
rewarded and about which we feel pride and satisfaction.
In its quest for moral perfection, the superego, a moral guide, sets up signposts that
define and limit the flexibility of ego.

Type Theories
The type theories represent an attempt to put some degree of order into the chaos of
personality theory.
The type theory represents an attempt to scientifically describe personality by
classifying individuals into convenient categories.
Two categories of type theories of personality are explained below:
Sheldon Physiognomy Theory
William Sheldon has presented a unique body-type temperamental model that
represents a link between certain anatomical features and psychological traits with
distinguishing characteristics of an individual and his behaviour.
Sheldon identifies three body types:
 Endomorph:  He is bulky and beloved. Sheldon’s endomorph to be rather fat,
thick in proportion to his height.

His personality temperament is viscerotonic (the person seeks comfort, loves

fine food, eats too much, is jovial, affectionate and liked by all).
  Mesomorph:  He is basically strong, athletic and tough. All appreciate his
physique. In fact, it is this personality all other “morphs” wish for.

According to Sheldon, he will tend to be somatotonic (he is fond of muscular

activity; he tends to be highly aggressive, and self-assertive).

 Ectomorph: These people are thin, long and poorly developed physically.

Though physically weak, he leads the league in the intelligent department.

Carl Jung Extrovert Introvert Theory
The way to type personality is in terms of behaviour or
psychological factors. Jung’s introvert and extrovert types are an example.
However, as Carl Jung himself pointed out, the introvert-extrovert typology turns out to
be more in the nature of a continuum than discrete, separate types. Carl Jung proposed
his own two-part theory of personality.
Carl Jung two types are:
1. Extrovert:  They are optimistic, outgoing, gregarious and sociable. Extroverts
are basically objective, reality-oriented individuals who are more doers than
thinkers.

2. Introverts:  By contrast, introverts are more inward-directed people. They

are less sociable, withdrawn and absorbed in inner life. They tend to be
guided by their own ideas and philosophy.
Few people are complete introverts or extroverts, but the mixture of these two
ingredients determines the kind of overall personality of an individual.

Trait Theories
Some early personality researchers believed that to understand individuals, we must
break down behaviour patterns into a series of observable traits.

According to trait theory, a personality trait can be defined as an “enduring attribute

of a person that appears consistently in a variety of situations”. In combination, such
traits distinguish one personality from another.
A trait is a personal characteristic that is used to describe and explain personality. It is a
list of relatively stable and consistent personal characteristics.

Gordon Allport Personality Traits

Gordon Allport claims that personality traits are real entities, physically located
somewhere in the brain. We each inherit our own unique set of raw material for given
traits, which are then shaped by our experiences.
Traits describe the particular way we respond to the environment and the consistency
of that response. If we are shy, we respond to strangers differently than if we are
friendly; if we are self-confident,

Gordon identified two main categories of traits:

1. Common Traits:  Common traits are those we share or hold in common with most
others in our own culture.
2. Individual Traits:  According to Allport, there are three individual traits: cardinal,
central and secondary traits.
 Cardinal Traits: A cardinal trait is “so pervasive and outstanding in a life that
almost every act seems traceable to its influence”.

 Central Traits: According to Allport, are those that we would “mention in

writing a careful letter of recommendation”.

 Secondary Traits: The secondary traits are less obvious, less consistent and
not as critical in defining our personality as the cardinal and central traits.
Examples of secondary traits are food and music preferences.
Raymond Cattell 16 Personality Factors
Raymond Cattell considered personality to be a pattern of traits providing the key to
understanding and predicting a person’s behaviour.
Cattell identified two types:
1. Surface Traits:  Observable qualities of a person like honest, helpful, kind,
generous etc., Cattell called these “surface traits”.

2. Source Traits:  Make up the most basic personality structure and, according
to Cattell, actually cause behaviour. Intelligence is a source trait, and every
person has a certain amount of it but, obviously not exactly the same amount
or the same kind.

Self theory
The psychoanalytic, type and trait theories represent the more traditional
approach to explaining the complex human personality.
Self theory rejects both psychoanalytic and behaviouristic conceptions of human
nature as too mechanistic, portraying people as creatures helplessly buffeted about by
internal instincts or external stimuli.
Carl Rogers is most closely associated with his approach of self-theory.
Rogers and his associates have developed this personality theory that places emphasis
on the individual as an initiating, creating, influential determinant of behaviour within
the environmental framework.
According to Rogers basic ingredients of personality:
Self Actualization
Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive that is the tendency to self-
actualize – i.e. to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of ‘human-
beingness’ we can.

Self concept
Self-concept is defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs
about oneself”.

The self-concept includes three components:

Self worth
what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in
early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and
father.

Self-image
How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image
includes the influence of our body image on inner personality.

Ideal self
This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in
life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal
self in our teens or late twenties etc