Theories of Human

Growth and Development

Assistant.Prof. Ohoud Y. El-Sheikh

Pediatric Nursing
 Theories of human growth and
development
A.Maslow basic human needs

B.Freud Psychosexual theory

C.Erickson Psychosocial theory

D.Piaget cognitive theory

 What is a theory?
 Theory is composed of a group of concepts that describe a pattern of reality.

 A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of

what they should observe if a theory is true such as the human behavior.

 Scientific theories are testable, changed, or used to guide research, or to provide a base
for evaluation.
 New evidence should be compatible with a theory. If it isn't, the theory is refined or
rejected.
Development theory 

• Is a collection of theories about how desirable change in

society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of
social science disciplines and approaches.
 Theoretical foundations of development
‫ا السسا لنظريه ل لتطور‬
• Scientific researchers have agreed upon the five following general rules.

Development is similar for each individual

Development builds upon earlier learning.

Development proceeds at an individual rate.

The different areas of development are interrelated.‫ ت رابط ب ين‬....

Development is a lifelong process.

 Maslow basic human needs
A. Maslow’ Humanistic perspective on development

• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

• Maslow is a humanistic psychologist developed a hierarchy

of basic human needs (theory of self-actualization).
 Key Points
 As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the
study of personality by focusing on subjective experiences, free will, and
the innate drive toward self-actualization. ‫ركزعليا لتجاربا لذاتية وا إلرادة ا لحرة‬
‫وا لدافع ا لفطرين حو ت حقيقا لذات‬

 Maslow expanded the field of humanistic psychology to include an

explanation of how human needs change throughout an individual’s
lifespan, and how these needs influence the development of personality‫ش مل‬
‫وكيف ؤثر هذه ا الحتياجاتعلىت طور‬
‫ت‬ ً ‫ش‬
، ‫رحا ل كيفية ت غير احتياجاتا إلنسانطوا لعمره‬
‫ا لشخصية‬.
 Key Points
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranks human needs from the most
basic physical needs to the most advanced needs of self-
actualization. A person must acquire and master each level of need
before proceeding to the next need.

Maslow’s ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific

rigor‫ ا لدقه ا لعلميه‬, as well as their Western cultural bias.
 Key Terms

• transcendence: Superior excellence.‫ي ا لتميز ا لفائق‬

: ‫ا لتع ا ل‬

• humanistic psychology: A psychological perspective which rose to

prominence in the mid-20th century in response to psychoanalytic
theory and behaviorism; this approach emphasizes an individual’s
inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity.‫علم ا لنفس‬
ً
‫استجابة ل نظرية ا لتحليلا لنفسي‬‫منتصف لقرنا لعشرين‬
‫ا‬ ‫ي منظور ن فسيب رز ف ي‬
: ‫ا إلنسان‬
‫وا لسلوكية ؛ ي ؤكد هذا ا لنهج علىا لدافع ا لمتأصلل لفرد ن حو ت حقيقا لذاتوا إلبداع‬.
 Key Terms

• self-actualization: According to humanistic theory, the

realizing of one’s full potential ‫ت حقيقا المكاناتا لكامله‬
‫ ; ل لفرد‬can include creative expression, search for
spiritual enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, or the
desire to give to society. ‫ أو ا لبحثعنا لتنوير‬،‫ا لتعبير ا إلبداعي‬
‫ أو ا لرغبة ف يا لعطاء ل لمجتمع‬، ‫ أو ا لسعيوراء ا لمع رفة‬،‫ا لروحي‬
 Hierarchy of basic human needs
• Maslow arranged the hierarchy to show that certain needs are more basic than others.

• The five level of needs are as follows:

• Level 1: Physiological needs

• Level 2: Safety and security needs

• Level 3: Love and belonging needs

• Level 4: Self- esteem needs

• Level 5: Self- actualization needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Abraham Maslow developed a human hierarchy
of needs that is conceptualized as a pyramid to represent how people move from
one level of needs to another. First physiological needs must be met before
safety needs, then the need for love and belonging, then esteem, and finally self-
actualization.
• Level 1: Physiologic needs

 Oxygen, water, food, temperature, elimination, sexuality, physical activity, and rest.

 Must be met at least minimally to maintain life.

 The most basic in the hierarchy of needs and therefore have the highest priority.

• Level 2: Safety and security

 Physical safety and security means being protected from potential or actual harm.

 Emotional safety and security involve trusting others and being free of fear, anxiety, and
apprehension
‫ ا لتخوف‬.
• Level 3: Love and belonging needs

Understanding and acceptance of others in both giving and receiving

love and the feeling of belonging to families, peers, friends, a
neighborhood, and a community.

People who believe that love and belonging needs are unmet often
feel lonely and isolated.
• Level 4: Self – esteem needs

• the need for a person to feel good about him/herself, to feel pride and a sense of achievement,
and to believe that others also respect and appreciate those achievements.

 Many factors affect self-esteem

 When a person’s role changes.

 Changes in the person’s responsibilities and relationships.

 Change in the body image, such as the loss of any body part, an injury or a growth spurt
during puberty.
• Level 5: Self – actualization needs

 The highest level on the hierarchy of needs.

 the need for individuals to reach their full potential.

 In general, each lower level of need must be met to some degree

before this need can be satisfied.

 The process of self- actualization is continuing throughout life.

 Maslow lists the following qualities that indicate achievement of
one’s potential:

 Acceptance of self and others as they are.

 Focus of interest on problems outside oneself

 Ability to be objective

 Feelings of happiness and affection for others

 Ability to discriminate between good and evil

 Creativity as a guideline for solving problems.

 Criticism of Maslow’s Theories
 lack of scientific rigor and lack of empirical evidence used in his research.

 Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective

experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of
society on personality development.

 Furthermore, the hierarchy of needs has been accused of cultural bias—mainly

reflecting Western values and ideologies. Critics argue that this concept is
considered relative to each culture and society and cannot be universally
applied.
 B. Freud Psychosexual theory

• Personality development

personality is the sum total of physical abilities and mental traits of the individual which
are dynamic and they help one to adjust to his environment.

• Characteristics of Personality

1. Personality is unique.

2. Personality refers to relatively stable qualities of an individual.

3. Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism to the environment.

4. Personality is greatly influenced by social interaction.

 Psychodynamic Theories of Personality
• Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician propounded the
psychoanalytic theory in the early 1900s. His theory is based on
two forms of observations. Freud viewed that personalities of
people develop through conflict between their primary drives
(sex and aggression) and social pressures; and early childhood
experiences are extremely important in the development of
personality
 Structured of personality

Sigmund Freud, developed a comprehensive theory of Personality.

• He has categorized the structure of personality into two:

• a) Topographical aspects of mind

• b) Dynamic aspects of mind

 Structured of personality

a.Topographical aspects of mind

• Freud has divided the structure of mind into three levels:

1.the conscious

2.the preconscious or the subconscious

3.the unconscious.
 The conscious mind consists of all the things of which a person is aware at any
given moment.

 The preconscious is the storehouse of memories and are readily retrieved

though are not conscious at the moment. The subconscious process is weak
and when it gets some force from the outside, it comes to the conscious level.

 The unconscious mental process which is about 9/10 part of the mind. He
believed that the unconscious part of the mind is the important determining
factor in human behavior and personality. It is the level of mind where thoughts,
feelings, memories and other information are kept that are not easily or
voluntarily brought into consciousness.
b. Dynamic aspect of mind
•Freud in his theory of personality has described that personality consists of
three separates but interacting components: the id, the ego and the superego.

1) The id: -

The primitive part of the personality.

Representative of the unconscious and the storehouse of instinctual desires.‫رغبات‬

‫غريزية‬

Is the amoral part of the personality that exists at birth which contains all of the
basic biological drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses.
b. Dynamic aspect of mind

1) The id: -

Those drives are fueled by "Psychic energy‟ which Freud termed as “the
libido‟.‫ا لرغبه ا لجنسيه‬

 The id is guided by the pleasure principle‫ مبدا ا لمتعه‬, in which the goal is the
immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction. The
pleasure principle can be stated as “if it feels good, do it”.
b. Dynamic aspect of mind

The ego
 Developed soon after birth
 Mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical than the
id.
 The ego is the „executive‟ of personality.
b. Dynamic aspect of mind
The ego

 The ego maintains balance between the desire of the id and the
realities of the objective, outside world.

 It is guided by the reality principle.

 Therefore, the ego satisfied the demands of the id and reduce

libido only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences
b. Dynamic aspect of mind

The superego

•The final part of personality is superego.

•Developed in childhood as the child learns rights and wrongs of

society and modeled by parents, teachers and other significant
individuals.

• The superego is guided by the moral principle.

b. Dynamic aspect of mind

The superego

•There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the conscious.

•The ego ideal is the sum total of all the behaviors which the child has learned
about from parents and others of the society.

•The conscience is another part of the superego that makes people feel pride
when they do the right thing and guilt, when they do the wrong thing. The
superego works at both conscious and unconscious level.
 The structure of personality consists of the Id, Ego and
Superego which has different conscious levels and
functions as enumerated below:
structure Conscious level function
Id Unconscious Needs immediate gratification of
desires
Ego Predominantly Rational and Logical
conscious
Superego Both conscious and Idealistic and Perfectionist
unconscious

Id ………. Ego ………… Superego

Impulse Driven Mediator Guilt inducing
• The process of personality development of the child is divided into the
following five overlapping stages:

• 1. Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months)

• a) Oral sucking b) Oral biting

- Pleasure zone: mouth

- Main characteristics: main source of pleasure is the mouth, lips, tongue, etc.

- The main concern is with immediate gratification of urges dominated by the id

- Tasks to achieve: satisfactory feeding & weaning

2. Anal Stage – (12-18 months to 03 years)

• a) Anal Explosive b) Anal Retentive

• Pleasure zone: Anus and controlling the bowels a; the ego starts to
control id

• Tasks: potty and toilet training

• 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 – 6 years)

- Pleasure zone: phallus

- Main characteristics: playing with the genitals. This pleasure is associated

with the same sex parent leading to the Oedipus and Electra Complexes

- Oedipus Complex: little boys have a sexual attraction towards their mothers and
a sense of jealousy/hatred towards their fathers
• Electra Complex: little girls have a sexual attraction towards their fathers and a
sense of jealousy/hatred towards their mothers
4. Latency Stage (5 – 6 years to adolescence)

- From 6-12 years of age

- Pleasure zone: none

- Main characteristics: Oedipus and Electra Complexes are resolved

and identification with same sex parent occurs, and loss of interest
in opposite sex. Id, ego, superego continue to compete

- Tasks to achieve: none

5. Genital Stage (Adolescence to adulthood)

- Duration: from 12 Years to adulthood

- Pleasure zone: genitals

- Main characteristics: increasing concern with adult ways of

experiencing sexual pleasure. At this stage the sexual instinct starts
to develop with the aim of reproduction ‫ا لتكاثر‬.
 ‫شكراً لكم‬
‫‪.....‬ولكن مازلنا مستمرين‬
 c. Erickson Psychosocial theory
• Erik Erikson Psychosocial Developmental theory 1902 T0 1994

 Born in Germany, he studying art

 Met Sigmund Freud and studied Psychoanalysis with Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud

 Because his theory integrates personal, emotional and social development, it is often
called psychosocial theory

 Erikson is an ego-analyst – relationship between individual and the world or the self

and the world. ‫ ا لعالقة ب ينا لفرد وا لع ا لم أو ب ينا لذاتوا لع ا لم‬- ‫إريكسونهو محللا ألنا‬
 Erikson’s work is based on five assumptions‫افتراضات‬
 People, in general have the same basic needs ‫ ل ديهم ن فسا الحتياجاتا ألساسية‬، ‫ ب شكل عام‬،‫ا لناس‬

 Personal development occurs in response to these needs

 Development proceeds in stages

 Movement through the stages reflects changes in an individual’s motivations

‫ تعكس الحركة عبر المراحل التغييرات في دوافع الفرد‬

 Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial challenge that presents

ً
opportunities for development. ‫رص ا‬ ‫ت تمي ز ك لمرحل ة ب ا لتحديا لنفس يا لذيي وف ر ف‬
Phases of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of
Human Development according to tasks:
 Phase I: A sense of Basic Trust versus sense of Basic Mistrust (Infant from
Birth to approx. 1 Years)

 Because an infant is utterly‫ ت ماما‬dependent, the development of trust is based

on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.

 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust I n the children they care for. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
 Phase I: A sense of Basic Trust versus sense of Basic Mistrust (Infant from
Birth to approx. 1 Years)
• Task or crises during this stage

• Can I trust the world?

 If our infant needs are met with love and reliability, we develop a sense of trust,
or security in our caregivers and our environment.

 If we are treated with indifference, unpredictability, or abuse, we become fearful

and anxious. We develop mistrust and insecurity.
• Stage 1: Infancy (birth to 12 months)

Task or crises during this stage

Can I trust the world?

 Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Important Events: Feeding

 Outcome: During the first stage of psychosocial development, children

develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
 Phase II: A sense Autonomy versus sense of Shame and
Doubt (1-3 years)
• Child learns to feed and dress themselves and toilet training begins

1.The key challenges the child faces during this stage relates to
exerting independence

2.Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of
this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than
that of Freud's.
 Phase II: A sense Autonomy versus sense of Shame and
Doubt (1-3 years)
3. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling
of control and a sense of independence.

4. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.

5. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy, shame and self-doubt.
 Specific developmental tasks a toddler will deal with:

• 1. Differentiation of himself from others, particularly his

mother.
2. Toleration of separation from mother, parents, and
family.
3. Abilities to interact with others in a less egocentric,
autistic manner.
 Specific developmental tasks a toddler will deal with:

Characteristics of typical autonomy

• Negativism: the toddler starts to use the word (No)

• Ritualism: doing certain actions of behaving in a ritual manner (repeat

certain behaviors several times)

• Temper tantrum

• Emotions become strongly expressed

 • Task or crises during this stage

• Can I control my own behavior?

• Stage 2: Early Childhood (1 to 3 years)

 Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 Important Events: Toilet Training

 Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop
this sense of autonomy. Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may
be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
 Phase III: A sense of Initiative versus sense of Guilt, Preschool (3-5
years)

• Initiative is characterized by an exploratory and investigative attitude that results

from meeting and accepting challenges

• Psychological development in this phase centers in two major tasks:

 The child begins his relationship with others such as parents, peers, and other
adults in the life.

 The child begins to notice sex differences, the children are now experiencing
being a boy or girl.
 Phase III: A sense of Initiative versus sense of Guilt, Preschool (3-5
years)

• to imagine, broadening his skills through active play of all sorts, learn some
independence, and cooperate with others.

• Immobilized by guilt, he is:

 Fearful and continues to depend on adults.

 is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

 caregivers must be encouraging, directing child to appropriate behavior.

 when the caregivers are harsh and punishing, the child develops guilt.
 • Task or crises during this stage

• Can I become independent of my parents and explore my limits?

• Stage 3: Preschool (3 to 5 years)

 Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt

 Important Events: Exploration

 Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the

environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try
to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
 Phase IV: A sense of Industry versus Inferiority and Inadequacy;
School Age (6-12 years)
 If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for
their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry.

 Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of
self-confidence.‫س نواتا لدراسه ا البتدائيه حاسمه اتنميه ا لثقه ب ا لنفس‬

 It provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of

teachers, parents and peers by producing things- drawing pictures, solving
addition problems, writing sentences, and so on.
 • Task or crises during this stage

• Can I master the skills necessary to survive and adapt?

 If children are instead criticized or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable
of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about
their capabilities.

• Stage: School Age (6 to 12 years)

 Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority

 Important Events: School

 Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to
a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Phase V: A sense of Identity versus Identity Diffusion; Adolescence
(12-20 years)

• Youths develop a desire for independence from parents

• Achieve physical maturity and are concerned with the question of

“Who am I?”

• Adolescents experience major physical, intellectual and emotional

changes.
 Phase V: A sense of Identity versus Identity Diffusion; Adolescence (12-20 years)

• Adolescents experience new sexual feelings and are not quite know
how to respond, they are frequently confused

• proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal

exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and
a feeling of independence and control.

• Remaining unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and

confused about themselves and the future
• A sense of identity rests on the resolution of many sub conflicts, these includes:

‫ المهنيه حتي يصل الي تبني سلوكيات تتفق‬،‫ ااجتماعيه‬،‫ االقتصاديه‬،‫ السياسيه‬،‫ الدينيه‬،‫• البحث عن هويته الجسمانيه‬
.‫مع مفهوم الذات‬
 Adopting an appropriate gender identity.

 Finding's one's own religious ideology.

 Finding's one's own political ideology.

 Finding's one's own economic ideology.

 Finding's one's own social ideology.

 Making an occupational or vocational choice.

 Adopting behaviors consistent with one's self-concept.

 • Task or crises during this stage

• Who am I? what are my beliefs, feeling and attitudes?

• Stage: Adolescence (12 to 18 years)

 Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion

 Important Events: Social Relationships

 Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.

Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role
confusion and a weak sense of self.
 Phase 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)
‫ا لعالقة ا لحميمة مقابل ا لع زلة‬

 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships

 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

‫تغطي هذه المرحلة فترة البلوغ المبكر عندما يستكشف الناس العالقات الشخصية‬

‫ أولئك الذين ينجحون في هذه الخطوة‬.‫يعتقد إريكسون أنه من الضروري أن يطور الناس عالقات وثيقة وملتزمة مع اآلخرين‬
‫سيشكلون عالقات دائمة وآمنة‬.

 
 Phase 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
 The strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships.

 A poor sense of self do tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to
suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

 Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love.

 It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

‫ االستناد الي الحب‬/ /‫ ينتج عن الحل الناجح لهذه المرحلة الفضيلة المعروفة بالحب‬

‫ يتميز بالقدرة على تكوين عالقات دائمة وذات مغزى مع اآلخرين‬

 Phase 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Stage: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)

 Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Important Events: Relationships

 Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other

people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness
and isolation.
Phase 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation : Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on

our career and family

 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.

 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and

uninvolved in the world.

Phase 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation : Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully.

Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into

adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life, partner are
important accomplishments of this stage.

Parenting, satisfy and support the next generation.

If this task is not met, stagnation results, and the person becomes obsessed
with her or his own needs.
Phase 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation : Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
• What can I offer succeeding generations?

 Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation

 Important Events: Work and Parenthood

 Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,

often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other

people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Phase 8 - Integrity vs. Despair: Maturity (65 to death)‫ا لنزاهه مقابل ا ليأس‬

 The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.

 At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret ‫ي ندم‬
the things they did or didn't do.
Phase 8 - Integrity vs. Despair: Maturity (65 to death)‫ا لنزاهه مقابل ا ليأس‬

 Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets‫ ي شع رونب ا لكثير منا السفوانحياتهم ض اعت‬.

 The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.‫مشاعر ا لمرارة وا ليأس‬

 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a
general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.
 Phase 8 - Integrity vs. Despair: Maturity (65 to death)‫ا لنزاهه مقابل ا ليأس‬
• Have I found contentment and satisfaction through my life's work and play?

 Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair‫ن زاهه ا النا مقابل ا لياس‬

 Important Events: Reflection on life

• Outcome: Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed

development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to
look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to
feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. At this
stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives
Not The End
 D. Piaget cognitive theory
• Jean Piaget

 (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930’s

 The foremost cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed a theory of cognitive
development and introduced a 4-stage theory of cognitive development

 Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes.

 Studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew but how they knew it.

 He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world.
ً ‫ك انأولمنال حظ أنا ألطفا لي لعبوندورً ا ن‬.
‫شطا ف ياكتسابا لمع رفة ب ا لع ا لم‬
• Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying
to construct more advanced understandings of the world” These
“understandings” are in the form of structures he called schemas.
‫ ي حاولونب استمرار ب ناء مفاهيم أكثر‬،‫ي عتقد ب ياجيه أ ن"ا ألطفا لهم مفكرونن شطون‬
‫ هذه "ا لتفاهمات" ف يش كل هياكل أطلقعليها ا لمخططات‬."‫ت قد ًما ل لع ا لم‬.

• Cognition

• All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and

remembering. Children think differently than adults do.
 Concepts of Piaget’ theory

1.Schemata

 It means a method of dealing with the environment which can be generalized to

many situations.

 Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge

• Example: When the infant places a block in the mouth and sucks on it, the
sucking scheme is being used.
 1.Adaptation

 Effective cognitive interaction of the child with his environment or

every being must adapt to its environment in order to survive‫ا لتفاعل‬
‫ا لمع رفيا لفع ا لل لطفلمع ب يئته أو ي جبأني تكيفك لك ائنمع ب يئته منأجلا لبقاء علىق يد‬
‫ا لحياة‬

 Adaptation involves two processes that complement each other

a. Assimilation

 Is the process of integrating new experiences into existing schemata. ‫هيعملية‬

‫دمج ا لتجاربا لجديدة ف يا لمخططاتا لحا لية‬.

a. Accommodation

 It means changing or altering our existing schemas in light of

new information, a process known as accommodation. create
new schemes or modify old one's
 Four Factors that Influence Cognitive Behavior

• Maturation of the nervous system

• Experience

• Social transmission of information or teaching

• Equilibration (innate tendency of mental growth to progress toward

increasingly complex and stable levels of organization)
 Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2)

• Information is gained directly through the senses and motor actions.

In this stage child perceives and manipulates but does not reason. As
the infant grows, he goes through using primary, secondary, and
tertiary circular reactions.

• Symbols become internalized through language development

Primary circular reactions (birth-4 mos)

 Differentiates self from objects. 

 Engages in activity for pleasure more than for its results and
repeat it: e.g. smiling or sucking thumb. 

 Discovers parts of own body (plays with hands, fingers, and

feet).
 Secondary circular reactions (4-12 months)
 His behavior to make change in environment such as shakes a rattle to make a noise,

 Searches for objects that have fallen and is able to find hidden object and works to get
toy that is out of reach

 Imitates sounds and simple gestures and shows interests in mirrors image.

 Shows displeasure if activity is inhibited.

 Knows that gestures (bye-bye, kiss) have certain meanings.

 Able to put objects in container.

 Tertiary circular reactions (13 - 24 months)

 Puts objects into container and takes them out.

 Realizes that "out of sight" is not out of reach; opens doors and drawers to
find objects.

 Gains comfort from parent's voice even if parent is not visible.

 Searches for object through several hiding places.

 Refers to self by name.

 Stage Child's Activity Parents’ role

Sensor motor (birth to 2 years)

Stimulate the senses

Primary circular Repeats and refines
through objects the child
reaction action which once
can interact with- rattles,
(birth to 4 months) occurred by chance
bells, or mobiles
 Stage Child's Activity Parents’ role

Sensor motor (birth to 2 years)

Provide toys to handle with

Manipulates objects
Secondary circular various shapes textures, and
reactions Repeats action by colors.
choice develops object
(4 to 10 months) Partially hide a toy while
permanence
child watch
 Stage Child's Activity Parents’ role

Sensor motor (birth to 2 years)

Coordination of
Combines previous Provide toys: familiar dolls,
secondary
activities of new results balls, or boxes
Schemata (10 to 12
Imitation begins Encourage imitation
months)
 Stage Child's Activity Parents’ role
Sensor motor (birth to 2 years)

Tertiary circular Experiments‫جارب‬RRR‫ ت‬with

Provides experience with water,
reactions objects to discover new
sand, texture
(12 to 18 months) uses

Invention through Practices deferred Provide opportunities to apply

mental combination imitation old skills to new experiences
(18 to 24 months) Applies old skills in new Provide peer contact and inter
‫ع من خالل الجمع العقلي‬R‫اخترا‬ situation action
 Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
 The word operation refers to logical, mental activities; thus, the preoperational
stage is a prelogical stage

 Children can understand language but not logic

 Emergence of symbolic thought‫ ا لفكر ا لرمزي‬- ability to use words, images, and
symbols to represent the world.

 The preoperational child is also egocentric, which refers to the believing that
each person sees the situation just the way the child does.
 Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
 Divide in two stages: preconceptual and intuitive stages:

a.Preconceptual stage: (2-4) years marked by egocentric

thinking and Animistic thought.
b.Intuitive stage: (4-7) years in this stage the child start
employing mental activities to solve problem and obtain
goal
• Centration - tendency to focus, or center, on only one aspect of a situation,
usually a perceptual aspect, and ignore other relevant aspects of the situation

• Egocentrism - inability to take another person’s perspective or point of view

• Lack the concept of conservation - which holds that two equal quantities remain
equal even if the appearance of one is changed, as long as nothing is added or
subtracted

• Irreversibility - child cannot mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical

operations back to the starting point.
 Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years)
 Ability to think logically about concrete objects and situations

 Child can now understand conservation

 Classification and categorization

 Less egocentric

 Inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically‫عدم ا لقدرة علىا لتفكير ب شكلت جريديأو افتراضي‬

 The child is able to serialize (to arrange objects according to some ordinal scale, e.g, weight
or size).

 Classifies objects according to several features.

 Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years)
 Develop the ability to understand relation terms and concepts such as bigger and
smaller, heavier and lighter, first, last and intermediate or between, more than
and less than.

 Learn the skills of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

 The most significant skill, the ability to read.

 Subjective morality - sense of right and wrong.

 Child develops conservation skills.

 Formal Operational Stage (age 11 – adulthood)
 Ability to think logically about abstract principles and hypothetical
situations

 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (What if…. problems)‫ا لتفكير ا لمنطقيا الستنتاجي‬

 Adolescent egocentrism illustrated by the phenomenon of personal fable and

imaginary audience

 The personal fable is the adolescent's belief that he or she is highly special
and unlike anyone else who has ever walked the earth.
 Formal Operational Stage (age 11 – adulthood)
 Older adolescents may be able to consider some of the symbolic and long-
term implications of their behavior, e.g., smoking will lead to
unattractiveness, lack of peer acceptance or long-term health consequences.

 Think about synthesis, possibilities and hypotheses (especially for the future
events; college or occupational opportunities).

 Has the skills of problem solving, creativity, decision making, use deductive
reasoning, and can check solutions
The End

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