Radar Systems

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course the student is able to

1. Understand basics of Pulse Radar, Radar Applications, Radar Range and various
terminology associate with the Radar.
2. Understand principle of operation of Continuous wave Radar, limitations and its
applications.
3. Understand principle of operation of MTI Radar, its parameters, limitations and applications.
4. Understand principle operation of tracking radar and different error determination methods,
parameters associate with them.
5. Understand functioning of various sub systems of Radars, antenna arrays and their basic
parameters.
6. Understand functioning of matched and non -matched filters, correlation receivers in
maximization of Signal to Noise ratio.

The word RADAR is a contraction of RAdio Detecting And Ranging

1.1. Historical Overview

Neither a single nation nor a single person is able to say, that he (or it) is the inventor of the
radar method. One must look at the “Radar” than an accumulation of many Developments
and improvements earlier, which scientists of several nations parallel made share. There
are nevertheless some milestones with the discovery of important basic knowledge and
important inventions:

1865 The English physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed his electro-magnetic light
theory (Description of the electro-magnetic waves and her propagation)

1886 The German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovers the electro-magnetic waves
and prove the theory of Maxwell with that.

1904 The German high frequency engineer Christian Hülsmeyer invents the
“Telemobiloskop” to the traffic supervision on the water. He measures the running time of
electro-magnetic waves to a metal object (ship) and back. A calculation of the distance is
thus possible. This is the first practical radar test. Hülsmeyer registers his invention to the
patent in Germany and in the United Kingdom.

1917 The French engineer Lucien Lévy invents the super-heterodyne receiver. He uses as
first the denomination “Intermediate Frequency” and allude the possibility of double
heterodyning.

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1921 The invention of the Magnetron as an efficient transmitting tube by the US American
physicist Albert Wallace Hull

1922 The American electrical engineers Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of the Naval
Research Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the first time.

1930 Lawrence A. Hyland (also of the Naval Research Laboratory), locates an aircraft for
the first time.

1931 A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are used parabolic dishes with horn
radiators.

1936 The development of the Klystron by the technicians George F. Metcalf and William
C. Hahn, both General Electric. This will be an important component in radar units as an
amplifier or an oscillator tube.

1940 Different radar equipments are developed in the USA, Russia, Germany, France and
Japan.

1.2. Basic Principle of Radar

Radar uses high power electromagnetic energy pulses at microwave frequencies in much
the same way as in the figure below, The radio-frequency (RF) energy is transmitted to and
reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy returns to the
radar receiver. This returned energy is called an Echo, just as it is in sound terminology.
Radar uses the echo signal to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.

Fig 1.1: Basic block diagram of a Radar

 The radar transmitter produces short duration high-power RF- pulses of energy at
microwave frequencies.

 The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so
that only one antenna can be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power
pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the
receiver.

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 The antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required
distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.

 The transmitted pulses are radiated into space by the antenna as an electromagnetic
wave. This wave travels in a straight line with a constant velocity and will be reflected
by a target.

 The antenna receives the back scattered echo signals.

 During reception the duplexer lead the weakly echo signals to the receiver.

 The hypersensitive receiver amplifies and demodulates the received RF-signals. The
receiver provides video signals on the output.

 The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable,

graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.

All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide number of directions. The
reflected signal is also called scattering. Backscatter is the term given to reflections in the
opposite direction to the incident rays.

Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other
more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the
origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of
targets. It shows a map-like picture of the area covered by the radar beam.

The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse is called pulse-
repetition time (PRT) and is equal to the reciprocal of PRF as follows:

PRF = 1/ PRT

The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of the radar system is the number of pulses that are
transmitted per second. The frequency of pulse transmission affects the maximum range
that can be displayed,

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Fig 1.2: Transmitted and received pulses from a target

1.2.1. Ranging

The distance of the target is determined from the running time of the high-frequency
transmitted signal and the propagation velocity c. The actual range of a target from the
radar is known as slant range. Slant range is the line of sight distance between the radar
and the object illuminated. While ground range is the horizontal distance between the
emitter and its target and its calculation requires knowledge of the target's elevation. Since
the waves travel to a target and back, the round trip time is divide by two in order to obtain
the time the wave took to reach the target. Therefore the following formula arises for the
slant range:

R= TR / 2 c

R is the slant range

TR is the time taken for the signal to travel to the target and return
c is the speed of light (approximately 3 x 108 m/s)

1.2.2. Slant Range

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Slant Range ‘R’ is the topographical distance of the target from the Radar.

Fig 1.3: Slant Range

1.3. Maximum Unambiguous Range

A problem with pulsed radars and range measurement is how to unambiguously determine
the range to the target if the target returns a strong echo. This problem arises because of
the fact that pulsed radars typically transmit a sequence of pulses. The radar receiver
measures the time between the leading edges of the last transmitting pulse and the echo
pulse. It is possible that an echo will be received from a long range target after the
transmission of a second transmitting pulse.

In this case, the radar will determine the wrong time interval and therefore the wrong
range. The measurement process assumes that the pulse is associated with the second
transmitted pulse and declares a much reduced range for the target. This is called range
ambiguity and occurs where there are strong targets at a range in excess of the pulse
repetition time. The pulse repetition time defines a maximum unambiguous range. To
increase the value of the unambiguous range, it is necessary to increase the PRT, this
means: to reduce the PRF.

Echo signals arriving after the reception time are placed either into the

 transmit time where they remain unconsidered since the radar equipment isn't
ready to receive during this time, or

 into the following reception time where they lead to measuring failures (ambiguous
returns).

R un amb = PRT * c /2

Eg: A Pulse Radar is operating at a frequency of 1.2 G Hz and PRF of 330 Hz. Find out its
Maximum unambiguous Range.

PRT = 1/PRF = 1/330 = 0.00303 s

R un amb = PRT * c /2 = 0.00303 x 3 x 108 /2 = 0.00454545 x 108 m = 454.54 km

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1.4. Direction determination

Bearing
The direction to the target is determined by the direction in which the radar antenna is
pointing at that instant of time. By measuring the direction in which the antenna is pointing
when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation angles from the radar to the
object or target can be determined. The accuracy of angular measurement is determined by
the beam width of the antenna in azimuth and elevation respectively.

Fig 1.4: Measurement of True bearing

The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle between true
north and a line pointed directly at the target. This angle is measured in the horizontal
plane and in a clockwise direction from true north. The bearing angle to the radar target
may also be measured in a clockwise direction from the centerline of your own ship or
aircraft and is referred to as the relative bearing. The rapid and accurate transmission of
the bearing information between the turntable with the mounted antenna and the scopes
can be carried out for
 Servo systems and
 Counting of azimuth change pulses.

1.5. Type of Radars

Bi-static: the transmit and receive antennas are at different locations as viewed from the
target (e.g., ground transmitter and airborne receiver)

Mono static: the transmitter and receiver are co-located as viewed from the target
(i.e., the same antenna is used to transmit and receive)

Quasi-mono static: the transmit and receive antennas are slightly separated but still
appear to be at the same location as viewed from the target (e.g., separate transmit
and receive antennas on the same aircraft)

1.6. The Simple Form of The Radar Equation

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The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target, and environment. It is useful not just as a means for determining
the maximum distance from the radar to the target, but it can serve both as a tool for
understanding radar operation and as a basis for radar design.

If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and if an isotropic antenna is used
(one which radiates uniformly in all directions), the power density (watts per unit area) at
a distance R from the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area
4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R, or

Power density from isotropic antenna = Pt / 4πR2

Radars employ directive antennas to direct, the radiated power Pt into some particular
direction. The gain G of an antenna is a measure of the increased power radiated in the
direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an
isotropic antenna.

The power density at the target from an antenna with a transmitting gain G is

Power density from directive antenna = Pt G / 4πR2

The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various directions.
The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and reradiated
back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ and is defined by
the relation

Power density of the echo signal at the radar = Pt G σ / (4πR2)2

The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective area of the
receiving antenna is denoted Ae, the power Pr received by the radar is

The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected.
It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum detectable
signal Smin .

Therefore

Antenna theory gives the relationship between the transmitting gain and the receiving
effective area of an antenna as

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Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception, Above
equation Can be substituted first for Ae then for G, to give two other forms of the radar
equation

1.7. Radar Cross Section

The size and ability of a target to reflect radar energy can be summarized into a single term,
σ, known as the radar cross section RCS, which has units of m². If absolutely all of the
incident radar energy on the target were reflected equally in all directions, then the radar
cross section would be equal to the target's cross-sectional area as seen by the transmitter.
In practice, some energy is absorbed and the reflected energy is not distributed equally in
all directions. Therefore, the radar cross-section is quite difficult to estimate and is
normally determined by measurement.

The target radar cross sectional area depends of:

 the airplane’s physical geometry and exterior features,
 the direction of the illuminating radar,
 the radar transmitters frequency,
 the used material types of the reflecting surface.

Figure1.5: the experimental radar cross section of a typical aircraft at 3 GHz frequency
as a function of azimuth angle

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Targets RCS [Sq m]

Jumbo Jet
100
jet airliner 13 … 16
20 to 40
large fighter
6 to 8
helicopter
3 to 7
four-passenger jet
2 to 3
small aircraft
1
stealth jet
0.1
Table 1: Examples of Radar Cross Section

1.8. Radar Resolution

The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish between targets that are very
close in either range or bearing. Weapons-control radar, which requires great precision,
should be able to distinguish between targets that are only yards apart. Search radar is
usually less precise and only distinguishes between targets that are hundreds of yards or
even miles apart. Radar resolution is usually divided into two categories; range resolution
and angular (bearing) resolution.

1.8.1. Range Resolution

Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between two or more targets
on the same bearing but at different ranges. The degree of range resolution depends on the
width of the transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the efficiency of the
receiver and indicator.

Pulse width is the primary factor in range resolution.

Sr = c Pw /2
Where
c = speed of light
Pw = transmitters pulse width
Sr = range resolution as a distance between the two targets

1.8.2. Angular Resolution

Angular resolution is the minimum angular separation at which two equal targets at the
same range can be detected separately. The half-power points of the antenna radiation
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pattern (i.e. the -3 dB beam width) are normally specified as the limits of the antenna beam
width for the purpose of defining angular resolution; two identical targets at the same
distance are, therefore, resolved in angle if they are separated by more than the antenna
beam width. An important remark has to be made immediately: the smaller the beam width
Θ, the higher the directivity of the radar antenna, the better the bearing resolution.

Fig 1.6: Angular resolution

The angular resolution as a distance between two targets depends on the slant-range and
can be calculated with help of the following formula:

Where
θ = antenna beam width
SA = angular resolution as a distance between the two targets
R = slant range in m

1.9. Basic Pulse Radar Block Diagram and Operation

The operation of a typical pulse radar may be described with the aid of the block diagram
shown in Figure below

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Basic description of System Components

Duplexer: An antenna switch that allows the transmit and receive channels to share the
antenna. Often it is a circulator. The duplexer must effectively isolate the transmit and
receive channels.
Transmitter: Generates and amplifies the microwave signal.
Low Noise Amplifier(LNA): Amplifies the weak received target echo without significantly
increasing the noise level.
Mixer: Mixing (or heterodyning) is used to translate a signal to a
higher frequency
Matched Filter: Extracts the signal from the noise
IF Amplifier: Further amplifies the intermediate frequency signal
Detector: Translates the signal from IF to baseband (zero frequency)
Video Amplifier: Amplifies the baseband signal
Display: Visually presents the radar signal for interpretation by the operator.

1.10. Radar Bands and Usage

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1.11. Radar Applications

Area Application
Surveillance Radar
Air Traffic Control Radar
Tracking Radar
Weapon Control Radar
Air Borne Early Warning System
Radio Altimeter
Military and Civil Aviation Distance Measuring Equipment
Ground Control Approach Radar
Weather Radar
Terrain Following Radar
Identification of Friend or Foe Radar
Proximity Fuse
Secondary Radar
Remote Sensing Radar Imaging or Mapping
Law Enforcement Doppler Radar for Vehicle speed indication
Space Measurement of Astronautical distances
Non Distructive Tests
Industry Oil & Gas Exploration
Biological Applications
2-D Doppler Echo Tests of the Heart
Medical
Ultra Sonic Scanning

Solved Examples

1. Calculate the a maximum range of a radar system which operates at 3 cm with a peak
pulse power of 500 kW, if its minimum receivable power is 10 -13 W, the capture area
of its antenna is 5 m2 and the radar cross sectional area of the target is 20 Sq m. [JNTU
May 2011]

Given
λ = 3 cm
Pt = 500 kW
S min = 10 -13
Ae = 5 Sq m
σ = 20 Sq m

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G = ( 4π x 5) / 0.0009 = 69841

Rmax 4 = [ 500 x 103 x 69841x 5 x 20] / [4π x 4π x10-13] =

= [34920.6X 108] / [ 158 X 10-13]

= 22101000 x 1016

Rmax = 685.6 km

2. Pulsed radar operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 28 dB and a

transmitter power of 2 kW. What is the maximum range of the radar if its defined to
detect a target with a cross section of 12 Sq m and the minimum detectable signal is -
90dBm. [JNTU May 2010] [JNTU May 2009]

Given
f = 10 G Hz., λ = 3 cm
G = 28 dB or G = 10 2.8 = 630.9
Pt = 2 kW
S min = -90 dBm 0r 10-9
σ = 12 Sq m

Rmax 4 = [ 2 x 103 x 398034 x .0009 x 12] / [4π x 4π x4π x10-9] =

= [8597.55 x 103 ] / [1.986 x 10-6 ]

= 432.9 x 1010

Rmax = 1442 m

3. Consider for a given radar, if minimum receiver sensitivity is -120dB, trans-mitted peak
power is 100kW, gain of antenna is 30dB, target cross section is 5 square meter and
maximum range of the radar is 300km, calculate the effective area of the receiving
antenna. [JNTU May 2011]

S min = -120 dBm 0r 10-12

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Pt = 100 kW
G = 30 dB or G = 10 3 = 1000
σ = 5 Sq m
Rmax =300 km
Solution

(4𝜋)2 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 4 (4𝜋)2 (10)−12 (300𝑋 1000)4

𝐴𝑒 = = = 2555 Sq m
𝑃𝑡 𝐺 𝜎 100000 𝑋 1000 𝑋 5

Essay type questions

1. What is Radar range resolution? State the range resolution dependence parameters.
[JNTU May 2013]
2. Differentiate mono-static and bi-static radar systems. [JNTU May 2013]
3. Refine RCS (Radar Cross Section). [JNTU May 2013]
4. What is meant by multiple- time-around echoes? When they are obtained. [JNTU May
2012]
5. What types of modulations are used in Radar? Compare them. [JNTU May 2012]
6. What are the various applications of Radar? [JNTU May 2012] [JNTU May 2009]
7. What is Radar? How it is used in communications? [JNTU May 2012]
8. Derive the equation for maximum Radar range in terms of radar and target parameters.
[JNTU May 2012]
9. Explain the basic principle of elementary form of Radar. [JNTU May 2012]
10. Explain how the power received by the radar is related to the radar cross-section?
Explain the significance of each term. [JNTU May 2012]
11. Discuss about the factors that influence the prediction of Radar range. [JNTU May 2012]
12. Write the simplifier version of radar range equation and explain how this equation does
not adequately describe the performance of practical radar? [JNTU May 2012] [JNTU
May 2011]
13. Describe the essential characteristics, functions and major applications of search Radar
Systems. [JNTU May 2011]
14. What are the specific bands assigned by the ITU for the Radar? What the corresponding
frequencies? [JNTU May 2011]
15. What is maximum unambiguous range? How to find it? [JNTU May 2011]
16. Explain how a single antenna can be used for both transmitter and receiver of pulse
radar? [JNTU May 2011]
17. Explain how the Radar is used to measure the range of a target? [JNTU May 2011]
18. Draw the block diagram of the pulse radar and explain the function of each block. [JNTU
May 2011]
19. Explain the transmission lines losses introduced in higher radar frequencies and also
write the name of other components responsible for plumbing losses. [JNTU May
2011]
20. Explain how the Radar cross-section depends on distance? [JNTU May 2011]
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21. Derive the maximum range equation for a Radar system, from first principles. [JNTU
May 2010]
22. Define and explain Transmitter power in Radar equation and express the Radar
equation in terms of the energy contained in the transmitted wave- form. [JNTU May
2010]
23. Discuss the factors of PRF and range ambiguities. [JNTU May 2010]
24. Obtain the radar equation and discuss various parameters which improve the performance of
radar. [JNTU May 2009]
25. Show that the wavelength of operation has an effect on the radar range. [JNTU May
2013]
26. Show how primary radar can be used to measure range and azimuth. [JNTU May 2013]
27. Explain how to choose the PRF at which Radar pulses may be transmitted? [JNTU May
2011]
28. Expand Radar? b) Define maximum unambiguous range? [JNTU Jan2010]
29. In the pulse repetition frequency is 10KHZ, calculate the maximum unambiguous range? [JNTU
Jan 2010]
30. Write about the frequencies that are used for Radar communications? [JNTU Jan2010]
31. Discuss the factors of PRF and range ambiguities. [JNTU May 2010]

Objective type questions

1. The reflected signal from the target is called

A. Clutter B. Echo
C. Noise D. None of the above

2. The letter ‘D’ in acronym RADAR stands for

A. Doppler B. Duplexer
C. Detection D. Distance

3. The reflected signal from static objects is called

A. Noise B. Video Pulse
C. Echo D. Clutter

4. The unambiguous range of a Pulse Radar primarily depends upon

A. Pulse Width B. Frequency of RF signal
C. PRF D. Transmitted power

5. The range of radar is primarily restricted by

A. Line of sight B. Transmitted power
C. Frequency of RF signal D. Antenna directivity

6. The radar range is not influenced by

A. Cross section of the target B. PRF
C. Antenna directivity D. Pulse width

7. If ‘T’ is the transit time, the Range is given by

A. T* c B. T*c/2
C. T/c D. T/2c

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8. The weakest signal that can be detected by radar receiver is called

A. Minimum target cross section B. Minimum detectable signal
C. Maximum detectable signal D. Minimum S/N ratio

9. Reduction of PRT below maximum unambiguous range value results in

A. Increase in false alarm B. Multiple time around

probability echoes

C. Reduction in S/N ratio D. Enhancement of range

resolution

10. If the maximum transmitted power of a radar in increased by 16 times

with all other parameters unchanged, the radar range in increased by

A. 16 times B. 4 times

C. 2 times D. 8 times

11. The range resolution of a pulse radar depends upon

A. PRF B. Pulse width

C. Transmitted power D. Receiver sensitivity

Answers

UNIT-I & II

01 B

02 C

03 D

04 C

05 A

06 D

07 B

08 B

09 B

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10 C

11 B

*****

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