WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

Introduction

A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form
one piece when heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or
melting.

Filler material is typically added to strengthen the joint.

Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining

similar metals.

In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum, but you
cannot weld steel to aluminum using traditional welding processes.

There are a number of (over 50) different welding processes and these differ
greatly in the manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied and in
the type of equipment used.

We’ll focus on 5 examples of electric arc welding, the most common form of
welding.

The most popular processes are:

1. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

2. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and

3. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

5. Thermit Welding

All of these methods employ an electric power supply to create an arc which
melts the base metal to form a molten pool.

The filler wire is then either added automatically (GMAW) or manually (SMAW &
GTAW) and the molten pool is allowed to cool.

Finally, all of these methods use some type of flux or gas to create an inert
environment in which the molten pool can solidify without oxidizing.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT (SMAW)

SMAW is a welding process that uses a flux covered metal electrode to carry an
electrical current. The current forms an arc that jumps a gap from the end of the
electrode to the work.

The electric arc creates enough heat to melt both the electrode and the base
material.

Molten metal from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten pool of base
metal where they mix together.

As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten metals solidifies and becomes one
piece.

The molten pool of metal is surrounded and protected by a fume cloud and a
covering of slag produced as the coating of the electrode burns.

Due to the appearance of the electrodes, SMAW is commonly known as

‘stick’ welding.

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SMAW is one of the oldest and most popular methods of joining metal. Moderate
quality welds can be made at low speed with good uniformity.

SMAW is used primarily because of its low cost, flexibility, portability and
versatility. Both the equipment and electrodes are low in cost and very simple.

SMAW is very flexible in terms of the material thicknesses that can be welded
(materials from 1/16” thick to several inches thick can be welded with the same
machine and different settings).

It is a very portable process because all that’s required is a portable power

supply (i.e. generator).

Finally, it’s quite versatile because it can weld many different types of metals,
including cast iron, steel, nickel & aluminum.

Some of the drawbacks to SMAW are:

1. It produces a lot of smoke & sparks

2. There is a lot of post-weld clean up needed

3. It is a fairly slow welding process and

4. It requires a lot of operator skill to produce consistent quality welds.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

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In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a continuous wire electrode

(which is always being consumed) and the base metal.

Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a constant rate to the arc,
matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler metal is the thin wire that’s
fed automatically into the pool where it melts.

Since molten metal is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-
free gases is required. This shielding gas provides a stable, inert environment to
protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GMAW is commonly
known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding.

Since fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal. The filler material
is usually the same composition (or alloy) as the base metal.

GMAW is extremely fast and economical. This process is easily used for welding
on thin-gauge metal as well as on heavy plate. It is most commonly performed
on steel (and its alloys), aluminum and magnesium, but can be used with other
metals as well.

It also requires a lower level of operator skill than the other two methods of
electric arc welding.

The high welding rate and reduced post-weld cleanup makes GMAW the fastest
growing welding process.

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GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

In the GTAW process, an arc is established between a tungsten electrode and

the base metal. Under the correct conditions, the electrode does not melt,
although the work does at the point where the arc contacts and produces a weld
pool. The filler metal is thin wire that is fed manually into the pool where it
melts.

Since tungsten is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free
gas is required. The same inert gas provides a stable, inert environment to
protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GTAW is commonly known as
TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding.

Because fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants, slag, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal.

Tungsten’s extremely high melting temperature and good electrical conductivity

makes it the best choice for a non-consumable electrode. The arc temperature is
typically around 11,000° F (approx 6100° C).

Typical shielding gasses are Ar, He, N, or a mixture of the two.

As with GMAW, the filler material usually is the same composition as the base
metal. GTAW is easily performed on a variety of materials, from steel and its
alloys to aluminum, magnesium, copper, brass, nickel, titanium, etc. Virtually
any metal that is conductive lends itself to being welded using GTAW.

Its clean, high-quality welds often require little or no post-weld finishing. This
method produces the finest, strongest welds out of all the welding processes.
However, it’s also one of the slower methods of arc welding.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

The submerged arc welding process is similar to the gas metal arc welding
process except the arc is struck under a blanket of granular flux, hence the
name submerged arc welding.

The filler metal is a continuously-fed wire electrode like GMAW and FCAW.
However, higher deposition rates can be achieved in SAW by using larger
diameter electrodes (up to 1/4”) and higher currents (650-1500 Amperes).

Since the process is almost fully mechanized, several variants of the process can
be utilized such as multiple torches and narrow gap welding.

SAW has the highest deposition rate of all the deep penetrating arc welding
processes making it ideal for thick section and multi-pass welding. Variations of
the process can utilize dual arc welding, twin arc welding, multiple torch and
narrow groove welding to increase productivity.

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Since the arc is completely submerged in the flux, there is no arc radiation.
Screens or light filtering lenses are not needed. Additionally, the smoke and
fumes are trapped within the flux and thus minimizing smoke and fumes.

Since the process is simple to mechanize and easily automated, it is extremely

consistent once a procedure is qualified. And it can be used on a wide variety of
materials.

There are some limitations with the process, however. The flux which shields
the arc and weld pool in SAW also obstructs the operator’s view of the joint and
molten weld pool. This makes observation of the pool and joint impossible during
welding; thus, correction of problems during welding can be very difficult.

Because of the high current levels common to this process, it is normally not
suited for thinner materials.

Due to the presence of a granulated flux, submerged arc welding is limited to

the flat and horizontal positions. As with SMAW and FCAW, SAW produces a slag
which must be completely removed after each pass.

Finally, additional flux handling equipment is required.

THERMIT WELDING

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Thermit Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by exothermic

chemical reaction between the components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal
oxide 78% and aluminum powder 22%).

The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material joining the
work pieces after solidification.

Thermit Welding is mainly used for joining steel parts, Common thermit mixture
is composed from iron oxide and aluminum powder.

The combustion reaction products (iron and aluminum oxide) heat up to 2500°C.
Normally barium peroxide or magnesium is used to ignite the mixture.

Liquid iron fills the sand (or ceramic) mold built around the welded parts, the
slag (aluminum oxide), floating up , is then removed from the weld surface.
Thermit Welding is used for repair of steel casings and forgings, for joining
railroad rails, steel wires and steel pipes, for joining large cast and forged parts.

Advantages of Thermit Welding

1. Thermit welding is a simple and fast process of joining similar or dissimilar

metals.

2. This process is cheap, as no costly power supply is required.

3. This process can be used at the places where power supply is not
available.

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Disadvantages of Thermit Welding

1. Thermit welding is essentially used for ferrous metal parts of heavy

sections.

2. It is uneconomical for welding cheap metals and light parts.

WELD JOINTS

Five basic joints are used for bringing two members together for welding:

 Butt joint: a joint between two members aligned approximately in the

same plane.

 Corner joint: is a joint between two members located approximately at

right angles to each other in the form of an L.

 ‘T’ Joint: a joint between two members located approximately at right

angles to each other in the form of a ‘T’.

 Lap joint: a joint between two overlapping members located in parallel.

 Edge joint: a joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly
parallel members.

BUTT

A butt weld, or a square-groove, is the most common and easiest to use.

Consisting of two flat pieces that are parallel to one another, it also is an
economical option. It is the universally used method of joining a pipe to itself, as
well as flanges, valves, fittings, or other equipment. However, it is limited by
any thickness exceeding 3/16”.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

CORNER

A corner weld is a type of joint that is between two metal parts and is located at
right angles to one another in the form of a L. As the name indicates, it is used
to connect two pieces together, forming a corner. This weld is most often used in
the sheet metal industry and is performed on the outside edge of the piece.

EDGE

Edge welding joints, a groove type of weld, are placed side by side and welded
on the same edge. They are often applied to parts of sheet metal that have
edges flanging up or formed at a place where a weld must be made to join two
adjacent pieces together.

LAP

This is formed when two pieces are placed atop each other while also over
lapping each other for a certain distance along the edge. Considered a fillet type
of a welding joint, the weld can be made on one or both sides, depending upon
the welding symbol or drawing requirements. It is most often used to join two
pieces together with differing levels of thickness.

TEE

Tee joints, considered a fillet type of weld, form when two members intersect at
90° resulting in the edges coming together in the middle of a component or
plate.

WELD TYPES

Each welding joint has several variations to provide for different needs. Two
different types of welds are used when welding these joints. The groove-type
weld (butt weld) fills in grooves that are cut on the inside of two pieces of metal
that are positioned next to each other. The fillet-type weld fills in space on the
outside of pieces of metal that are positioned at an angle to each other.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

FILLET

Fillet welding refers to the process of joining two pieces of metal together
whether they be perpendicular or at an angle.

These welds are commonly referred to as ‘Tee’ joints which are two pieces of
metal perpendicular to each other or Lap joints which are two pieces of metal
that overlap and are welded at the edges.

The weld is aesthetically triangular in shape and may have a concave, flat or
convex surface depending on the welder’s technique.

Welders use fillet welds when connecting flanges to pipes, welding cross sections
of infrastructure, and when fastening metal by bolts isn't strong enough.

GROOVE

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The second most popular type of weld is the groove weld. There are six basic
types of groove welds.

The groove weld refers to beads that are deposited in a groove between two
members to be joined.

PLUG & SLOT

Plug welds are circular welds made through one member of a lap joint joining
that member to the other.

The weld may or may not be made through a hole in the first member, the walls
may or may not be parallel and the hole may be partially or completely filled
with weld metal.

SPOT & SEAM

A spot weld is a weld made by arc spot or resistance spot welding where the
welding process is not specified.

A weld made by arc seam or resistance seam welding where the welding process
is not specified.

FLANGE & SURFACING

These are welds composed of one or more strings or weave beads deposited on
an unbroken surface to obtain the desired properties or dimensions.

This type of weld is used to build up surfaces or replace metal on worn surfaces.
It is also used with square butt joints.

FLUX - PURPOSE

Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air -
oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air,
oxides and nitrides form, which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld
joint.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering),

the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler
materials.

DEFECTS – CAUSES & REMEDY

Most defects encountered in welding are due to an improper welding procedure.

Once the causes are determined, the operator can easily correct the problem.

Defects usually encountered include:

 lack of or incomplete fusion

 porosity

 inclusion

 incomplete penetration

 undercutting

 cracking.

LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion occurs when there is no fusion between the weld metal and the
surfaces of the base metal.

Lack of fusion is caused by:

 Too low current

 Too high welding speed

 Incorrect torch/gun angle

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There is no efficient non-destructive method. Visual inspection can be used

during welding and with bend test.

Also, ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant test or magnetic particle testing

methods can be applicable.

POROSITY

Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the electrode
or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture in the coating.

Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces or on electrodes
are also source of gases during welding.

Porosity may be easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust,
dust, oil and grease. Further, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided flux
and coated electrodes are properly baked.

INCLUSION

Solid inclusions are normally expected to be a subsurface type of defect and

would include any foreign material entrapped in the deposited weld metal. The
most common type of solid inclusion is a slag inclusion defined as nonmetallic
solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

Incomplete penetration is usually caused by the use of too low a welding current
and can be eliminated by simply increasing the amperage.

Other causes can be the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch
angle.

Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll in front of the arc, acting as a
cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on the leading edge of the
weld puddle. This type of defect can be easily detected by visual inspection.

UNDERCUTTING

Undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly

along the edges of the weld. It is most common in lap fillet welds, but can also
be encountered in fillet and butt joints. This type of defect is most commonly
caused by improper welding parameters; particularly the travel speed and arc
voltage.

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 WELDING Notes Compiled by Capt Ajay Puri

CRACKING

Longitudinal or centerline cracking of the weld bead is not often encountered in

MIG welding. However, that which does occur can be one of two types: hot
cracks and cold cracks.

Hot cracks are those that occur while the weld bead is between the liquidus
(melting) and solidus (solidifying) temperatures. In this temperature range the
weld bead is ”mushy”. Hot cracks usually result from the use of an incorrect wire
electrode (particularly in aluminium and stainless steel alloys).

Those cracks that occur after the weld bead has completely solidified are called
cold cracks. These defects occur only when the weld is too small to withstand the
service stresses involved.

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WELDING DISTORTION

All welders have faced the problem of weld distortion at one time or another.
The parts start off straight and square, and after welding, the finished part is
warped. Thinner material is more susceptible, as it has less stiffness. Also
stainless steels are more susceptible, as it has greater thermal expansion and
lower thermal conductivity than carbon steels.

Why distortion occurs? Weld metal is deposited at a high temperature, above the
melting point of material. For steel, this is around 2,500°F (1,370°C). As the
weld cools to room temperature, it shrinks, but is restrained from doing so by
the adjacent cold base metal, resulting in high-residual tensile stress. The weld
is now like a stretched rubber band, with the work piece holding the ends. This is
the reason that the base metal moves, or springs back, when the clamps holding
the work piece are removed, distorting the part.

When the weld shrinks across its width, it causes groove welds to “wing-up” or
fillet welds to close up. When the weld shrinks along its length, it causes base
metal to twist around the weld.

To minimize weld distortion, design and welding should be addressed. Weld

shrinkage cannot be prevented, but it can be controlled. Some of the
recommended steps for minimizing weld distortion are:

1. Avoid over welding — The bigger the weld, the greater the shrinkage.
Correctly sizing a weld not only minimizes distortion, but also saves weld metal
and time.

2. Intermittent welding — To minimize the amount of weld metal, use

intermittent welds instead of continuous welds where possible.

3. Fewer weld passes — A fewer number of big passes results in less distortion
than a greater number of small passes with small electrodes. Shrinkage
accumulates from each weld pass.

4. Balance welds around the neutral axis — Welding on both sides of the plate
offsets one shrinkage force with another, to minimize distortion.

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5. Thermal stress relieving — Another method for removing shrinkage forces is

thermal stress relieving, i.e., controlled heating of the weldment to an elevated
temperature, followed by controlled cooling.

TESTING OF WELDED JOINTS

Non-destructive testing of weld joints

VISUAL TESTING: Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in
industry. Because most test methods require that the operator look at the
surface of the part being inspected, visual inspection is inherent in most of the
other test methods. As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of
the surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight
vision, or may be enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and
computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment
of parts, physical damage and cracks are just some of the discontinuities that
may be detected by visual examinations.

Ultrasonic testing

This type of testing utilizes high-frequency sound waves that are

transmitted throughout the material being tested in order to conduct a
thorough inspection.

An ultrasonic wave (1-30 MHz) is a mechanical vibration or pressure wave

similar to audible sound, but with a much higher vibration frequency. The
procedure of the inspection:

1. Remove all the paint and rust from welding seams and of the area 5-7 cm
on both sides.

2. the metal surface around the weld seam and also the weld seam itself
should be treated with “couplant” or any other liquid like of that kind (oil
or grease, glycerin, etc.).

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3. The device is to be pre-configured for the specific tasks:

 for thickness up to 20 mm

 for thickness over than 20 mm

 for quality testing of the welds

4. The transducer is moved zigzag along the seam and at the same time
turned around its axis at 10-15 degrees.

5. At occurrence of stable flaw signal move the transducer again and again.
Find the position, where the flaw signal will show it’s maximum.

6. Weld seam inspection is carried out in one or two approaches

Via ultrasonic inspection following defects can be detected:

 cracks in the weld zone;

 pores;

 lack of fusion in welded joints;

 stratification of weld metal;

 discontinuities and incomplete fusion of weld joints;

 slack metal in the lower zone of the weld;

 areas which are affected by corrosion;

 areas with the mismatch of chemical composition;

 areas with distortion geometric size.

LEAK TESTING: Leak Testing, as the name implies, is used to detect through
leaks using one of the four major LT techniques: Bubble, Pressure Change,
Halogen Diode and Mass Spectrometer Testing. These techniques are described
below.

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Bubble Leak Testing

Bubble Leak Testing relies on the visual detection of a gas (usually air) leaking
from a pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and immersed in a
tank of liquid and larger vessels can be pressurized and inspected by spraying a
soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area being tested.

For flat surfaces, the soap solution can be applied to the surface and a vacuum
box (Figure 15) can be used to create a negative pressure from the inspection
side. If there are through leaks, bubbles will form, showing the location of the
leak.

Pressure Change Testing

Pressure Change Testing can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of

a leak is done by either pressurizing the system or pulling a vacuum then
monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time
indicates that there is a leak in the system. Changes in temperature within the
system can cause changes in pressure, so readings may have to be adjusted
accordingly.

Halogen Diode Testing

Halogen Diode Testing is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and
a halogen-based tracer gas. After a set period of time, a halogen diode
detection unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks.

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Destructive testing

Fillet Weld Break Test – This type of testing involves breaking a sample fillet
weld that is welded on one side only.

The sample has load applied to its unwelded side, transverse to the weld and
directed to its unwelded side (typically in a press).

The load is increased until the weld has failed. The failed sample is then
inspected to establish the presence and extent of any welding discontinuities.

This test will provide a good indication as to the extent of discontinuities within
the entire length of weld tested.

This type of weld inspection can detect such items as lack of fusion, internal
porosity and slag inclusions.

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