Archaeology of Kiev

The Archaeology of Kiev to the End of the Earliest Urban Phase
Author(s): JOHAN CALLMER

Source: Harvard Ukrainian Studies , December 1987, Vol. 11, No. 3/4 (December 1987),
pp. 323-364
Published by: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036279
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The Archaeology of Kiev
to the End of the Earliest Urban Phase
JOHAN CALLMER
I. INTRODUCTION. SOME METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
There are two kinds of source material available for the study o
development of Kiev in the earliest urban phase. First are the w
sources, which provide us with so much valuable and unique informa
These must be studied together with the source criticism and accordi
the philological methods the material calls for. The contemporary wr
sources and the later written sources based on contemporary notes are
narrow in scope and restricted mainly to the personal and state histo
the Rurikid dynasty, short geographical and historical notes by M
scholars, and one rich and a few less informative Byzantine sources.
number of these sources will probably not grow considerably.
The second source base is archaeological material from surveys
excavations and from stray finds. These must be treated with m
developed by archaeologists. Archaeological sources, generally spe
can say something about the chronology of sites, the character of se
ments, economic specialization, the social structure of the popul
exchange systems, and to a certain extent beliefs and some other asp
Seldom can archaeology contribute directly to the illumination of hist
problems. Indirectly, however, archaeology is of great importance fo
torical processes beyond the periods and areas covered by written sou
Of course, the written sources of medieval history and the archaeolo
sources give us answers to very different questions (Callmer 1981, p.
It is often difficult to combine them and to evaluate them in relation to each
other. This is, of course, an elementary remark but it is also a point of

utmost importance for the scholarly study of Early Medieval Eastern and
Northern Europe.
To judge from the literature on the early development of Kiev, argu-
ments from written sources and arguments from archaeological sources are
often woven together into theories difficult to comprehend. This is not to
deny that both kinds of sources are necessary to solve the problems of the
development of Kiev, but it is obligatory that philologists and historians
make their analyses and and that archaeologists reach their conclusions
independently (or as independently as possible). Only if this procedure is

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324 JOHAN CALLMER
strictly followed is it fruitful at

results. A synthesis is only possible
characters of the source materials. We now turn to a consideration of the
archaeological sources and their implications.
II. THE LANDSCAPE OF KIEV
The geographical position of Kiev is a central one. It is situated on

Dnieper, Europe's third largest river, ca. 10km (kilometers) downst
from the confluence of the Dnieper and its major tributary from the east,
Desna (fig. 1). As is often the case in this part of Eastern Europe,
river's west bank is high, with steep slopes cut by many ravines - jary
balky - in a pattern resembling the veins of a leaf. The riverbed itself
more than two kilometers wide at Kiev, and there are numerous islands
shifting banks and shallows in the river due to the masses of sand that
transported downstream during spring and autumn. Today the Dnieper
main artery is ca. 500m (meters) wide at Kiev. By contrast, the river's
bank is very low and marshy, and rises only slowly.
Kiev is situated on a plateau, ca. 3km long and ca. lkm wide, cut
from the major portion of high ground between the Dnieper and the Irp
Rivers. The latter flows from the southwest towards the northeast and
the Dnieper ca. 30km north of Kiev. The valleys of the small Lybid
Syrec' Rivers are the boundaries of the Kiev plateau to the west and to
south, with the Dnieper to the east and the Pocajna River to the north
The Kiev plateau is divided into a number of distinct parts by numero
ravines. The ravines usually run at right angles to the main rivers, wh
are orientated more or less north-south. As a consequence of the w
developed system of primary, secondary, and even tertiary ravines, the
a large number of promontories with excellent natural defenses; these n
only minor man-made complements to become first-rate, secure habit
sites. The ravine system as it exists today is to a certain extent the resu
rapid erosion, which in turn is a consequence of successive (and now alm
complete) deforestation and exposure from the tenth -eleventh centur
onward. The essential character of the landscape is, however, unchange
The Kiev plateau or, as it is often called, the Kiev hills stand up to ca.
meters above the Dnieper. The subsoil of the hills is loess on clay, and
river valley is composed of sand and clay. The natural vegetation is a le
forest with a dominance of oak. Maple, elm, ash, aspen and lime are als
components of the natural forests in this part of the East European w
land region.

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ARCHAEOLOGY OF KIEV 325
Traditionally, the Kiev area is divide

The northern part of the Kiev plateau, w
hills of St. Cyril. Further down, toward
divided by a deep ravine where the Jur
from the plateau land stretches for m
Luk"janivs'ka Hill. The hill's western bou
flows in a semicircle towards the Dnieper
this northern part of the Kiev plateau i
Hlybocycja brook, which runs almos
southeast of the Kiev plateau is its centr
tories facing the Dnieper. Furthest to th
by the much smaller Dytynka Hill a
Starokyjivs'ka Hill. To the north of thes
the Hlybocycja lies the Kyselivka Hill, c
plateau as a result of water activity. The
part of the Kiev plateau is the Xrescatyk
runs towards the northeast. The valley f
the end of the Xrescatyk ravine is th
downstream, on the west bank of the Dn
row. To the north of the Jurkovycja th
Both the Jurkovycja and Hlybocycja broo
baylike tributary of the Dnieper.
To the south of the Xrescatyk are th
Monastery (Uhors'ke) and Vydubyci fur
divided from each other by ravines with
Lybid' River. On the west side of th
northwest to the southeast, is a new succ
the dominating Batyjeva Hill
Although the Kiev plateau today is par
the wooded steppe zone begins not far s
A.D., the border between the two zon
further south.
III. SETTLEMENT IN THE KIEV REGION

BEFORE THE END OF THE NINTH CENTURY
Due to the favorable geographical situation, human settlement in the Kie

region goes back to the Paleolithic era. The area was especially rich in set
tlements during the Roman Iron Age. In the fifth century A.D. there seem
to have been a certain lacuna in the settlement sequence. However, alread
by the end of the sixth century the Kiev plateau was resettled. A number
stray finds are datable to this period (Karger 1959, pp. 92-97), and there

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326 JOHAN CALLMER
are also settlement finds dating to t

pp. 104-105;Tolocko 1978, p. 85).
Detailed knowledge of the settlem
better understanding of the develop
nology of Slavic settlement in the e
worked out as we would like. The p
Kiev is situated in a border area bet
In the western part of the Ukraine
pottery. Later development include
stages (Rusanova 1976). The latter
ninth centuries. Korcak-type pot
Starokyjivs'ka Hill (Karger 1959,
from the Obolon' district close t
Luka-Rajkovec'ka pottery has also
(Kilijevyc 1976, p. 187) and on th
In the wooded steppe zone there w
changing definitions called the
Pryxodnjuk 1980; Sedov 1982, pp.
were some types of handmade p
wheel-turned ware. The latter type
nomad culture; strong interconnec
patterns involving, the nomad po
steppe can be noted. The majority
have disappeared as early as the sev
On the east bank of the Dnieper, n
settlements, one meets another cul
early eighth century, settlements o
1975). Like the Pen'kivka complex,
Middle Dnieper area north of Kiev,
the last fifteen years Kolocyn sites
(Kravcenko et al. 1975, pp. 95-96
the settlements on the Desna and t
developed into the Volyncevo type
turies is not altogether clear. For ou
Kiev, it is enough to say that in the
ments of the Volyncevo type wer
upper Sula and Psel Rivers (Gorj
important to note that the Volync
distinct sites of this type have bee
Xodosivka on the Dnieper (Suxobo
River, a small tributary of the

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Kravcenko 1978). Both localities are sit

the center of Kiev.
The date of the Volyncevo settlements

This is mainly due to the very few finds f
well dated in other complexes. The Xodo
ably more precise dating through finds
found in the early catacomb graves of th
mainly dated from the end of the eight
1982). Already in the first half of the ni
distinctive wheel-thrown Volyncevo w
called Romny-Borsevo cultural complex
In the ninth century Kiev was situated a
Luka-Rajkovec'ka area. Pottery of the pe
main pattern, for example, through the
impressions on the shoulders of vessels.
with the Romny-Borsevo complex furth
earliest urban phase in Kiev, which prob
some Eastern elements. In some cases
Borsevo pottery (Tolocko 1981 A, p. 72).
Cultural development in the Kiev regio
first millennium brought considerable
versus Western cultural traditions. Sometimes the Western elements were
stronger and sometimes the Eastern ones predominated.
Ninth-century settlement in the Kiev region consisted of a number of
small habitation sites (fig. 3), situated on easily fortified promontories.
Whether the sites were always fortified remains uncertain. Traces of ninth-
century settlement have been documented on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill. The
relatively small but mostly well-spaced areas that have been available for
excavation have not allowed a detailed evaluation of the size of the settle-
ment (cf. Kilijevyc 1982, fig. 94). It is reasonable to suppose that it

comprised an area of no more than one hectare. In fact, there are only two
or three sunken-featured buildings there that can be dated to the ninth cen-
tury; indeed, it is doubtful whether one of them actually predates the early
urban phase or whether it is contemporary with its onset. The pottery
shows clear Romny-Borsevo elements (ibid., p. 28). One house sits on a
ledge a little below the plateau on the hill's northwestern slope. About
100m further to the east, also close to the slope, another, probably contem-
porary, house has been excavated (ibid., p. 141). Of the two early sunken-
featured buildings in the southwestern part of the Starokyjivs'ka, one
undoubtedly belongs to a period much earlier than the ninth century and the
other might as well.

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328 JOHAN CALLMER
Among the constructions connec

settlement on the Starokyjivs'ka, t
found by Xvojka in 1908 and reex
more important role. The existe
place has been a chief argument fo
tlement in Kiev as a great center.
time of the first excavation had th
gray sandstone slabs of differen
were set on clay and formed an e
In each direction there was a recta
dation parts of a clay floor were
was also a "pillar" of considerab
superimposed on each other in ma
bones were found nearby (Xvojka
tion" Xvojka believed was a paga
dated it quite early, to the eight
Tolocko 1970, pp. 48-49; Kilijev
ever, some problems with both the
date. First of all, Karger showed in
stone construction that Xvojka' s
the published drawing of the kap
oval and the offshoots are also ve
rectangular than oval, and in tw
Karger, however, does not doubt t
sacrificial place (1959, pp. 1 10- 1
as curious as the foundation. It must have been a construction similar to an
ashpit excavated at 3 Volodymyrs'ka Street in 1975 by the Kiev Archaeo-

logical Expedition (Tolocko and Borovs'kyj 1979). In that case, the ashpit
was probably connected with a pagan place of worship. The ashpit "pil-
lar" in Xvojka's trench is not clearly connected with the "foundation."
The top level of the pillar, for example, is considerably above the level of
the stone construction. Recent work on the earliest tenth-century stone
architecture has brought to light some sections of a building or buildings
that are conspicuously similar to the "foundation" of Xvojka (Xarlamov
1985, p. 110). This similarity has been rightly stressed by the excavator,
who has carefully suggested a close connection between the building and
the "foundation." The same type of handmade pottery, it should be noted,
was found in a layer beneath both. It should also be remembered that
Xvojka observed a floor of white clay in the vicinity of the foundation
(Xvojka 1913, p. 66). Clay floors were more likely inside buildings than
outside them. It must be concluded that the interpretation of the

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"foundation" remains uncertain, althoug

nected with the pagan cult. The date of
certainly much later than the usual datin
probably the early urban phase in Kiev.
In addition to the small number of sun
sacrificial spot, the moat cutting off
Starokyjivs'ka Hill is usually mentioned a
(Kilijevyc 1982, pp. 27-28). The occurrenc
the fill of the moat has been taken a
fortifications. As has already been point
observations have little relevance to the qu
the rampart. In some sections of the moat
(Tolocko and Hupalo 1975, p. 7). Since t
the tenth century and since the fill is p
rampart which, in turn, is the material th
the moat, a late date for the moat could
cal attitude toward the early dating seems
When we consider the extant evidence o
tlement (except the last two decades), the
ously existing fortified settlement with
Starokyjivs'ka. From excavations in both
know how densely built with sunken-fea
fortified and unfortified, often wer
Novotrojic'ke (Kuxarenko 1957; Ljapusk
on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill is consider
important. Material from the Volyncevo
there are no imports from the Saltiv-Maj
ical of settlements dating to the late eigh
as yet, no early Abbãsid dirhams from ei
of dirhams and metal artifacts of the Sal
tic of major settlements of the period
Opisnja (Ljapuskin 1947, 1958).
Castle Hill, or the Kyselivka, is a ra
70 -80m above the surrounding terrain
was easily fortified. The only serious dr
of the hills to the south in relation to
these hills could severely menace defend
there are cultural layers dating to the eigh
erable parts of the hill. Pottery here is lik
featured building excavated by Karge
1939 - mostly of the distinct Luka-Ra

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330 JOHANCALLMER
1959, 1963). Unfortunately, no h

is partly due to subsequent intens
tion with burials in the cemetery
some indications of sixth-century
that on the Starokyjivs'ka already
The long but narrow promontory
Dytynka (Sovkopljas 1958, p. 14
tery with Luka-Rajkovec'ka chara
ever, and no details about the cha
Early handmade pottery has a
(Tolocko 1982, p. 24).
Some finds of handmade potte
stray finds and excavation finds,
(Tolocko 1965; Hupalo 1976). Bu
earlier than the last two decades o
are no houses from the period in
tery in this part of Kiev have eit
downhill from the Kyselivka (H
very earliest settlements in the Po
handmade pottery was in use in t
(Suxobokov 1977, p. 75ff.).
As has already been noted, settle
and seventh centuries) has been e
in the Obolon' district, north of the Podil. The Obolon' is situated at a
higher level above the river than the Podil and was accessible to settlers
before the ninth century.
Evidence of eighth- and ninth-century settlement in other parts of central
Kiev is lacking. This does not mean that there were no other settlements
there, for unfortunately, excavations in Kiev have been done largely in just
some central areas. If such settlements did exist, they were most probably
of the same type - small and basically rural in character.
Consequently, no early center is discernible in the Kiev region. There
was no definite princely site with administrative and economic functions
extending beyond the vicinity of Kiev. There is no evidence of long-
distance trade connections in the period. The numismatic evidence, which
is completely non-existent, seems in this case to be decisive. It is uncertain
whether there were any eighth- and ninth-century Arabic dirhams at all in
the Kiev region in the ninth century (cf. Callmer 1981, p. 46). A find of
four ninth-century dirhams "from Kiev" must be considered suspect (Fas-
mer 1931, p. 15). Imports from the Saltiv-Majaky culture are known from
at least one settlement in the vicinity of Kiev belonging to the Volyncevo

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ARCHAEOLOGY OF KIEV 33 1
settlement type, but they are unknown fo

for a very small number of sherds (Tolock
Kiev was certainly not a likely tribal cen
logical material of the eighth and early nin
the idea of Kiev as the center of a hom
analysis of material culture remnants in
indicates a rather extreme border zone character of settlement. In some
parts of the Right Bank, as in Kiev itself, the Luka-Rajkovec'ka settlements

centered in southern Polissja, Volhynia, and Podolia reached the Dnieper;
elsewhere, the Volyncevo-type settlements centered in Severia reached the
Left Bank. This borderland character goes back even further: in the
sixth- seventh centuries the parallel occurrence of Kolocyn-type sites and
Korcak-type settlements in the Kiev region can be noted.
IV. KIEV IN THE LAST DECADES OF THE NINTH CENTURY

AND THE FIRST HALF OF THE TENTH CENTURY
Given the commonplace character of settlement and the modest size of it

early settlements, the subsequent development of Kiev was clearly co
nected with a rapid and tremendous change in economic, social, and cer-
tainly also in political conditions over a period of only one to two genera
tions. A few decades into the tenth century, a completely new hum
society must have evolved.
Unfortunately, a detailed chronology allowing a close study of the
dynamics of development from the late ninth century to the late tenth an
early eleventh centuries has not been worked out. Pottery, the most impor
tant evidence for the dating of settlement, cannot as yet be dated closer tha
within two generations to a century. Hoards, single coins, and jewelry ca
give certain suggestions for a closer dating, but generally this is also vague
Architecture, especially stone architecture, can be used for certain chrono-
logical grouping. But dating the dynamic development of Kiev by observa
tions of these categories of material is still unsatisfactory. Only in the Pod
can dendrochronological samples from wooden architecture furnish us with
more precise information about the development of settlement. Here we
follow that development from the late ninth century to the beginning of th
eleventh century in two stages. The mid- tenth century is the divide betwe
the two stages. For most materials it is possible to separate early from la
material within the period from the late ninth century to the early elevent
century (e.g., Tolocko 1981B, pp. 298-301).
Settlement in the Kiev region from the end of the ninth century onward
is known from a number of different localities (fig. 5). The main settleme
areas were located along the hills and in the Podil. The northernmos

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332 JOHAN CALLMER
settlement area was probably on th

can be dated to the late ninth and e
and consists mostly of stray finds.
Jurkovycja Hill, above the Iordaniv
to tenth-century fortified settleme
tor suggest that the fortified settle
bynci culture of the Pre-Roman Iro
Ages. The idea of a fortified, late ni
part of Kiev should not be dismisse
vations in the vicinity suggest t
gravesites. The settlement may hav
erosion and clay digging along the
type sword found near the Iord
which probably belongs to the late
also graves on the heights, of which
of these graves were excavated by X
(Xvojka 1913, p. 57). His scanty exc
these graves were tenth-century c
and in some cases displaying the lo
of cremation remains (Sedov 1982,
burials in pits, which were characte
Romny graves (ibid., p. 138). Nume
in barrows were also excavated. Oth
Scandinavian-type artifacts (Karg
about graves in this area, gather
cemetery II, strongly suggests th
perhaps already at the end of the n
with varying mortuary rites. The
centrated in the region close to wh
be built. It is, as already stressed
existed because of considerable sett
a tenth-century, sunken-feature
obtained, and in this connection co
(Tolocko 1970, p. 68; Maksymov
antiquarians also describe the rem
immediate vicinity of the Iordan
exact date of the building's construc
Considering the total archaeologica
this area, settlement and populatio
extensive. It is not likely that the
Podil. If the populace dug their gra

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more likely location, as were the hills

implications must be given their due we
this part of Kiev derives mostly from ou
of the excavation in 1965 already mentio
has been carried out in the area. Yet this
role in the earliest stage of the center's
reasons for this interpretation. First, the
from others further south was consider
plexity of the archaeological material
developed settlement with its own popula
tlement, which may or may not have been
tress Iccfißaxac mentioned by Constantin
speculative (cf. Bulkin et al. 1978, p. 14).
a number of prominent households, pe
prince's residence. The population was ob
ous local and exogenous elements includ
dence about habitation and graves indicate
restricted mainly to the tenth century.
As in the eighth century and probably
tury, settlement on the Kyselivka Hi
material about the settlement, although
from the Jurkovycja area. On the north
three sunken-featured buildings have be
kopy 1947; Bohusevyc 1952). Also found
brick building, probably rudera of a secul
or eleventh-century date. The tenth-centu
Petrov (1987 p. 260) and is uncertain. T
Bohusevyc actually found brick fragmen
p. 68). Although major parts of the plate
the layers have been severely damaged, it
of the hill was settled in the course of th
tained that there were never any graves
65). In view of the state of preservation
hill, this is a questionable position. Due to
that during more intensive settlement o
established away from the hill. Arch
Kyselivka indicates a large settlement a
this case, too, the full dynamics of develo
be gathered from the the archaeological
ever, that the structure of the settlement o
neighboring settlement to the north just de

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334 JOHAN CALLMER
Archaeological material from t

nous and differentiated, due to m
better preservation. The Staroky
steep slopes to the southwest, t
towards the southeast are there
about 20m higher than the Kyseliv
(ca. 150m wide) ravine (cf. Karger
For the Starokyjivs'ka, there are
material from the late ninth and t
there are very few indications of
the rampart and the moat on the
fortifications, set off in an area of
hill. In many respects the topogra
plateau both inside and outside th
all remnants of postbuilt, sunken-
Although for Kiev a considerable
of the area inside the rampart - v
been found there. Nine houses have been documented in the northwestern
and northeastern parts, all close to the steep slope. The central part of the
hill was obviously not built in usual rural architecture, namely, postbuilt
sunken-featured buildings. The lack of such evidence is telling, since no
fewer than twenty sunken-featured buildings dating to the eleventh and
twelfth centuries have been excavated in Kiev by Xvojka and others (Kili-
jevyc 1982, p. 161ff.). Other types of houses with horizontal timberwork
built on the surface might well have existed, however. This type of build-
ing is typical of Slavic and perhaps also of Baltic and Finnish building tradi-
tions in the forest zone; it is alien to the loess area in which Kiev is situated.
In fact, there is one documented case of this type of construction on the hill.
Partly cut short by the Tithes Church, a quadrangular timber construction of
exactly this type was excavated by Mileev (Karger 1959, pp. 172-73); it is
probably of mid-tenth century date. Sunken-featured buildings constructed
by this technique were excavated by Bohusevyc on the Kyselivka
(Bohusevyc 1952). It is possible that some large timber buildings were
constructed in the earliest phase, in the late ninth and early tenth century, as
well. It is most probable that there were wooden precursors to the later,
tenth-century representative stone architecture. We know nothing at all
about the construction of these dwellings from the archaeological sources.
Were they large halls of the North European type, were they wooden imita-
tions of Byzantine palace buildings, or were they something else?

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Some time in the middle of the tenth ce

its first appearance on the hill. This is und
sive cultural and other contacts with the Greeks in Crimea and in the central
parts of the empire. Byzantine court life and the way of life of its elite had
become a mental template in Kiev for some time, but it was only now that it
influenced building construction. Two buildings probably belong to this
earliest phase of stone architecture on the hill. They may date to the middle
of the tenth century or even a little earlier. A little to the south of the
center, inside the rampart and the moat, remains of an early stone construc-
tion have been found (Borovs'kyj 1981, pp. 175-181; Xarlamov 1985, pp.
106- 1 10) (fig. 6). Their fragmentary character makes complete reconstruc-
tion infeasible, but some general features can be noted. The building was
constructed from materials transported a considerable distance, including
heavy granite stones, sandstone, and rosy slate from the Ovruc quarries.
Brick fragments further confirm the high standard of the building tech-
niques. The building was richly embellished with frescoes and decorations
of marble from Prokonnesos. The floor was covered with polychrome tiles.
The excavators probably rightly interpreted the amounts of charcoal from
large timber in the upper debris layer as evidence of a collapsed wooden
upper floor.
The shape of the building is indicated only by a slightly curved, short
segment of the wall. This could suggest a circular layout (Xarlamov 1985,
pp. 106- 107). The outer diameter of the building was probably about 17m.
Yet other reconstructions are possible: what was found may be a curved
section of a more complicated building. There are foundations of large but-
tresses which might have been in harmony with a circular construction.
Several are very similar to the sacrificial place found nearby, discussed
above. Could the findings at that site actually be architectural fragments?
The other palace building was situated about 13m north of the northern
corner of the Tithes Church. It stood only a few meters outside the moat of
the late ninth- and tenth-century fortifications and originally just above the
steep slope. This building had a distinctly rectangular shape: it was 21m in
length and about 10m in width (Xvojka 1913, pp. 66-69; Karger 1961, p.
67; Tolocko 1970, pp. 56-57). The structure was divided into one large
and two smaller rooms. The building material was stone and brick, with
decorations of marble and slate. Frescoes ornamented the walls, and there
is evidence of mosaics. In this case, too, there was probably a wooden
upper floor.
These two stone buildings are probably among the earliest in Kiev.
However, Xvojka has found seven instances of early stone architecture at
various sites on the central part of the hill (Xvojka 1913, pp. 63-74). New

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336 JOHANCALLMER
excavations are needed to determi

the earliest phase of stone archite
with the late tenth-century buildi
constructed in Byzantine style alr
tury. Inside the fortification the
probably with idols and sacrificial
Outside the fortifications exte
1959, p. 138ff.; Kilijevyc 1982,
century it probably contained ma
in coffins and chambers and crem
tinct Scandinavian features. On
Karger 1959) in every detail re
chamber graves (fig. 7). There
graves. Two finds of Scandinav
(Karger 1959, p. 218). It should al
living outside the rampart in area
It is now possible to visualize w
the middle of the tenth century
1959, p. 99) and the earthen ramp
high and which may have been
fortifications, stood a complex of
with wooden second floors. In ad
buildings and small timbered, q
also some remains of a complex of
antedated the stone buildings. The
of the fortified area and the sma
phery, especially towards the slo
side the fortifications, wide ex
were, however, also plots with sm
on the edge of the slope close to t
surrounded by minor wooden b
own).
Let us now look at the other parts of Kiev at that time. During the ninth
and especially the tenth century, the riverbank, which had always been of
moderate breadth and very wet, was rapidly rising and becoming more and
more suitable for settlement. The formation of the territory of the low river
bank, the Podil, was the result of a number of deluvial and alluvial
processes. The sedimentation of enormous quantities of sand by the
Dnieper was the most important factor, but erosion from the hills also
played a role. The latter process was rapidly becoming more and more not-
able in the destruction of the natural vegetation cover on the hills and

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
slopes. The gradually rising riverbank was

ing from the ravines, the northern one b
ern, the Hlybocycja.
Excavations begun in the early 1970s cl
settlement in the Podil until the late nin
38-39; Hupalo 1982, pp. 18-33; Mezents
able for settlement earlier, and even the
for a long time, at least through the tenth
early settlement in other parts of Kiev, t
dated quite accurately, thanks to a detaile
dence for dendrochronology, numism
design (Sahajdak 1981, 1982A, 1982B). T
are dated to A.D. 887 (Hupalo 1982, p. 15)
certain extent a calculation of statistical
not be considered absolute, although resu
ments of more than a decade are unlikely.
Already from the early tenth century
suitable for settlement were divided into
two sizes: the smaller ca. 300 square mete
800 square meters (Tolocko 198 ID, pp
with generally larger plots, also existed in
Novgorod. Each plot was claimed for g
proved very conservative and stable. The
from the outset of settlement, may indi
lowers and retainers of land previous
probably - originally claimed by the elite
Constructed on the plots were timberh
work, in some cases of the regular pjaty
otherwise known only further north, in
house stood back from the street, with a
street. Due to the very wet conditions, h
foundations. During the tenth century
times by new sediment layers. Reconstru
the earlier pattern.
There is little variation in the architectu
and the high water table made it ver
buildings - in fact, no early ones are kno
second terrace) at the foot of the hills m
buildings in the course of the tenth centu
erected there. Until recently, graves fro
the river bank area. Now excavations h

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
338 JOHAN CALLMER
eleventh and twelfth centuries at

and Stepanenko 1985, pp. 83-85).
(Hupalo and Tolocko 1975, p. 46).
The economic specialization of the
centuries was trade and crafts, and i
very beginnings of settlement. On
plosca in 1972 was probably a merc
coin, a weight, and some other item
and Tolocko 1975, pp. 41-61), alth
cialization from the earliest period i
The Podil of the late ninth and fi
extensive area with rather dense set
of two riverbank terraces. Here an
higher, there was also settled land s
grew constantly. Streets and alleys
were fenced. The timber buildings
frequently had a second floor. It is
the banks of the Pocajna.
Traces of settlement, albeit vague
localities in central Kiev. Cultural l
both the Scekavycja and the Kudrja
well as on the Dytynka (Tolocko 19
If we review the entire settlement
early tenth century, we now have
rapid development. From a populat
sons before the late ninth century
hills large areas were rapidly cleare
ings or set aside as cemeteries. T
parts, possibly due in part to topog
of early Kiev. In this early phase,
tinct area of the hills with their r
area had buildings and adjoining plot
guard, etc. The preeminant part of
early tenth century or even earlier
the seat of the leading elite family.
slightly different character, that is
that on the hills and only partly in
tem.
By the early tenth century, the population must have grown into the
thousands. Even if the rich loess on the hills was ploughed and cattle,
sheep, and horses grazed on meadows in the valleys of the Dnieper and the

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Pocajna, it is most unlikely that the subs

based on the production of food and comm
The population of proto-urban Kiev was
influx of products from tributary tribes an
It is very likely that craft production de
elite and among the population of the Po
early phase is the rapid development of
potters' craft. It was not centralized (Tol
Elements of the population were cert
trade already at the beginning of the ten
Samãnid dirhams indicate that part of th
Muslim East (Tolocko 1976, pp. 3-6; C
evidently also conducted with the Byza
(Tolocko 1976, pp. 6-10; Callmer 1981
hams belong mainly to the first half of t
must have been channeled along the m
started in Central Europe, passed throug
Khazar center on the lower Volga (Jacob
the Bulgar state at the bend of the Volg
the archaeological material, which, amo
Ugric artifacts (Karger 1959, pp. 216-1
Rybakov 1969, pp. 194-95, and Kropotkin
If one judges by the coin finds, the vol
Byzantium was less voluminous. This imp
ever, because the lack of coins could be du
tines to export their currency. By contra
minted for export (cf. Noonan 1988). P
with the Byzantines are amfora finds. T
century, suggesting that trade with Byza
The social structure of Kiev in the early
tioned in connection with architecture
society was highly complex, including pri
and retainers with families. These househ
of food and ordinary commodities for da
ing jewelry, weapons (perhaps armou
aggregates probably did not include the
eral population there were also a number
nected with them, and there may also ha
men.

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340 JOHAN CALLMER
Some idea of the social divisions i

tinct group of high-rank burials, o
1959, graves 103ff.). Then there is
conspicuous graves (e.g., Karger 19
86). Very simple graves with few
Karger 1959, graves 1-7, 9-13). C
graves, since cremation graves, few
documented.
The variation in building techniques and grave rites strongly indicates a

very complex cultural milieu and a polyethnic society (Mocja 1979). Local
East Slavs certainly made up a considerable proportion of the inhabitants.
Architecture and some grave rites suggest the presence of a large group of
people from the forest zone north of Kiev who were familiar with horizon-
tal timber construction and cremation burials. There were also high-ranking
Scandinavians among the population (Callmer 1981, p. 47). The archaeo-
logical data does not prove that there were Oriental merchants and artisans
in Kiev at this time, but the obvious importance of long-distance trade and
later evidence of such craftsmen's visits or permanent residence in Kiev
would indicate that they were present already in the early phase. Greek
architects, builders, and craftsmen certainly lived in Kiev for some time.
Also, Byzantine clergymen and their servants were probably present.
The large Kiev settlement was not an isolated community in the Dnieper
valley. There were certainly hamlets and possibly also manors in the sur-
rounding countryside. It is curious that evidence of settlement in nearby
territory seems to date mainly from a somewhat later period than the late
ninth and early tenth centuries (cf. Movcan 1985). It is uncertain whether
these neighboring settlements resulted from the establishment of Kiev or if
they were part of an old system of agrarian settlements in the region. Prob-
ably both factors were at play.
V. KIEV AT THE SECOND HALF OF THE TENTH CENTURY

AND THE BEGINNING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY
The ongoing development that occurred in the second half of the tenth cen-
tury established the early medieval center of Kiev as it would exist up to the
sack of the capital of Rus' by the Mongols in 1240. It was a period of very
rapid expansion. Several aspects of the economic and social structure
which earlier could only just be perceived now became distinct. Again we
proceed with a survey of the various parts of Kiev (fig. 8).
In the northern part of Lysa Hill, settlement continued in the second half
of the tenth century. Graves and other indicators of settlement can be dated
to this period (Tolocko 1970, p. 147; Maksymov and Orlov 1982). It

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seems, however, that in the eleventh centu

the same scale as before; in fact, to some
the end of the tenth century (Tolocko
yet, we do not know if this was a gradual
either case, the entire character of an earl
of distinct and equal centers is lost. To jud
the population of this part of Kiev had bee
northern part of the Kiev Hills did continu
seems to have been only farms and suburba
part of the urban complex. By the end of t
definitely become secondary to the admin
the Starokyjivs'ka Hill.
Settlement on the Kyselivka continued t
indications of craft production on the hil
eleventh century. Two major collections o
their waste products were found in excav
(Karger 1959, p. 47); subsequent excavat
(Sovkopljas 1954). Among the items found
features (ibid., plate 11:10, 12). Some of th
eleventh century, as already pointed out,
continuity in production. In the northwest
the 1930s uncovered traces of bronze ca
workshop, which can also be dated to the
(Kilijevyc and Orlov 1985). Various mold
the production of buttons, have been f
1970, p. 145; Kilijevyc and Orlov 1985, p. 6
evidence of craft production indicates the
producing district, or whether the product
princely residence or a prominent fam
development of the princely center on th
tenth and eleventh century, and the lack o
ment on the Kyselivka, indicates that the l
tance.
In the late tenth and early eleventh centuries the settlement on the
Starokyjivs'ka clearly emerged as the political center of Kiev. Monumental
stone architecture became more impressive, and the number of buildings
increased markedly. During the last decades of paganism, a new or addi-
tional pagan shrine was constructed outside the old fortifications. This
place of worship was situated in a free zone between the barrow cemeteries.
Archaeological excavations have uncovered the foundations of this shrine
and of an ashpit similar to the one near the kapysce (cf. above, Tolocko and

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
342 JOHAN CALLMER
Borovs'kyj 1979). The most import

tlement outside the primary fortifi
these defenses and the tumulus gr
ones, now encircling an area of ca.
In the previous phase, the centr
defenses, was already dotted with
second half of the tenth century, m
become a more dominant element,
larger. With the beginning of work
(cf. Komec 1987, p. 168), Christia
became a notable feature on the
churches stood in Kiev is most uncertain. Historical sources indicate the
prior existence of at least one or two churches, but they have not been
located archaeologically (Tolocko 1970, p. 133). It is most unlikely that
they were in any sense prominent. The Tithes Church was built in a tradi-
tion which clearly indicates that the masters in charge of construction were
Greeks (Karger 1961, p. 10). This large structure (ca. 43 x 35m) was
erected only 4.5m beyond the old fortifications of a pagan tumulus
cemetery. The whole area was carefully leveled, and numerous kilns,
ovens, and stone masonries operated near the church site for about a decade
(Kilijevyc 1982, pp. 70-77). The church was first consecrated in 996. The
interior was richly decorated with floors of tile and mosaics and with details
of slate and marble (Karger 1961, pp. 56-59).
Only about 17m to the southeast of the Tithes Church, the foundations of
a large, secular stone building were excavated by Mileev and Vel'min in
1911-1914 (Karger 1961, pp. 67-72). The structure measured more than
30m in length and was about 8m wide. The foundation was built in a tech-
nique corresponding closely to that used for the Tithes Church (ibid., p. 71).
The building must have been a large palace constructed at about the same
time as the church. It was obviously one of the major structures in the new
princely compound outside the old fortifications. Another large rectangular
building measuring more than 35m in length and ca. 8.75m in width stood
about 60m southwest of the church (ibid., pp. 73-76; Xarlamov 1985, pp.
1 10-12). There the interior was obviously divided into a number of rooms.
Also, this building was erected on a substructure of concrete, on a wooden
carcass. Traces of its stone foundations and brick walls are almost totally
absent. Evidently this was another large secular building erected in the late
tenth century in connection with the replanning of the central area on the
Starokyjivs'ka, probably in connection with the building of the Tithes
Church. This second building was orientated almost exactly as was the
church, a feature shared with no other known building on the hill. Both the

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
palace buildings probably had second floo

Let us visualize, then, what the central
like in the late tenth century. There was
Church in the center and two large palat
tance to the southeast and the southwest
on the edge of the hill, there still stood a
stone and brick palace. It is unclear wheth
there was another palace building or whe
been destroyed. The whole central ar
assembly of monumental architecture, a
Eastern Europe north of Xersones (Jakob
must have witnessed the most important
society, there were less conspicuous b
made of timber. As we know from Novg
tures could have had several stories. Of t
ture there is archaeological evidence. The
buildings along the periphery around t
1982, fig. 94). In several cases we have ev
craft production. Recent excavations in th
prove the existence of bronze casting, inc
cial sort of earring, finger-rings, and bu
61ff.). The excavation trench is situated
about 22m to the southwest of the early,
is also evidence of artifacts of antler and
crafts may have been closely connected w
items as jewelry, toilet accessories, cloth
played an important role in the economy
between the elite and their entourage. Co
was an obvious goal for any prince seekin
We know that settlements on the Starokyjivs'ka became more
widespread, but we are uncertain about their plot system and the economic
and social character. Sunken-featured buildings of rather indistinct charac-
ter were the primary indicators of settlement. It has been argued that the
discovered building fragments are actually parts of much larger buildings
(Tolocko 198 ID, pp. 46-48), but there is little concrete evidence for such
speculation. Many of the sunken-featured buildings (with ovens) were
small dwellings in the local tradition of the forest-steppe zone.
The center on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill may have been surrounded by
compounds of the prince's followers. The archaeological data are, how-
ever, too meager to shed light on this possibility.

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344 JOHAN CALLMER
The new fortifications on the Sta

part may have stood more than 6m
deep, especially since it partially f
pp. 51-57). There was at least on
ably crowned by a low tower (Sam
As we know, a distinct feature of
its rapid development in the south
was the development of settlemen
pp. 24-26) and in areas between t
(Borovs'kyj and Sahajdak 1985). S
already in the late tenth century,
grave found at the intersection of
1959, pp. 169-72) may indicate ev
hood (early tenth and mid-tenth c
the Kopyriv Kinec' and adjoining a
buildings or square, timbered hous
a rampart and a dry moat (Tolocko
Already in the early tenth centur
considerably. In the second half of
to grow up the riverbank, followi
its. In fact, the settled area of the
tury. Only during the eleventh
become secure from recurrent inu
know, plot boundaries remained u
The economic and social character of the settlement in the Podil became
more distinct. Also, there is now unambiguous evidence of craft produc-
tion. An important find was that of four slate molds for belt mounts along
the Podil's northern periphery (Hupalo and Ivakin 1977). The molds,
recovered inside the remains of a burnt-down dwelling, are made of Ovruc
slate, which must have been transported to Kiev over land or more probably
by boat via the Horyn', Pryp"jat', and Dnieper Rivers. An Arabic inscrip-
tion on one of the molds is evidence that the owner or the artisan who made
the mold came from the East. This was the time when Khazar towns were
in rapid decline. The concurrent rise of political and economic life in Kiev
suggests that merchant and artisan emigrants from Khazar towns may have
moved to the flourishing new center.
Iron production and perhaps especially iron working were of importance
in the Podil. Excavations by Bohusevyc in 1950 of cultural layers going
back to the eleventh or perhaps even the late tenth century gave much evi-
dence of iron working (Bohusevyc 1954). Considering the topography, it is
likely that iron working was also located along the peripheries of the Kiev

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settlement. The identification of a s

Starokyjivs'ka (Kilijevyc 1982, p. 160)
were actually along each distinct distr
played various roles in different district
hold smithying and specialized smithying
In the second half of the tenth century
there probably existed a number of settle
of Kiev along the heights above the D
tecja) and Uhors'ke (Askol 'dova mohy
already during the tenth century (Toloc
Kiev, a number of settlements also ex
Rivers, the natural boundaries of the Ki
right bank of the Lybid' traces of settle
eleventh century have been excavated op
station (Movcan 1985, pp. 121-22). The
lier settlement nearby, connected in
Batyjeva Hill (Golubeva 1949, p. 106).
At the western end of Luk"janivs'ka
small promontory overlooking the Syre
(Movcan 1985, pp. 122-24). Findings indi
the tenth century. Settlements probably
Dnieper, for instance, at Darnycja (Callm
Kiev in the second half of the tenth cen
growth. In the last decades of the tenth
gious center on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill b
Kiev, with an appearance resembling t
cities with a long urban tradition. Altho
would have taken on such a character ev
introduction of Christianity in A.D. 9
transformation in the development of K
With the beginning of the construction o
tral Kiev gained the character of a Euro
still a barbarian one.
The second half of the tenth century is also the period when Kiev
definitely loses its polycentric character. Gone is the structure of the early
stage, when a number of distinct areas of settlement were strung along the
Kiev Hills for some four kilometers. This does not mean that some districts
were abandoned altogether, but the center of gravity did move south. Both
demographically and functionally, the center of Kiev becomes the
Starokyjivs'ka Hill and the Podil below. Settlement now developed most

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346 JOHAN CALLMER
vigorously in the Podil and to

Starokyjivs'ka.
As already noted, there is an
findings for study of the Podil.
settlement there is probably also c
less well-preserved remains. The
the buildings strongly indicates
or two families.
The social and ethnic structure of Kiev's population becomes less dis-
tinct during this period. This may be due partly to a process of strong and
continuous cultural integration. After all, by now some of the population
had lived in Kiev for two generations or more. The rapidly diminishing
number of pagan graves makes it difficult to trace different ethnic groups.
The social structure is now best studied through architecture and the layout
of buildings and plots.
VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY KIEV
The rapid growth of Kiev from the late ninth century to the early elev
century occurred not only in size, but also in social, economic, and poli
life. From a couple of small agrarian settlements in the ninth century,
grew into an extensive settlement already in the first half of the tenth
tury. Probably the growth in settled territory during this period was f
ca. 2-3 hectares to more than thirty hectares, that is, by a factor of
than ten. Growth continued to be strong to the end of the eleventh cen
From the middle to the end of the tenth century or the beginning of
eleventh century, Kiev's settled territory expanded to ca. 48-50 hectare
The structure of the early center of Kiev also changed considerably. T
agrarian settlements that existed in the Kiev area before the late ninth
tury probably did not differ from other rural settlements in the region
uncertain whether these settlements were fortified or not.
From the late ninth century a complex social structure came into being,
producing a social stratification notable both in graves and in the architec-
ture and layout of the town. The archaeological evidence seems to suggest
the existence of at least five social groups. Of course, princes together with
their families were the ruling group. In the early phase, more than one
princely residence seems to have stood in the topographically distinct parts
of the settlement. A second stratum of the princes' high-ranking followers,
retainers, and mercenaries is discernible in the grave material. Merchants
and artisans formed foreign colonies, but some were part of the princely
households. A stratum of low-ranking followers and household people

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
formed a large part of the population. La

slaves in considerable numbers.
This social stratification was made more complex by the highly varied
ethnic and cultural composition of the population (Mocja 1979). A majority
of residents were undoubtedly people of the local Slavic forest and forest-
steppe. Easterners, that is, people from the Khazar towns and those
involved in the long-distance trade that went through Kiev, certainly formed
another distinct cultural group, probably one ethnically and confessionally
diverse. At times and also in some numbers, especially towards the end of
our period, Greeks were permanent residents of Kiev. Scandinavians were
another ethnic group belonging in part to a higher social stratum.
With the formation of Kiev in the late ninth and tenth centuries, there
began a process of cultural integration which may have had an impact on
the ethnic character of some groups of the population. Certain ethnically
associated habits, like details of dress (ornaments), became less and less
prominent.
The formation of Kiev was also an important economic event marking
the emergence of a new economic system in the Middle Dnieper region.
From the outset Kiev depended to some extent on tribute from surrounding
areas as well as more distant lands. Goods collected and brought to Kiev
not only contributed to the well-being of the population, but also attracted
the attention of traders. The concentration of people and the importance of
gift-giving and rewards also contributed to the appearance of producers-
artisans.
There are no close parallels to Kiev in construction and layout during the
earliest phase. There were, however, some complexes not very different
from early Kiev. A number of Khazar centers (in the political sense and not
to be confused with authentic Khazarian cities such as Itil and Sarkel) in the
Don-Donee' basin had similar characteristics. The center at Verxnij Saltiv
is one example (Berezovec' 1962). In addition to a fortified nucleus of ca.
3.75 hectares, there was an extensive settlement inside a second, earthen
rampart on the high, west bank above the Donee' River. The valley floor
was too wet to allow settlement there, but an extensive open settlement
stood on the east bank. The total extent of the settlement has been
estimated at ca. 120 hectares. Although there are some problems with chro-
nology (cf. Icenskaja 1982), it may well be that the settlement at Verxnij
Saltiv grew very rapidly to its maximum size in no more than one or two
generations. There were no precursors to that settlement. Another very
large settlement complex existed concurrently at Vovcans'k (Pletneva
1967, pp. 34-35). There, it has been suggested, the central fortificatio
was the site of cult worship. Smaller, but similar to the Verxnij Saltiv

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348 JOHAN CALLMER
settlement, was the site of Majak

and the Don (Pletneva 1984). It h
rounding open settlement ca. 20
of these settlements and their d
both as food for the population a
mon with Kiev. Part of the po
lived a semi-nomadic life, but th
their general character. They p
whereas, as we have seen, Kiev fr
A few West Slavic settlements
and Prague. Both towns had at
large settlements. These centers
the tenth century. Prague, in pa
Kiev settlement (Borkovs'kyj 1
fortified places connected by un
the open settlements in Prague is
picture of the growth of these d
however, that an open, commerci
the tenth century. In Cracow co
one fortified settlement, Wawel
there was an extensive area of op
the OkoL During the tenth centu
of ca. 14-15 hectares. Although
very strong and rapid, the impe
are indications that the general d
was more gradual.
Byzantine towns were certainly
in the latter part of the tenth ce
however, only a vague likeness b
Kirsten 1958). Any likeness to
was also only very general (Stanc
The development of Kiev was a
Eastern Europe, the first, tent
centers. The background to thi
economic factors, which made
foodstuffs and of goods in deman
when Kiev was connected with t
phate. Ideas about the administrat
goods from the subjugated ter
Europe. These preconditions mad
mentality, who perhaps scarcely

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of the period but nonetheless accept

states and urban centers.
Kiev's growth was not merely as a conglomerate of villages. Urbaniza-

tion brought about a totally new situation. In research concerning the
development of early towns in Kievan Rus' two theoretical models have
been proposed. The first model can be called the Novgorod or koncy model
(Janin and Aleskovskij 1971; Kolcin and Janin 1982, pp. 104-114).
Advocates of this model maintain that the early centers of Kievan Rus'
developed as a result of a synoecism of a number of earlier settlements.
The second model is the bipartite one (Tolocko 1985, p. 5). Advocates of
this model maintain that the fortified center (dytynec' ) with an adjoining
open settlement (posad) is the original, basic structure of all urban centers
in Kievan Rus'.
It is difficult to maintain that the early northern towns of Rus' developed

as a result of a synoecism between a number of closely situated settlements.
As Tolocko has rightly put it, at that time in Eastern Europe the town was a
completely new social phenomenon (ibid., p. 12). In the case of Novgorod,
there is a growing amount of evidence of an earlier center at Gorodisce, to
the south of Novgorod (cf. Karger 1947, pp. 145-48; Nosov 1985, pp.
63-64), and there are as yet no indications of early settlements that could
later have formed Novgorod. The dichotomy proposed in the second model
is not applicable to the earliest proto-urban and urban centers of Northern
Rus', like Pskov, Ladoga, and Gorodisce (the precursor of Novgorod).
Also, the second model is hardly ideal for explaining the early development
of Kiev. The later phase, or what we tentatively date as the late tenth cen-
tury, certainly brought an urban structure to Kiev, which conforms to the
bipartite model. The earliest phase, however, does not fit the theory well.
Even if it is assumed that the urban topography was strongly influenced by
the landscape, there was a marked difference between the layout of settle-
ment in the early versus the late phase. Kiev in the late ninth and early
tenth century cannot be analyzed simply within the framework of the
dytynec1 -posad dichotomy. The earliest phase in Kiev was characterized
much more by a concentration of political power in groups of people than
by a single center. It then rapidly attracted economically specialized indivi-
duals.
The development of Kiev is the change from an originally complex and

fragmented settlement area to an enormous - for its time - urban center
with a clearly bipartite structure. Late tenth- and eleventh-century Kiev
strongly influenced the layout of many towns in Kievan Rus' that began to
develop in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. At that time it became the
model city for Kievan Rus' - it was in this sense that Kiev was the true
mother of the towns of Rus'.
Lund University

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350 JOHAN CALLMER
LIST OF REFERENCES
Berezovec' (Berezovec), D. T. 1962. "Raskopki v Verxnem Saltove 1959-1960

gg.: Pecenezkoe vodoxranilisce." Kratkie soobscenija Instituía arxeologii A
USSR, no. 12. Kiev.
Bohusevyc, V. A. 1952A. "Rozkopy na hori Kyselivci." Arxeolohicni pam"jatk
URSR3. Kiev.
arxeolohicnymy danymy." Arxeolohija
Borisevic, G. V. 1982. "Xoromnoe zodcestvo N

nik: 50 let raskopok Novgoroda. Moscow.
Borkovs'kyj (Borkovsky), I. 1961. "Der altböhm
Praha." Historical. Prague.
Borovs'kyj, Ja. E. 1981. "Svetskie postrojki." N
verxnego Kieva v 1978-1982 gg." In Arxeolog

1978-1983 gg. Kiev.
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Moscow.
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354 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 1
Oro-hydrographic map of the Kiev area.
There are 20 meters between the equidistances.
The Starokyjivs'ka Hill is just northeast of center.

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
Fig. 2
Topography of Kiev.

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356 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 3
Early medieval settlement in Kiev
(sixth-seventh centuries to the mid-ninth century).

80.2ff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
Fig. 4
The kapysce according to Xvojka.

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358 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 5
The settlement of Kiev in the early tenth century.

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
Fig. 6
An early palace building in Kiev
(according to Xarlamov 1985).
/ '
/ i
i i

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
360 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 7
Chamber grave excavated in the cemetery
on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill.
o ~* °]
/ '
/ '
p /
O O.5M
IL

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
Fig. 8
The settlement of Kiev
in the late tenth and early eleventh century.
°_

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362 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 9
The central part of the settlement
on the Starokyjivs'ka Hill in the late tenth century.
'
/ '' I:
X;
0 15 M

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
Fig. 10
A suggested reconstruction of the center of Kiev
in the late tenth century after the completion of the Tithes Church.
■

80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC
364 JOHAN CALLMER
Fig. 77
Excavated sections of two tenth-century plots in the Podil.
I &
k-^i P
W loirTÌ Till ¡!
li IP Off
s li IP all a Off
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80.233.34.88 on Sat, 08 Apr 2023 02:48:57 UTC

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The Archaeology of Kiev to the End of the Earliest Urban Phase

Author(s): JOHAN CALLMER

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036279

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I. INTRODUCTION. SOME METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

other. This is, of course, an elementary remark but it is also a point of

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strictly followed is it fruitful at

archaeological sources and their implications.

II. THE LANDSCAPE OF KIEV

The geographical position of Kiev is a central one. It is situated on

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Traditionally, the Kiev area is divide

III. SETTLEMENT IN THE KIEV REGION

Due to the favorable geographical situation, human settlement in the Kie

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are also settlement finds dating to t

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Kravcenko 1978). Both localities are sit

The date of the Volyncevo settlements

ment (cf. Kilijevyc 1982, fig. 94). It is reasonable to suppose that it

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Among the constructions connec

ashpit excavated at 3 Volodymyrs'ka Street in 1975 by the Kiev Archaeo-

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"foundation" remains uncertain, althoug

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1959, 1963). Unfortunately, no h

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settlement type, but they are unknown fo

parts of the Right Bank, as in Kiev itself, the Luka-Rajkovec'ka settlements

IV. KIEV IN THE LAST DECADES OF THE NINTH CENTURY

Given the commonplace character of settlement and the modest size of it

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settlement area was probably on th

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more likely location, as were the hills

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Archaeological material from t

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Some time in the middle of the tenth ce

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excavations are needed to determi

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slopes. The gradually rising riverbank was

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eleventh and twelfth centuries at

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Pocajna, it is most unlikely that the subs

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Some idea of the social divisions i

The variation in building techniques and grave rites strongly indicates a

V. KIEV AT THE SECOND HALF OF THE TENTH CENTURY

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seems, however, that in the eleventh centu

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Borovs'kyj 1979). The most import

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palace buildings probably had second floo

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