COMPUTER SOFTWARE

A computer system needs more than the hardware described above in order to
function. The hardware by itself, even when powered-up, is incapable of producing useful
output. It must be instructed how to direct its operations in order to transform input into
output of value to the user. This is the role of software; i.e., to provide the detailed
instructions that control the operation of a computer system. Just as hardware comprises the
tangible side of the computer, so software is the intangible side of the computer. If the CPU
is the physical brain of the computer, then software is its mind.
Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into
machine language, and executed by the computer. Between the user and the hardware
(specifically, the memory), generally stand two layers of software: system software and
application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software directly controls the computer’s hardware, whereas application
software is one level removed from hardware. System software manages the computer’s
resources, enables the various components of the computer to communicate, runs application
software, and makes the hardware respond to the user’s needs. When the system software
operates efficiently, the difficult operations of controlling the hardware are transparent to the
user. System software includes four main types:
 The operating system provides an interface between the computer hardware and the
user or the application software. Because of its central importance, the operating
system will be discussed in more detail below.
 Language translators convert application programs and any other software
programs into the machine language (discussed below) that actually controls the
computer's operations. The Machine can only understand the machine level
language or binary language 0's & 1's. The language translator rectify the errors
within the program through different ways. There are 3 types of language translator,
they are as follows :-
 Compiler.
 Interpreter.
 Assembler.
 Device drivers: A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device
that is attached to your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-
ROM readers, diskette drives, and so on. When you buy an operating system, many
device drivers are built into the product. However, if you later buy a new type of
 device that the operating system didn't anticipate, you'll have to install the new device
driver. A device driver essentially converts the more general input/output instructions
of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand.
 Utility programs Utility Software is a kind of system software designed to help,
analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility
software is usually called a utility or tool. If we are having any problem related to
system then we can solve it through utility software. Utility programs perform
various specialized "housekeeping" tasks, such as file management, virus protection,
disk defragmentation, program installation and uninstallation, file and disk back up,
disk formatting, and providing screen saver programs. This list is far from
exhaustive. The user directly controls most utility programs, although some utility
programs can be set to run automatically (e.g.; screen savers and anti-virus
scanning).
Computers of all types require system software to coordinate their resources. The
system software for a single-user PC is not nearly as complex as the system software for a
multiuser mainframe computer. However, as the PC’s system capacity has increased, the
sophistication of its system software also has increased. Many of the features once found
only in mainframe and minicomputer systems have been incorporated into PCs.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
An Operating System is a program designed to run other programs on a computer. A
computer's operating system is its most important program. It is considered as the backbone
of a computer managing both software and hardware device. Operating systems are
responsible for each and everything from the control and allocation of memory to input from
external devices and output to computer display.
An operating system also plays a vital role in security. Its job includes
preventing unauthorized user from accessing the computer system The
operating system has two primary functions.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
  Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what
parts are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when
and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System
does the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this
task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does
the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other software’s and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various
users of the computer systems.
There are numerous operating systems. Several of the most popular are discussed below:
 DOS (Disk Operating System) is for single-user IBM-compatible computers.
Microsoft Corporation sells this product under the name MS-DOS (Microsoft
Disk Operating System) and licenses another version, called PC-DOS, to IBM for use
in its personal computers. DOS was written for the microcomputer technology of the
early 1980s. An enormous number of microcomputers still run under DOS. Even
though there have been numerous improvements to the software since its
introduction, limitations still exist. It is not GUI-capable. Nor can it take full
advantage of today's 32-bit processors (e.g., Intel's Pentium series). That is,
application programs running on DOS computers have direct access to only 640,000
bytes of primary memory.
  Macintosh Operating Systems (Mac OS) was introduced in the 1984 and was the first
commercial GUI platform. The latest version supports multitasking, includes
multiple Web browsers, and has built-in networking capability. It also is able to open,
edit, and save files created in DOS and Windows platforms.
 Microsoft Windows are GUI-capable, multitasking operating systems. Unlike the
earlier Windows 3.x series, Windows 95 and 98 are true operating systems, and do
not require DOS to run. Windows 95 and 98 have broken the 640,000-byte barrier,
providing direct access to millions of bytes of memory. These operating systems take
advantage of today’s more powerful microprocessor chips, such as the Intel Pentium,
which address more memory and run faster than the older microprocessors.
Windows 98 is an upgraded version of Windows 95. Windows 98 is user-friendlier
than Windows 95 and has more Internet features; e.g., Windows 98 includes
Microsoft Internet Explorer.
 Microsoft Windows NT is designed for client-server networks. It provides the
user with the other features of Windows 98.
 Linux is an interesting operating system because it is not proprietary software. Its
code has been made publicly available (called open-source software). This allows
users to customize the software to meet their personal needs and to share
improvements made with others. Applications that run on Linux are commercially
available; for example, from Red Hat Software and Corel Corporation.
 UNIX was developed by Bell Laboratories in the 1970's, and is one of the few small-
scale operating systems that is both multiuser and multiprocessing capable. This
allows computers running on UNIX to process a high volume of inputs from multiple
users by using multiple CPUs simultaneously.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is designed for people like me and you to perform tasks that we
consider useful. This might be the ability of a scientist to work out statistical information
using a set of results, or someone who wants to play the latest computer game. There are
several categories of Application software that we'll look into shortly:
 General purpose application software.
 Special purpose application software.
 Bespoke application software
Unlike systems software, applications software is designed to be used by end-users.
Applications software, in essence, sits on top of system software, as it is unable to run
without the operating system and other utilities. Application software enables the user to
direct the computer’s processing system in the tasks of manipulating and transforming input
data into useful output information. Furthermore, it allows the user to alter the information
generated by the processing system; e.g., how the information is presented. This is the type
of software with which most users interact. It is the usual interface between user and
computer. Rarely do users directly manipulate systems software, especially the operating
systems software.
Application software can be written for a specific user’s application (custom
software), or it can be mass-produced for general use (commercial or packaged software).
Naturally, custom software is usually far more expensive than commercial software. An
accounting package written for a specific company might cost many thousands of dollars,
whereas a commercial accounting package might cost only a few hundred dollars at a retail
store. The advantage of custom software is that it is tailored to the user’s specific needs and
can be seamlessly integrated into the user’s existing software. Not only is commercial
software less costly, it is also available immediately, and the package can be evaluated before
being purchased.
Application software comes in an incredible variety. It is available for business,
personal, educational, communication, and graphic design purposes—to name the more
usual categories. There is almost certainly a software package somewhere available to suit
any need. If not, there are programmers ready to be hired to build it. For our purposes, we
will limit our discussion to the four types of application software most likely to be useful
to accounting and business students: word processing, spreadsheet, database, and
presentation graphics. These four applications are frequently sold together in a single
software package. Three of the most popular packages are Corel WordPerfect Suite,
Microsoft Office 2000, and Lotus SmartSuite. In addition to the four "standard"
applications, these packages usually include email, Internet, video processing, and desktop
publishing applications.
Word processing programs allow the user to quickly and easily create and revise texts
on the computer screen. By using word processing applications, the user can format
documents with ease, changing font size, margins, color, etc. Different types of documents—
e.g., letters, memos, and reports—are often preformatted in the application. PC-based word
processing software is so capable and inexpensive that, in most businesses, it has become the
usual tool for creating documents, even when more powerful mainframes and minicomputers
are available.
 Spreadsheet programs are especially useful in business and accounting. The
electronic spreadsheet consists of rows and columns of data, which the user can easily edit,
copy, move, or print. Using numeric data entered in the spreadsheet, the computer can
perform numerous mathematical calculations automatically, many of impressive
sophistication (e.g., statistical, logical, and engineering functions). One of the spreadsheet
program’s most powerful features for business purposes is that it enables the user to do
“what-if” analyses on existing data and to input different data for various scenarios. Non-
numeric data (e.g., names and dates) may also be entered in a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets can
perform some non-mathematical operations (e.g., sorting and filtering) on this data, although
this type of analysis is not a spreadsheet's strength.
Database software allows the user to enter, store, maintain, retrieve, and manipulate data. In
some ways, databases pickup where spreadsheets leave off, although a fairer assessment is
probably that the relationship between the two types of software is reciprocal. Database
software is certainly more efficient and effective at handling non-numeric data than is
spreadsheet software. Conversely, numeric data is usually easier to manipulate in a
spreadsheet. In most databases, data is entered to tables of rows and columns, similar to
spreadsheets. Unlike spreadsheets, these tables can be connected into relationships that allow
users incredible versatility in what they can do with that data. For example, data—both
numeric and non-numeric—from several individual tables may be retrieved and used together
in calculations, with the results presented in a business-style report.
Presentation graphics software enables users to ‘design professional-quality
presentations for business and educational purposes. The presentations usually consist of
formatted slides for projecting onto a screen from a computer projector or overhead
projector, or for display on a large monitor. These presentations may also be used for online
meetings and Web broadcasts. The slides can be designed to include backgrounds, graphic
images, charts, clipart, shading, animation, and audio effects—and, of course, text, which
can sometimes get lost in all of the embellishments.