UNIT II

HEAT TRANSFER
 CONVECTION

What is convection in heat transfer?

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the
presence of bulk fluid motion.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER (Based on how fluid
motion is initiated)
⮚ Natural or free convection.
⮚ Forced convection
NATURAL CONVECTION
In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means
such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and fall the
cooler fluid.
FORCED CONVECTION
In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in
a tube by external means such as a pump or fan.
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
WHAT TYPE OF HEAT TRANSFER??
???
 LAW OF CONVECTION
Newton's law of cooling
It states that “the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the
difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings and
to the surface area of the object.”
Newton’s law of cooling, Q = -hA ∆T
Q = -hA (Tlower temp –Thigher temp)
Where,
Q - Heat flux in W/m2
h- Convective heat transfer co-efficient in W/m2k
A- Area in m2
∆T- Temperature difference in K
i. This means that if the difference in temperature is great, the
change in temperature will be fast.
ii. If the difference is small, the change in temperature will be slow.
MECHANISM OF FORCED CONVECTION

Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves

fluid motion as well as heat conduction.The fluid motion
enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity,higher the
heat transfer rate).
The rate of convection of heat transfer is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling
qconv = h(Ts- T∞ )
Q conv = h A(Ts- T∞ )

Convective heat transfer coefficient ‘h’ strongly depends on

Fluid properties, roughness of the solid surface,
Type of the fluid flow (laminar or turbulent)
Convention is the heat transfer mode between a fluid and a solid or a 2 fluids of different
phases . In order to simplify the process we used Newton’s correlation.

Where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient also called the film coefficient.

h is a function of: Fluid flow

Fluid properties
Geometry of the solid
 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
i. “The amount of heat which passes through a unit area of a medium
or system in a unit time when the temperature difference between
the boundaries of the system is 1 degree.”
ii. A coefficient which indicates the amount of heat flow that is
exchanged across a unit area of a medium or system in a unit
amount of time with a unit of temperature difference between the
boundaries of the system.
iii. Heat transfer coefficient is denoted as h and it unit is W m-2 K-1 (J s-1
m-2 K-1).
iv. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall
resistance to heat transfer, which is the sum of the individual
resistances.
 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
FORCED CONVECTION
ASSUMPTION
It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the
wall, this assumption is called no‐ slip condition.
As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the
fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,
since the fluid is motionless.

VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER

Consider the flow of a fluid over a flat plate (shown in fig.)
The velocity and the temperature of the fluid approaching
the plate is uniform at U∞ and T∞. The fluid can be
considered as adjacent layers on top of each others.
VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
 Inviscid region is the region in which the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.
The friction between two adjacent layers between two layers acts
similar to a drag force (friction force).
Drag force per unit area is called the shear stress (τs )
τs = μ∂ v / ∂y at y=0 (N/m2)
where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid kg/m.s or N.s/m2 .
Drag force is calculated from
FD = Cf A ρ U2∞ / 2 (N/m2)
Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow, and is a strong
function of temperature.
Surface shear stress can also be determined from
τs = Cf ρ U2∞ / 2 (N/m2)
where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is
determined experimentally in most cases.
SHAPE OF VELOCITY PROFILE
⮚ Velocity profile in the laminar region is
approximately parabolic, and becomes flatter in
turbulent flow.
⮚ Turbulent region can be considered of three regions:
laminar sublayer (where viscous effects are
dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and
turbulent effects exist), and turbulent layer.
⮚ Intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow enhances
heat and momentum transfer between fluid particles,
which in turn increases the friction force and the
convection heat transfer coefficient.
 Thermal Boundary layer
i. When a fluid flows over a solid surface, a velocity gradient is set
up in a layer close to the surface and this layer is called as
hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.
ii. Whenever there is a difference in temperature between the surface
and the fluid, heat transfer will occur and a temperature gradient
will set up in a manner similar to velocity gradient.
iii. This temperature gradient is considered to be exists within a layer
close to the surface.
iv. “A layer of fluid close to the surface within which the temperature
gradient exists is called as the thermal boundary layer.”
v. We shell denote the thickness of the boundary layer by the symbol
vi. A thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a specified
temperature flows over a surface that is at a different temperature
THERMAL AND VELOCITY BOUNDARY
LAYER
 FLUID FLOW
⮚ Flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and
streamlined which is called laminar flow.
⮚ At some distance from the leading edge, the
flow turns chaotic, which is called turbulent and
it is characterized by velocity fluctuations and
highly disordered motion.
⮚ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
occurs over some region which is called
transition region.
NATURE OF FLUID FLOW
 Selected Dimensionless Groups
Group Symbol Definition Interpretation

Grashof Number Gr Ratio buoyancy to viscous forces

Colburn Factor jH Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient

Nusselt Number Nu Dimensionless surface temperature gradient

Prandtl Number Pr Ratio momentum to thermal diffusivity

Reynolds Re Ratio inertia to viscous forces

Stanton Number St Modified Nusselt number

Peclet Number Pe RePr Independent heat transfer parameter

 NON-DIMENSIONAL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT
Nusselt number: non‐dimensional heat transfer
coefficient
Nu = hδ/k = q conv / q cond
where δ is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the
tube and L for the flat plate.
Nusselt number represents the enhancement of
heat transfer through a fluid as a result of
convection relative to conduction across the same
fluid layer.
Reynolds number: ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces in the fluid.
 Dimensionless numbers
Re = inertia forces/ viscous forces = ρVδ /μ= V δ / ν
.
⮚ At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are
proportional to the density and the velocity of the fluid,
are large relative to the viscous forces; thus the viscous
forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations
of the fluid (turbulent regime)
⮚ Reynolds number at which the flow becomes
turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number.
⮚ For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally
determined to be approximately Re critical = 5 x105 .
 Dimensionless numbers
Prandtl number is a measure of relative thickness
of the velocity and thermal boundary layer.
Pr= μCp /k = ν/α =molecular diffusivity of
momentum/ molecular diffusivity of heat .
where fluid properties are:
ρ: mass density, (kg/m3 ) , ‘ Cp’ specific heat
capacity (J/kg ∙ K)
µ : dynamic viscosity, (N ∙ s/m2 ) , ν: kinematic
viscosity, µ / ρ (m2 /s), k: thermal conductivity
(W/m∙ K) , thermal diffusivity, k/(ρ ∙ Cp) (m2 /S)
 Prandtl Number Pr

Momentum Diffusivity

Thermal Diffusivity

The ratio of the momentum diffusivity over the thermal diffusivity is a combination of fluid
properties and is also thougth of as a property (Named Prandtl Number Pr).

Dependent on fluid and temperature

Significant Parameters:

Nusselt Number Nu

x
The heat transfer rate between the surface and the fluid is

At the surface itself

Where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Therefore:

 Flat Plate in Parallel Flow

Transition Region
Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow

δ(x)

x
L

Properties of fluid evaluated at the film temperature Tf

Forced Convection
Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Laminar flow: Re<2 x 105
x
Prandtl number >0.6 L
The local Nusselt number is

The average Nusselt number

All Prandtl number and Pe >100

The local Nusselt number is

The average Nusselt number

Forced Convection
Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Transition flow: Rec=5 x 105
60>Prandtl number >0.6
3 x 106 >Re > 2 x 105
L

The average Nusselt number

LU inertia forces Nature of the flow

Re  
 viscous forces

C momentum diffusivity Thermophysical properties of

Pr   the fluid
k thermal diffusivity
Forced Convection
Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Turbulent flow: Re>3x106
60>Prandtl number >0.6
107 >Re >3 x 106
L

The average Nusselt number

The local Nusselt number

Heat flux is computed with correlation Nu=(Re, Pr, L)
Thermophysical properties are established at average
temperature

Correlation used for non cryogenic fluid works at low temperature

Turbulent flow in pipes :

The Dittus-Boetler correlation Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr0.4

Hydrogen : Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr0.4 Tatsumoto H, et al. Forced Convection Heat Transfer

of Liquid Hydrogen Through a 200-mm Long Heated
Tube. Physics Procedia. 2012;36(0):1360-5.

Giarratano PJ, et al. Forced convection heat transfer

Supercritical helium : Nu=0.022Re0.8Pr0.4 to subcritical helium I. Adv. Cryo. Eng. 19, Plenum
Press; 1974. p. 404-16.

Ohira K, et al. Pressure-drop reduction and heat-

Nitrogen : Nu=0.027Re0.8Pr0.14/3 (μf/μw)0,14 transfer deterioration of slush nitrogen in horizontal
pipe flow. Cryogenics. 2011;51(10):563-74

Laminar flow in pipes : very rare, excepted in porous media

Variation of Reynolds numbers
All Engineering Applications
 Methods to evaluate convection heat transfer
• Empirical (experimental) analysis
– Use experimental measurements in a controlled lab setting to
correlate heat and/or mass transfer in terms of the appropriate non-
dimensional parameters
• Theoretical or Analytical approach
– Solving of the boundary layer equations for a particular geometry.
– Example:
• Solve for q
• Use evaluate the local Nusselt number, Nux
• Compute local convection coefficient, hx
• Use these (integrate) to determine the average convection
coefficient over the entire surface
– Exact solutions possible for simple cases.
– Approximate solutions also possible using an integral method
 Empirical method
T , U 
Twing surface

• How to set up an experimental test?

• Let’s say you want to know the heat transfer rate of an airplane
wing (with fuel inside) flying at steady conditions………….
• What are the parameters involved?
– Velocity, –wing length,
– Prandtl number, –viscosity,
– Nusselt number,
• Which of these can we control easily?
• Looking for the relation:
Nu  C RemL Prn
Experience has shown the following relation works well:
 Experimental test setup

 Power input
T , U 
L
insulation

T , U 

•Measure current (hence heat transfer) with various fluids and test conditions for
•Fluid properties are typically evaluated at the mean film temperature
Similarity Variables
Laminar Thermal Boundary Layer: Blasius Similarity Solution

q q 1  2
q
u *
v * 
*

x *
y ReL Pr y *2

Boundary conditions: q 0  0 q    1

Ts  T
 Similarity Direction

h
u
Direction of similarity
hy
x
d 2q Pr dq
 f 0
dh 2
2 dh
 This differential equation can be solved by numerical integration.

One important consequence of this solution is that, for pr >0.6:

q
 0.332 pr1/ 3

h h 0
Local convection heat transfer coefficient:

 T  Ts  q
hTs  T   k fluid   *
 L  y y * 0

k fluid q
hx 
L y *
y * 0
  u  q
hx  k fluid  
 x  h h 0

Local Nusselt number:

hx x  u  q  u x  q q
Nu x  x       Re x
k fluid  x  h h 0    h h 0 h h 0

hx x
Nux   0.332 Rex pr1/ 3
k fluid
Average heat transfer coefficient:

1L 1 L k fluid
havg   hx dx   0.332 Rex pr1/ 3dx
L0 L0 x

1 k fluid u 1/ 3 L dx
havg  0.332 pr 
L x  0 x

havg  2hx

havg L
Nuavg   0.664 ReL pr1/ 3 pr  0.6
k fluid
 Packed Bed

Properties of fluid evaluated at the the average temperature

ε is the porosity or void fraction of the bed (0.3 to 0.5)

Nu = jH * (ReD)^a *
Pr^b
For,gas flow
Heat Transfer in packed and fluidized beds:

Packed bed:
Where,
v0 is the superficial velocity.
FILM COEFFICIENTS AND THEIR
APPLICATION
INDIVIDUAL AND OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS AND
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEM

i. Consider that a hot fluid is following through a circular pipe and a

cold fluid is flowing on the pipe.
ii. The heat will flow from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through a
series of resistances.
iii. The velocity of the fluid may be considered to be zero at the solid
surface and it rapidly increases as we move away from wall surface.
iv. It is found that even in turbulent flow where convective heat flow
occurs from a surface to a fluid, the thin film of the fluid free of
turbulence [viscous sub layer] exists at the wall surface.
v. The temperature gradients for the situations under consideration
are shown in figure given below.
Fouling Factor:
When the heat transfer equipment is put into service, after sometime, scale,
dirt and other solids deposit on both sides of the pipe wall, providing more
resistance to heat flow
 CONDUCTION WITH HEAT SOURCE
i. We have discussed steady state heat conduction in planner, cylindrical
and spherical geometries without being accompanied by any
generation of heat.
ii. However, there are situations in which heat generation occurs in a
conducting medium.
iii. Some examples are, an electrical conductor in which heat generation
occurs because of the flowing of current
iv. A catalyst pellet in which generation occurs because of chemical
reaction taking place inside the pellet
PLANE WALL (OR) SLAB WITH UNIFORM HEAT GENERATION
✔The physical model is shown in figure, two types of boundary
specifications are possible as shown in these figures

i. A large slab of thickness 2L with uniform heat generation rate of q

(W/m3) is considered.
ii. There is equal convection at T∞ on both sides such that the surface
temperature is Tw on both sides.
iii. The centre plane is taken as the origin for x and the slab extends to
+ L on the right and – L on the left.
 ✔The conductivity of the materials is k.
✔A thin section of dx is considered at a distance x from the origin
for heat balance.
✔Calculations are made on the basis of unit area.
✔The differential equation applicable for this case is
✔Consider an element of thickness dx and cross sectional area A.

✔As Qg represents an energy increase in the volume element, an

energy balance on the element of thickness dx yields.
✔Considering the thin section of thickness dx at x, the energy
balance, by the principle of conservation of energy, we have,
✔This shows that the temperature variation is parabolic.
✔It may be also seen that the temperature gradient becomes
steeper along x as more heat is to be conducted as x increases.
HOLLOW CYLINDER WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION
SPHERE WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A PIPE
⮚A common situation encountered by the
chemical engineer is heat transfer to fluid
flowing through a tube.
⮚This can occur in heat exchangers, boilers,
condensers, evaporators, and a host of other
process equipment. Therefore, it is useful to
know how to estimate heat transfer coefficients
in this situation.
 ASSUMPTIONS
⮚ Fully developed incompressible, Newtonian, steady
flow conditions.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
⮚ The value of the Reynolds number permits us to
determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Reynolds number Re DV ρ/ μ= DV/ ν
⮚ Here, D is the inside diameter of the tube (or pipe), V
is the average velocity of the fluid,
⮚ ρ is the density of the fluid
⮚ μ is its dynamic viscosity. It is common to use the
kinematic viscosity ν = μ/ ρ in defining the Reynolds
number.
⮚The mass flow rate(AVERAGE VELOCITY)
is related to the volumetric flow rate
⮚Q via m = ρQ , and we can write
Q= ΠD2 V/4
⮚ The flow in a commercial circular tube or pipe is
usually laminar when the Reynolds number is below
2,300. In the range , 2,300 < Re < 4,000 the status of
the flow is in transition and for , Re > 4,000 flow can
be regarded as turbulent.
⮚ Results for heat transfer in the transition regime are
difficult to predict, and it is best to avoid this regime
in designing heat exchange equipment.
Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficients
⮚ Each flow geometry requires different correlations be used to obtain heat
transfer coefficients. Initially, we will look at correlations for fluids flowing
in conduits.
⮚ Most correlations will take the "Nusselt form“: Nu = a Re b Pr c
⮚ The correlations that follow are limited to conduit flow without phase
change. Different geometries, boiling, and condensation will be covered in
later lectures.
⮚ Frictional heating (viscous dissipation) is not included in these
correlations. This should not be a problem, since this phenomena is
typically neglected except for highly viscous flows or gases at high mach
numbers.
⮚ Unless otherwise specified, fluid properties should be evaluated at the
"bulk average" temperature -- the arithmetic mean of the inlet and outlet
temperatures: Bulk average temperature, Tb = Tin + Tout /2
Heat Transfer by Forced
Convection
Turbulent flow through a pipe or tube
• A classical expression for calculating heat transfer in
fully developed turbulent flow in smooth
tubes/pipes of diameter (d) and length (L) is given by
Dittus and Boelter:

where,
• n = 0.4, for heating of the fluid
• n = 0.3, for cooling of the fluid
• The properties in this equation are evaluated at the
average fluid bulk temperature.
• Therefore, the temperature difference between bulk
fluid and the wall should not be significantly high
• Application of the above eqn lies in the following
limits
• Gnielinski suggested that better results for turbulent
flow in smooth pipe may be obtained from the
following relations
• When the temperature difference between bulk fluid
and wall is very high, the viscosity of the fluid and
thus the fluid properties changes substantially.
• Therefore, the viscosity correction must be
accounted using Sieder – Tate equation given below
• However, the fluid properties have to be
evaluated at the mean bulk temperature of
the fluid except μw which should be evaluated
at the wall temperature.
• The earlier relations were applicable for fully
developed flow when entrance length was
negligible.
• Nusselt recommended the following relation
for the entrance region when the flow is not
fully developed.

• where, L is the tube length and d is the tube

diameter.
• The fluid properties in eq. 4.7 should be
evaluated at mean bulk temperature of the
fluid.
• Applicability conditions,
• As different temperature terms will appear in the
course therefore to understand these terms see the
following details.
• Bulk temperature/mixing cup temperature: Average
temperature in a cross-section.
• Average bulk temperature: Arithmetic average
temperature of inlet and outlet bulk temperatures.
• Wall temperature: Temperature of the wall.
• Film temperature: Arithmetic average temperature of
the wall and free stream temperature.
• Free stream temperature: Temperature free from the
effect of wall.
• Log mean temperature difference: It will be discussed
in due course of time
 Example
• Pressurized air is to be heated by flowing into
a pipe of 2.54 cm diameter. The air at 200oC
and 2 atm pressure enters in the pipe at 10
m/s. The temperature of the entire pipe is
maintained at 220oC. Evaluate the heat
transfer coefficient for a unit length of a tube
considering the constant heat flux conditions
are maintained at the pipe wall. What will be
the bulk temperature of the air at the end of 3
m length of the tube?
The following data for the entering air (at 200oC) has
been given,
• Reynolds number can be calculated from the above
data,

• The value of Reynolds number shows that the flow is

in turbulent zone.
• Thus the Dittus-Boelter equation should be used
• Thus h can be calculated for the known values of k, and d,
which comes out to be

• Energy balance is required to evaluate the increase in bulk

temperature in a 3 m length of the tube,
• Therefore the temperature of the air leaving the pipe will be
at 210.81oC.
 Laminar flow through a pipe or tube
• Hausen presents the following empirical relations for
fully developed laminar flow in tubes at constant wall
temperature.

• The heat transfer coefficient calculated from eq. 4.8 is

the average value over the entire length (including
entrance length) of tube
• Sieder and Tate suggested a simple relation
for laminar heat transfer in tubes.

• The condition for applicability of eq. 4.9:

• where, μ is the viscosity of the fluid at the

bulk temperature and μw is that at the wall
temperatureTw .
• The other fluid properties are at mean bulk
temperature of the fluid.
• Here also the heat transfer coefficient calculated
from eq. 4.9 is the average value over the entire
length (including entrance length) of tube
• The empirical relations shown in eq. 4.2-4.9 are for
smooth pipe.
• However, in case of rough pipes, it is sometimes
appropriate that the Reynolds analogy between fluid
friction and heat transfer be used to effect a solution
under these conditions and can be expressed in
terms of Stanton number.
• In order to account the variation of the thermal
properties of different fluids the following equations
may be used (i.e. Stanton number multiplied by ),

• where, is the mean free velocity. The friction factor

can be evaluated from Moody’s chart.
 Example
• Calculate the inside heat transfer coefficient
for a fluid at a rate of 300 cm3/s, through a 20
mm inside diameter of a heat exchanger tube.
• Data given:
Viscosity = 0.8 Ns/m2
Density = 1.1 g/cm3
Sp. Heat = 1.26 KJ/kg K
Thermal conductivity = 0.384 W/m.K
 Viscosity at wall temp = 1 Ns/m2
Length = 5m
Solution:
• Find Reynolds number (Velocity unknown)
• Velocity = Volumetric flow rate/ C.S.A
• Find Prandtl number
• Check the applicability conditions and apply
the appropriate equation
• Re = 26.26
• Pr = 2625
• h = 221 W/m2.K
 Flow through non-circular ducts
• The same correlations used for circular pipes can be
applied here
• However, the diameter of the tube has to be
replaced by the hydraulic diameter or equivalent
diameter for the non-circular ducts.
• The hydraulic diameter is defined as
 Flow over a flat plate
• Heat transfer in flow over a plate occurs through
the boundary layer formed on the plane.
• Therefore at any location the heat transfer
coefficient will depend on the local Reynolds
and Prandtl number.
• For local heat transfer coefficient in laminar
boundary layer flow, the following correlation
can be used to find the local Nusselt number.
• It depends upon the distance from the leading
edge (x) of the plate.
• An average value of the heat transfer
coefficient over a distance l may be obtained
by,
 Flow across a cylinder
• The heat transfer coefficient can be found out
by the correlations given by many researchers
• Applicability of eq. 4.19: 102 < Re < 107, and Re
Pr >0.2
• However, the following equation (eq. 4.20) is
more accurate for the condition
where 20,000 < Re < 4,00,000 and Re Pr > 0.2.
 Flow across a sphere

• The above correlation is applicable to both

gases and liquids.
 Flow across a bank of tubes
• Flow over bank of tubes is one of the very
important phenomena in chemical process
industries.
• Heat exchanger, air conditioning for cooling
and heating etc. involve a bank or bundle of
tube over which a fluid flows.
• The two most common geometric
arrangements of a tube bank are shown
below
• In any of the arrangements, D is the diameter of
tube, SL is the longitudinal spacing, and ST is the
transverse tube spacing.
• The flow over a tube is quite different than the
flow over bank of tubes.
• In case of bank of tube, the flow is influenced by
the effects such as the “shading” of one tube by
another etc.
• Moreover, the heat transfer for any particular
tube thus not only determined by the incident
fluid conditions, v∞ andT∞, but also by D, SL , and
ST and the tube positions in the bank.
• It is now clear that the heat transfer
coefficient for the first row of tubes is much
like that for a single cylinder in cross flow.
• However, the heat transfer coefficient for the
tubes in the inner rows is generally larger
because of the wake generation by the
previous tubes.
• For the heat transfer correlations, in tube
banks, the Reynolds number is defined by
• where vm is the maximum fluid velocity occurring at
the minimum vacant area of the tube bank.
• For the aligned tube arrangement,
• In case of bank of tubes, generally we are
interested to know the average heat transfer
coefficient for the entire bank of tubes.
• Zukauskas has summarized his extensive for
the heat transfer coefficients for fluid past a
bank of tubes,
• The applicability of eq. 4.27: 0.7 < Pr < 500
and 10 < Re < 106 , and number of tubes are at
least 20.
• The constants C and m of co-relation can be
found out from any standard book on heat
transfer.
• It may be noted that the above relation is for
the inner rows of bank, or for banks of many
rows.
Momentum and heat transfer
analogies
• Consider a fluid flows in a circular pipe in a
laminar low
• The wall of the pipe is maintained at
Tw temperature, which is higher than the flowing
fluid temperature.
• The fluid being in relatively lower temperature
than the wall temperature will get heated as it
flows through the pipe.
• Moreover, the radial transport of the
momentum in the pipe occurs as per the
Newton’s law of viscosity.
• For a circular pipe momentum transport and
heat transport may be written as:
• Momentum flux = momentum diffusivity ×
gradient of concentration of momentum

• It may be noted that the fluid velocity is a

function of radius of the pipe.
• Heat flux= thermal diffusivity × gradient of
concentration of heat energy
• Turbulent transport of momentum and
turbulent transport of heat may be
represented by eq. 4.29a and 4.29b,
respectively

• The terms represent the eddy

diffusivities for momentum and heat,
respectively
• At the wall of the pipe, the momentum
equation (eq. 4.29a) becomes,

• Where f is the fanning friction factor (ratio of

shear force to inertial force) and uzhat is the
average fluid velocity
• Equation eq.4.30 can be rearranged as,
• The eq.4.32 is the dimensionless velocity gradient
at the wall using momentum transport.
• We may get the similar relation using heat
transport as shown below.
• Wall heat flux can be written as,

• Where Tav is the wall temperature and the Tav is

the average temperature of the fluid.
• Thus, the dimensionless temperature gradient at
the wall using heat transfer will be,

• Based on the above discussion many researchers

have given their analogies.
• These analogies are represented in the
subsequent section.
 Reynolds Analogy
• Reynolds has taken the following
assumptions to find the analogy between
heat and momentum transport.
– Gradients of the dimensionless parameters at the
wall are equal.
– The diffusivity terms are equal

• Thus if we use the above assumptions along

with the eq.4.32 and 4.33,
Reynolds Analogy
MOMENTUM m.v f.(ρv2/2)
HEAT m.Cp.(T-Ts) h.(T-Ts)
MASS Qf.(C-Cs) k.(C-Cs)

mv m
m
MOMENTUM m.v f.(ρv2/2)
HEAT m.Cp.(T-Ts) h.(T-Ts)
MASS Qf.(C-Cs) k.(C-Cs)

m m
m
• Equation 4.34 is known as Reynolds’s analogy.
• Equation 4.34 is known as Reynolds’s
analogy.
• The above relation may also be written in
terms of the Darcy’s friction factor (fD)
instead of fanning friction factor (fD = 4f)
Where Stanton number (St) is defined as,
• The advantage of the analogy lies in that
the h may not be available for certain
geometries/situations
• However, f value may be used to calculate, as
it is easier to perform momentum transport
experiments
• Thus by using the eq.4.34 the h may be found
out without involving into the exhaustive and
difficult heat transfer experiments.
 Chilton-Colburn Analogy
• The Reynolds analogy does not always give
satisfactory results.
• Thus, Chilton and Colburn experimentally
modified the Reynolds’ analogy.
• The empirically modified analogy is given by
 Prandtl Analogy
• In the turbulent core the transport is mainly
by eddies and near the wall, that is laminar
sub-layer, the transport is by molecular
diffusion.
• Therefore, Prandtl modified the above two
analogies using universal velocity profile while
driving the analogy
 Van Karman Analogy
• Though Prandtl considered the laminar and
turbulent laminar sublayers but did not
consider the buffer zone.
• Thus, Van Karman included the buffer zone
into the Prandtl analogy to further improve
the analogy.