Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Effects of ammonia energy fraction and diesel injection parameters on

combustion stability and GHG emissions characteristics in a low-loaded
ammonia/diesel dual-fuel engine
Junheng Liu *, Xidong Wang , Wenyao Zhao , Ping Sun , Qian Ji
School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ammonia, as a zero-carbon and widely sourced hydrogen carrier fuel, will play an important role in the
Zero carbon fuel decarbonization process of internal combustion engines, and the dual-fuel RCCI mode is a potential ammonia
Ammonia combustion technology route. In this study, ammonia/diesel dual-fuel (ADDF) combustion mode was imple­
Dual-fuel engine
mented on a modified common-rail diesel engine, and the effects of ammonia energy fraction (AEF), diesel in­
Cyclic variation
jection pressure (DIP), and diesel injection timing (DIT) on in-cylinder combustion, pollutant emissions and
Nitrous oxide
Greenhouse gas greenhouse effect of dual-fuel engine were investigated. The results indicated that the combustion process of
ADDF was limited by the inert combustion and inhibitory effects of ammonia fuel. With the increase of AEF, the
dual-fuel combustion process was delayed, the peak in-cylinder pressure decreased, and the ignition delay and
combustion duration significantly increased, which was not conducive to the improvement of brake thermal
efficiency (BTE). The introduction of ammonia fuel significantly reduced NOx, Soot and CO2 emissions, while
unburned NH3 and N2O emissions sharply increased. At AEF = 60 %, CO2 emission decreased by 50.2 %,
however, the in-cylinder combustion process deteriorated severely, with cyclic fluctuations reaching 5.06 %.
Both increasing DIP and advancing DIT enhanced the chemical reactivity of in-cylinder mixture of ADDF engine,
leading to earlier combustion heat release phase and shorter ignition delay, and reducing the variation of
combustion cycle. Meanwhile, there was still a trade-off relationship between NOx and Soot emissions. When DIP
increased from 100 MPa to 130 MPa, NH3 emission decreased by 20.8 %. Further increasing the DIP to 140 MPa
would result in serious “wet wall” problems, leading to an increase in the incomplete combustion area and a
decrease in BTE. When DIT was advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, CO, HC and NH3 emissions
decreased by 71.3 %, 52.7 % and 57.6 %, respectively, while N2O emission increased by 19.9 %, resulting in an
increase in equivalent CO2 emissions. Under the optimized diesel injection strategy, the BTE of ADDF engine was
31.9 %, significantly higher than the original engine operating condition (BTE = 30.2 %).

1. Introduction [1]. In the background of global carbon neutrality, traditional internal

combustion engines (ICEs) are facing the risk of obsolescence. To
Nowadays, the continuous growth in the number of traditional fuel address climate and environmental challenges, and reduce fossil fuel
vehicles has brought enormous pressure to fossil fuel energy and envi­ consumption and GHG emissions, scholars worldwide are actively
ronmental protection. Meanwhile, emissions from motor vehicles have exploring new alternative fuels (such as alcohol fuels [2], biodiesel [3]
become an important source of air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) and natural gas, etc.). Hydrogen and ammonia, as zero-carbon energy

Abbreviations: ADDF, Ammonia/diesel dual-fuel; AEF, Ammonia energy fraction; BSEC, Brake specific energy consumption; BTE, Brake thermal efficiency; CA,
Crank angle; CA00, The timing of diesel injection; CA05, Combustion starting point; CA50, Combustion center; CA90, Combustion endpoint; COVIMEP, Cycle-to-cycle
variation of IMEP; DIP, Diesel injection pressure; DIT, Diesel injection timing; GHG, Greenhouse gas; HRR, Heat release rate; ICEs, Internal combustion engines;
IMEP, Indicated mean effective pressure; LHV, Lower heating value; RCCI, Reactivity controlled compression ignition; Ф, Equivalent ratio; σIMEP, Standard deviation
of IMEP; IMEP, Average value of indicated mean effective pressure; LHNdiesel, Low heat value of diesel; LHNNH3, Low heat value of ammonia; mdiesel, Mass flow of
diesel; mNH3, Mass flow of ammonia; Pe, Effective output power; SL, max, Maximum laminar flame velocity.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liujunheng365@163.com (J. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.130544
Received 25 July 2023; Received in revised form 11 September 2023; Accepted 29 November 2023
Available online 6 December 2023
0016-2361/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

sources, have received increasing attention. However, the safety of Gray et al. [30] first studied the ammonia/diesel dual-fuel (ADDF)
hydrogen fuel during transportation and storage is severely limited by combustion mode on a lower compression ratio (i.e., 15.2) engine in
its inherent structural characteristics and physical and chemical prop­ 1966. Bro and Pedersen [31] conducted the study on the feasibility of
erties [4]. Additionally, combustion-related issues such as backfire and different fuels (CH4, NH3, CH3OH and C2H5OH). The results indicated
knocking further restrict the application of hydrogen fuel [5]. Ammonia that ammonia fuel had slow combustion speed, large ignition delay and
fuel, as an excellent hydrogen storage material, is easily storable and high unburned NH3 emission, and was not suitable as the substitute fuel
transportable, cost-effective and readily available. Moreover, it burns for engines. In the following decades, there were few reports on
completely without generating any harmful substances or GHG emis­ ammonia fuel engines. In 2008, Reiter and Kong [32] investigated the
sions [6], which makes it a clean energy for ICEs. operating characteristics of ammonia/diesel–biodiesel engine. The re­
Ammonia is a corrosive and pungent gas at room temperature, which sults indicated that when maintaining the same engine output torque, as
can be easily liquefied (0.9 MPa at room temperature or –33 ◦ C at or­ the proportion of ammonia increased, CO2 emission monotonically
dinary pressure). Ammonia utilized on vehicles can save vehicle space decreased, and the emissions of NOx were very low when the proportion
and increase effective loading capacity due to the high energy density was below 60 %. They also found that under low-loaded conditions, the
[7]. In addition, it is currently used as refrigeration equipment and dual-fuel combustion efficiency dropped to approximately 70 %, and
agricultural fertilizer, and is a significant industrial chemical raw ma­ unburned NH3 emission exceeded 10000 ppm [33]. In recent years,
terial [8]. The industrial production of ammonia has a history of nearly a carbonless ammonia has attracted much attention. In 2021, Yousefi
century, and the production process is relatively mature, mainly derived et al. [34] found that as ammonia energy fraction (AEF) increased, the
from the long-standing Haber-Bosch method [9]. After years of contin­ combustion efficiency significantly decreased, and NH3 and N2O emis­
uous optimization, the production efficiency of ammonia has surpassed sions increased accordingly. Multiple injections of diesel fuel were an
95 %. At present, the hydrogen used in ammonia production comes from effective method for reducing these emissions [35]. In 2023, Mi et al.
reforming, while nitrogen is produced via air separation. The conven­ [36] found that introduction of pilot injection increased the flame
tional steam methane reforming process involves the conversion of propagation speed and the in-cylinder local equivalence ratio, while
carbon-based energy sources (e.g., natural gas, coal and petroleum) into achieving stable combustion over a wider operating range. However,
hydrogen, which results in significant CO2 generation during the pro­ this could lead to higher generation of incomplete combustion products.
duction [10]. With the global shift towards a low-carbon economy, the Jin et al. [37] found that reducing the emissions of unburned NH3 in the
ammonia industry is accelerating its transformation towards green and cylinder of ADDF engine was the key to improving the thermal effi­
low-carbon production methods to diminish GHG emissions and pro­ ciency. Optimizing the fuel injection strategy was an effective control
duction costs. The main development directions include green ammonia method, which could achieve an indicated thermal efficiency of 49.18 %
synthesis [11], blue ammonia synthesis [12] and non-Haber-Bosch for the engine under the optimized conditions, while reducing GHG
methods for ammonia production [13]. It is worth noting that the emissions by approximately 14.2 % compared to the original engine.
global infrastructure for ammonia production, storage and trans­ Nadimi et al. [38] found that the introduction of ammonia fuel in the
portation has been established, which can meet the needs of real-time engines would convert the in-cylinder combustion process into pre­
energy import and export [14]. mixed combustion. Simultaneously, the carbon-based emissions in the
The combustion characteristics of fuel are closely related to its combustion products were significantly reduced, but nitrogen pollutants
ignition delay and laminar flame velocity. Early research on the mea­ (e.g., NO, NO2, N2O, NH3) were increased. This is also one of the factors
surement of ignition delay of ammonia primarily focused on high- limiting the further promotion and application of ADDF engine. Based
temperature and low-pressure operating conditions (>1600 K, <1 on the research reports, ammonia/diesel and ammonia/biodiesel blends
MPa) [15–17]. Mathieu and Peterson [18] first extended the measure­ have the potential to replace diesel fuel in diesel engines, and have
ment range to high-pressure conditions, and pointed out that the loga­ significant advantages in reducing CO2 emissions.
rithm of ignition delay time is approximately linearly related to the To sum up, ammonia fuel is an important alternative energy source
reciprocal of the initial temperature. He et al. [19] conducted mea­ for realizing carbon neutrality in the ICEs industry. Currently, ammonia
surements of the ignition delay for mixtures of O2/Ar/NH3. The research engines still have the problems of low combustion efficiency, poor
indicated that the ignition delay decreased with decreasing in the combustion stability and high N2O emission. The stable, efficient and
equivalence ratio, and Dai et al. [20] also reached the same conclusion. clean combustion of ammonia fuel is still facing great challenges.
The measurement of ammonia laminar flame velocity could be traced Therefore, this study modified a diesel engine to achieve dual-fuel RCCI
back to the 1950 s [21,22], but due to limitations in technical methods at combustion mode, and systematically studied the combustion and
that time, the measured values were higher than true value. Takizawa emission characteristics of ADDF engine at low load. Firstly, the influ­
et al. [23] discovered that when the equivalent ratio Ф was 1.10, the ence of AEF on the combustion stability and pollutant emissions of ADDF
NH3/air flame achieved the maximum laminar flame velocity (SL, max = engine was studied. Secondly, the effects of diesel injection pressure
7.2 cm/s). Hayakawa et al. [24] researched the ammonia laminar flame (DIP) and diesel injection timing (DIT) on in-cylinder combustion pro­
velocity at the different pressures and equivalent ratios, and found that cess, emission characteristics and fuel economy of ADDF engine were
the change rule of laminar flame velocity was consistent with the investigated. Finally, the component concentrations and variation pat­
response of hydrocarbon fuels to pressure changes, and under 0.5 MPa terns of nitrogen pollutants and GHG emissions from ADDF engine were
pressure, the maximum laminar flame velocity could be obtained (only analyzed under low-loaded conditions. The research results contribute
4.8 cm/s) at Ф=1.10. Ammonia combustion has poor reactivity and to expanding the low-loaded operating range of ADDF engine, and are
unstable flame. If it can be mixed with high reactivity fuels, its com­ crucial for reducing GHG emissions and increasing the brake thermal
bustion performance is expected to improve. Therefore, numerous re­ efficiency (BTE) of ADDF engine.
searches have been conducted on mixtures of NH3/H2 [25], NH3/n-
heptane [26], NH3/methane [27], NH3/dimethyl ether [28], and other 2. Experimental setup and procedure
mixed fuel systems, and found that the mixed combustion of ammonia
and various hydrocarbon fuels can make up for the shortcomings of 2.1. Test engine system
ammonia fuel and also generate lower carbon emissions. Reactivity
controlled compression ignition (RCCI) is an effective way to apply Table 1 lists the relevant parameters of experimental prototype. To
ammonia to engines [29]. By injecting diesel directly into the cylinder achieve dual-fuel RCCI combustion mode, a set of ammonia fuel injec­
and injecting ammonia into the intake port, the highly active diesel ig­ tion system has been installed in the intake system of the engine. The
nites ammonia to achieve a stable dual-fuel RCCI combustion mode. ADDF engine test system is shown in Fig. 1. The ammonia fuel is

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J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Table 1 emissions such as NOx, CO2, HC and CO are measured by using the
Engine specifications. exhaust gas analyzer (Horiba MEXA-7200D), while the emissions of
Engine type 4-cylinder, in-line, turbocharged, pollutants such as NH3, N2O, NO and NO2 are measured by using the
intercooling AVL SESAM i60 FTIR. Table 2 shows the partial test instruments and
Compression ratio 17.5 measurement accuracy used in the experiment.
Bore × stroke (mm × mm) 95 × 115
Displacement (L) 3.26
Intake valve closing (◦ CA ATDC) − 135
2.2. Test fuels
Exhaust valve opening (◦ CA ATDC) 125
Maximum torque (N⋅m / r/min) 270 / 1800 The diesel fuel used in this experiment was commercially available
Rated power (kW / r/min) 88 / 2200 CHINA VI diesel, purchased from Sinopec Group. The liquid ammonia
Nozzle (number × nozzle diameter) 8 × 0.129
used in the experiment came from Zhenjiang Zhongpu Special Gas Co.,
(mm)
Ltd. Its purity exceeds 99.9 %, with a capacity of 40L per bottle and a
storage pressure of 1.0 MPa. Table 3 lists the main properties of the fuels.
supplied simultaneously by two liquid ammonia cylinders. The process As seen in Table 3, zero-carbon ammonia fuel has poor combustion
of converting liquid ammonia into a gaseous state will absorb a large characteristics (low laminar flame speed and high ignition energy).
amount of heat, to avoid the influence of cylinder temperature changes Mixing combustion with high reactivity diesel is advantageous for
on the stable supply of ammonia fuel, an electric heating device is improving the combustion characteristics of ammonia fuel.
installed outside the cylinder to maintain the cylinder temperature at
around 40 ◦ C. A pressure regulator is installed at the outlet of the cyl­
2.3. Experimental procedure and test conditions
inder and the output pressure is set to 0.5 MPa. The gas mass flow meter
(Zhongsheng, D07-60BM, China) can be used to measure the con­
In this study, the energy fraction provided by ammonia fuel is
sumption of ammonia fuel. A buffer tank and pressurizer are set in front
of the flow meter to maintain the stability of pressure in supply pipeline.
Table 2
Ammonia and diesel are respectively injected into the engine intake
Test instruments and measurement accuracy.
manifold and cylinder, and the diesel injection parameters are adjusted
in real-time through INCA software. Parameter Instruments Accuracy

During the test, the speed and load of ADDF engine are adjusted by a Cylinder pressure AVL GH14P 0.01 MPa
Xiangyi dynamometer. The AVL GH14P piezoelectric pressure sensor is Diesel flow AVL 735S 0.12 % F.S.
Speed XiangYi CAC250 0.05 % F.S.
used to measure the combustion pressure. The preprocessed electrical
Torque XiangYi CAC250 0.1 % F.S.
signal is analyzed and calculated by a combustion analyzer to obtain Soot AVL 415S 0.002 FSN
combustion characteristic parameters. The final combustion pressure NOx/CO/HC Horiba MEXA- 2 ppm/1 ppm/2 ppm
curve is achieved by calculating the collected pressure data for 200 7200D
cycles. A transient fuel consumption meter (AVL 735S) is used to mea­ NH3/N2O/NO/NO2/ AVL SESAM i60 1 ppm/1 ppm/1 ppm/2 ppm/1
CH4 FTIR ppm
sure the consumption of diesel. The Soot emission of ADDF engine is
measured by using the AVL 415S filter paper opacimeter. Regulated Note: F.S.-Full scale, represents the percentage relative to the full scale.

Fig. 1. Schematic of ADDF engine test system.

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J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Table 3 correspondingly decreased to ensure that the torque and speed of the
Main properties of the fuels [39,40]. engine remain unchanged. In Test 2 and Test 3, the AEF is fixed at 40 %
Property Ammonia Diesel Hydrogen and the comprehensive performance of ADDF engine is optimized by
changing DIP and DIT.
Chemical formula NH3 C10 ~ C21 H2
hydrocarbon
Density (kg/m )3
0.77 830 0.089 3. Results and discussion
(Liquid)
Vaporization latent heat (kJ/ 1370 270 –
3.1. Effects of AEF on engine performance
kg)
Cetane number – 44–45 –
Laminar flame speed (300 K, 1 0.07 – 1.85 3.1.1. In-cylinder combustion characteristics
bar) (m/s) The effects of AEF on in-cylinder combustion process of ADDF engine
Minimum ignition energy (mJ) 8 – 0.02 are shown in Fig. 2. From Fig. 2(a), it can be observed the introduction of
Auto-ignition temperature (◦ C) 923 530 858
ammonia fuel reduces in-cylinder pressure during the compression
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 18.5 42.5 119.7
stroke, resulting in a decrease in negative compression work. This is
because that the polytropic coefficient (γ) of ammonia is lower
defined as AEF, as shown in Eq. (1). In the formula, LHVNH3 and mNH3 compared with air, and the premixed ammonia in the intake port makes
represent the low heat value (MJ/kg) and mass flow (kg/h) of ammonia the γ of the intake charge decline [38]. As the AEF increases, the in-
fuel, while LHVdiesel and mdiesel represent the low heat value (MJ/kg) and cylinder peak pressure first slightly increases and then sharply de­
mass flow (kg/h) of diesel fuel. creases. At AEF = 60 %, the combustion deteriorates extremely inside
the cylinder, the maximum combustion pressure is close to the peak
mNH3 × LHVNH3
AEF = × 100% (1) compression pressure. Under low-loaded conditions, the injection
mdiesel × LHVdiesel + mNH3 × LHVNH3
quantity of diesel is inherently small, so the heat release rate (HRR) of
In Eq. (2), the cycle-to-cycle variation (COVIMEP) of indicated mean ADDF mode presents the single-stage heat release characteristic. When
effective pressure (IMEP) is used as the evaluation index for engine the AEF increases from 0 % to 40 %, the peak HRR increases. This is
operating stability. In the equation, IMEP and σIMEP represent the because in the dual-fuel mode, more OH is generated at the beginning of
average value and standard deviation of the IMEP, respectively. reaction, which promotes the heat release process inside the cylinder
[34]. Further increasing the amount of premixed ammonia leads to a
σIMEP
COVIMEP = × 100\% (2) decline in the quantity of diesel and insufficient ignition energy in the
IMEP
cylinder, resulting in a significant decrease in HRR peak and corre­
As shown in Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), the operating economy of ADDF sponding phase delay, which is consistent with the findings by Jin et al.
engine is represented by BTE and brake specific energy consumption [37]. As shown in Fig. 2(b), with the increase of AEF, the inflection point
(BSEC). In the equation, Pe is the effective output power (kW) of the of in-cylinder average temperature rise is delayed, and the peak tem­
engine. perature gradually decreases. When the AEF increases from 0 to 60 %,
Pe the peak value of in-cylinder average temperature decreases from 1198
BTE = 3.6 × × 100% (3) K to 1071 K, which is related to the low combustion temperature of
mdiesel × LHVdiesel + mNH3 × LHVNH3
ammonia [41].
mdiesel × LHVdiesel + mNH3 × LHVNH3 Fig. 2(c) shows the effects of AEF on combustion phase inside the
BSEC = (4)
Pe cylinder of ADDF engine. The CA00 is defined as the timing of diesel
injection in the cylinder. The combustion starting point (CA05), com­
To ensure the repeatability of measurement results under different
bustion center (CA50) and combustion endpoint (CA90) represent the
control parameters, the intake temperature after the intercooler is fixed
corresponding crankshaft angles when the cumulative heat reaches 5 %,
at 30 ± 1 ◦ C, and the temperature of cooling water is controlled at 80 ±
50 % and 90 %, respectively. The period from CA05 to CA90 is the
2 ◦ C. During the test, the EGR valve remains closed and the test data is
combustion duration. The period from diesel entering into the cylinder
recorded after the exhaust temperature stabilizes. In order to reduce
to CA05 is the combustion preparation stage, known as the ignition
measurement errors, the measurement results at each test condition are
delay. Due to the influence of ammonia combustion characteristics, the
the average calculated from three measurements.
combustion phase is all delayed as AEF increases. The length of ignition
Table 4 shows the test conditions for this study. To ensure the normal
delay is mainly influenced by in-cylinder chemical and physical process
operation of ADDF engine, the maximum pressure rise rate and com­
after spray, and the combustion temperature level has the significant
bustion peak pressure are controlled below the design limit, and the
impact. As AEF increases, the ignition delay increases significantly,
COVIMEP should not exceed 5 %. Test 1 mainly investigates the effects of
which is due to the inhibition of ammonia on diesel ignition. Compared
0 ~ 60 % AEF on the combustion and pollutant emissions, as well as fuel
to pure diesel condition, at AEF = 60 %, the ignition delay and the
economy of ADDF engine. In the experiment, the “gas in fuel out”
combustion duration of dual-fuel combustion is increased by 2 ◦ CA and
strategy is adopted, and the introduction of ammonia fuel increases the
1.5 ◦ CA, respectively. If the AEF continues to increase, the dual-fuel
output power. Meanwhile, the injection quantity of diesel is
combustion process will further deteriorate.
IMEP can comprehensively characterize the effectiveness degree of
thermal-power conversion during engine operation. COVIMEP can be
Table 4
Experimental test condition. used to characterize the combustion stability in the cylinder of the en­
gine [42]. Fig. 3 shows the effects of AEF on cycle-by-cycle variation of
Speed (r/ Load Test AEF (%) DIP (MPa) DIT (◦ CA
ADDF engine. From Fig. 3(a), it can be seen that when the AEF is 0 ~ 30
min) ratio (%) No. ATDC)
%, there is no obvious change in IMEP. As the AEF increases from 30 %
1800 25 1 0, 10, 20, 30, 130 − 6
to 60 %, the IMEP gradually decreases, while the COVIMEP increases
40, 50, 60
2 40 100, 110, − 6 sharply. Hürpekli et al. [42] found that the COVIMEP of pure diesel
120, 130, 140 combustion is greater than that of Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel, with a
3 40 130 − 12, − 10, maximum value of 1.44 %, and pointed out that when the COVIMEP value
− 8, is less than 5 %, the engine is in a stable operating condition. When AEF
− 6, − 4
is 60 %, IMEP sharply drops to 73.9 % of that in pure diesel mode. At this

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 J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 2. Effects of AEF on in-cylinder combustion process of ADDF engine.

Fig. 3. Effects of AEF on cycle-by-cycle variation of ADDF engine.

time, the circulation in the cylinder fluctuates significantly, with COV relatively insignificant, and the dual-fuel engine operates relatively
IMEP reaching 5.06 %, and the dual-fuel combustion deteriorates. Fig. 3 stable. The IMEP values for 200 consecutive cycles in pure diesel mode
(b) shows the IMEP distribution characteristics of 200 consecutive cy­ are distributed between 0.29 MPa and 0.32 MPa. As AEF increases, the
cles. It can be seen that when the AEF is 0 ~ 50 %, the change of IMEP is distribution range of IMEP values significantly increases. At AEF = 60 %,

5
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J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

the IMEP values are distributed between 0.19 MPa and 0.25 MPa, with increases. In pure diesel mode, NH3 emission is negligible (<5 ppm). At
significant fluctuations from the average value, significantly affecting AEF = 60 %, the unburned NH3 emission of ADDF engine reaches 13156
the operating stability of ADDF engine. This indicates that at low-loaded ppm. When the ammonia concentration reaches 7 ppm, a distinct odor
conditions, the in-cylinder combustion condition is poor, therefore, the can be felt, while when the concentration exceeds 300 ppm, it can
AEF should not be too high. endanger human life and health [32]. The interruption of flame prop­
In ADDF mode, the main factors that cause an increase in-cylinder agation of in-cylinder ammonia-air mixture located far from spray and
cycle variation are as follows: the uneven initial ignition energy of the existence of valve overlap angle are the main reasons for ammonia
diesel and uneven distribution of ammonia/air mixture in the cylinder. leakage. This also limits the promotion and application of ADDF engine.
Under low-loaded conditions, the ignition core of diesel spray is the key The emission of CO2 of is significantly reduced after adding ammonia
factor affecting the initial ammonia ignition uncertainty. The mixture fuel, as shown in Fig. 5(b). Compared to the original engine, at AEF = 60
inside the cylinder of ADDF engine is relatively lean, and the initial %, ADDF mode can reduce CO2 emissions by 50.2 %. In pure diesel
ignition core and ignition energy are relatively small at low load, so the mode, N2O emission can be ignored (<2 ppm). With the introduction of
flame propagation speed and stability of ammonia undergo significant ammonia fuel, N2O emission increases dramatically. At AEF = 60 %, the
cyclic changes. In summary, the AEF of 25 % load for ADDF engine N2O emission reaches 164 ppm. This is mainly due to the chemical re­
cannot exceed 60 %. actions (NH + NO → N2O + H, NH2 + NO2 → N2O + H) in ADDF
combustion process, which mainly occur at low-temperature conditions
3.1.2. Emission characteristics [44,45]. The CH4 emission of ADDF engine remains at a relatively low
Fig. 4 shows the effects of AEF on regulated emission of ADDF level (<10 ppm), with a slight increase as the AEF increases. Over the
combustion. From Fig. 4(a), it can be observed that with the increase of past 100 years, the ability of CH4 to produce greenhouse effects is 27 to
AEF, Soot emission continues to decrease. This is because the decrease of 30 times that of CO2, and the ability of N2O to produce greenhouse ef­
diesel injection quantity and the increase of ammonia fuel can signifi­ fects is 273 times that of CO2 [46]. Therefore, the equivalent CO2 (CO2-
cantly reduce the local high-temperature and oxygen-enriched areas equivalent) emissions of ADDF engine can be calculated by using the Eq.
[37]. The in-cylinder combustion reaction path avoids the main gener­ (5).
ation area of Soot. It should be noted that in this study, NOx refers to the
ECO2 − = ECO2 + EN2 O × 273 + ECH4 × 30 (5)
sum of NO and NO2. With the increase of AEF, NOx emissions show a equivalent

pattern of first increasing and then decreasing, which is consistent with As shown in Fig. 5(b), as AEF increases, CO2-equivalent emissions in­
the findings by Niki et al. [35]. When the AEF is 10 % ~ 30 %, NOx crease. This is due to the significant increase in N2O emission, offsetting
emissions are higher than original engine, The combustion temperature the carbon reduction effect of ammonia. It is essential to adopt effective
is lower at low load, and the increase is mainly fuel-based NOx emissions control strategies to diminish the generation of N2O.
(NHi + OX → NO + NHi). When the AEF is 40 % ~ 60 %, the NOx
emissions gradually decrease and are lower than those of pure diesel 3.1.3. Fuel economy
combustion. This is because the in-cylinder high mixing of ammonia fuel Fig. 6 shows the effects of AEF on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine.
undergoes a thermal desorption process [43]. Under ADDF combustion With the increase of AEF, BTE gradually decreases, and BSEC shows the
mode, NH3 first generates NH2, which further undergoes chemical re­ opposite change pattern. When AEF increases from 0 to 60 %, BTE de­
actions (NH2 + NO → N2 + H2O, NH2 + NO2 → N2O + H, NH2 + NO → creases from 30.2 % to 26.1 %, and BSEC increases from 11.9 MJ/kWh
N2 + H + OH), thereby reducing NOx emissions. Compared with the to 13.8 MJ/kWh. This is due to the addition of ammonia reducing the in-
pure diesel combustion, at AEF = 60 %, the emissions of NOx and Soot cylinder reaction rate and combustion temperature. The combustion
are reduced by 35.4 % and 86.4 %, respectively, breaking the trade-off exothermic process is obviously delayed, the combustion duration is
relationship between them. Due to the inert combustion of ammonia significantly increased, and the combustion isovolumetric degree is
fuel, the increase of AEF under low-loaded conditions will lead to a sharply reduced, which leads to the increase of heat transfer loss and
decrease in in-cylinder combustion temperature, as shown in Fig. 4(b). incomplete combustion. The BTE of ADDF engine can be further
This is not conducive to deep oxidation and decomposition of the fuel, improved by adjusting the injection parameters of diesel fuel.
resulting in sharp increase in CO and HC emissions.
Fig. 5 shows the effects of AEF on the unburned NH3 and GHG
emissions characteristics of ADDF engine. From Fig. 5(a), it can be seen
that as AEF increases, the unburned NH3 emission significantly

Fig. 4. Effects of AEF on regulated emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

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J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 5. Effects of AEF on NH3 and GHG emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

combustion reaction rate, and advancing the overall combustion phase.

It is worth noting that at low load, when DIP is small, the fuel distri­
bution is relatively concentrated, and local rich fuel areas increase,
which is beneficial for shortening the combustion duration. When DIP
increases from 100 MPa to 140 MPa, the ignition delay decreases from
15.4 ◦ CA to 13.4 ◦ CA, and the combustion duration extends from
17.2 ◦ CA to 18.1 ◦ CA.
Fig. 8 shows the effects of DIP on IMEP and COVIMEP of ADDF engine
at AEF = 40 %. it can be seen that as DIP increases, IMEP gradually
increases, while COVIMEP decreases. When DIP increases from 100 MPa
to 140 MPa, IMEP increases from 0.25 MPa to 0.29 MPa, and COVIMEP
decreases from 3.47 % to 2.14 %. Therefore, under low-loaded condi­
tions, the working stability of ADDF engine can be improved obviously
by increasing DIP. The increase of DIP within a certain range is bene­
ficial for accelerating the mutual movement between droplets and air,
and improving the atomization and mixing quality of the mixture,
thereby enhancing the combustion power and improving the combus­
tion efficiency of ADDF engine. However, when the DIP is too high, the
“wet wall” effect will also affect the fuel–air mixing process, which is not
conducive to ignition and combustion inside the cylinder, ultimately
Fig. 6. Effects of AEF on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine.
causing a decrease in the IMEP at DIP = 140 MPa.

3.2. Effects of DIP on engine performance

3.2.2. Emission characteristics
Fig. 9 shows the effects of DIP on regulated emissions of ADDF engine
3.2.1. Combustion characteristics
at AEF = 40 %. From Fig. 9(a), it can be observed that there is a trade-off
Injection pressure is a significant parameter that affects the working
relationship between the impact of DIP on NOx and Soot emissions.
performance of the engine. The change in injection pressure can affect
Overall, the higher the DIP, the less Soot emission, and the more NOx
the fuel injection rate and droplet fragmentation process, thereby
emissions. With DIP increases from 100 MPa to 140 MPa, Soot emission
affecting in-cylinder combustion and emission characteristics. Fig. 7
decreases from 0.02 FSN to 0.005 FSN, and NOx emissions increase by
shows the effects of DIP on the combustion process of ADDF engine
47.4 %. This is because the spray particle diameter decreases with the
under 25 % load and AEF = 40 % conditions. As shown in Fig. 7(a) and
DIP increases, which promotes the fuel–air mixing process and improves
(b), the peak combustion pressure, HRR and in-cylinder average tem­
the combustion temperature in the cylinder (see Fig. 7(b)). Even if there
perature increase, and the dual-fuel combustion process continues to
is a small amount of rich mixture locally, the soot will be oxidized
advance with the DIP increases. When DIP increases from 100 MPa to
quickly at the beginning of formation due to the small spray particle
140 MPa, the maximum combustion pressure increases from 5.94 MPa
diameter and sufficient oxygen around. The oxidation of Soot needs to
to 6.66 MPa. As pointed out by Agarwal et al. [47], this is because
be carried out in a high-temperature and rich-oxygen environment,
increasing DIP can enhance the entrainment effect between the direct
which is basically the same as the conditions for NOx generation.
injection diesel fuel beam and air, and improve the atomization and
Therefore, accelerating the oxidation process of Soot often is usually
mixing effect of diesel fuel. However, at DIP = 140 MPa, the excessive
accompanied by the production of NOx. As shown in Fig. 9(b), the CO
DIP makes the penetration distance of the spray too long, and the phe­
and HC emissions of ADDF engine are not sensitive to changes in DIP. At
nomenon of “wet wall” inside the cylinder becomes more serious,
DIP = 130 MPa, the CO and HC emissions levels are the lowest. Further
causing a decrease in peak HRR. From Fig. 7(c), it can be observed that
increasing DIP will lead to an increase in incomplete combustion areas
as the DIP increases, the ignition delay is shortened, and CA05, CA50
inside the cylinder, resulting in increased CO and HC emissions.
and CA90 are all advanced. This is due to the increase in DIP, which
Fig. 10 shows the effects of DIP on the unburned NH3 and GHG
enhances the collision and turbulence intensity of droplets in the cyl­
emissions characteristics of ADDF engine at AEF = 40 %. As shown in
inder, thereby improving the fuel–air mixing effect, accelerating the
Fig. 10(a), as DIP increases, NH3 emission presents a change rule of first

7
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 7. Effects of DIP on in-cylinder combustion process of ADDF engine.

increase. Under low-loaded conditions, increasing DIP is not conducive

to reducing the carbon emissions of ADDF engine, as shown in Fig. 10
(b). With the increase of DIP, N2O emission significantly increases, but
CH4 emission slightly decreases. As DIP increases from 100 MPa to 130
MPa, N2O, CO2 and CO2-equivalent emissions increased by 7.6 %, 11.04 %
and 8.6 %, respectively.

3.2.3. Fuel economy

The effects of DIP on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine are shown in
Fig. 11. As DIP increases, BTE first increases and then slightly decreases,
while BSEC shows the opposite trend. At DIP = 130 MPa, the BTE of
ADDF engine is 29.2 %, and BTE is the highest at this time, corre­
sponding to the BSEC of only 12.41 MJ/kWh. This is because as the DIP
increases, the ignition time of ADDF combustion is advanced, and the
degree of fuel–air mixing in the cylinder is more sufficient before igni­
tion, causing the peak pressure and HRR of ADDF combustion to in­
crease and the corresponding phase to advance. The combustion
reaction becomes more intense, and the combustion isovolumetric de­
gree of ADDF engine continues to increase, resulting in an increase in
BTE. Further increasing DIP will reduce the ADDF combustion effi­
Fig. 8. Effects of DIP on IMEP and COVIMEP of ADDF engine. ciency, thereby reducing the BTE of ADDF engine. Therefore, under low-
loaded conditions, appropriately increasing the DIP can improve the
decreasing and then increasing. When DIP increases from 100 MPa to working performance and fuel economy of ADDF engine.
130 MPa, NH3 emission decreases by 20.8 %. This is mainly because the
increase of DIP causes the increase of spray penetration distance, it can 3.3. Effects of DIT on engine performance
form multiple ignition points far away from the cylinder center. This is
advantageous to the ignition of ammonia-air mixture inside the cylinder. 3.3.1. Combustion characteristics
When the DIP is further increased to 140 MPa, the number of fuel col­ Fig. 12 shows the effects of DIT on combustion process in the cylinder
lisions in the cylinder increases, leading to an increase in the incomplete of ADDF engine at AEF = 40 % and DIP = 130 MPa. From Fig. 12(a), it
combustion area, and therefore the unburned NH3 emission begins to can be observed that with the advance of DIT, the peak combustion

8
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 9. Effects of DIP on regulated emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

Fig. 10. Effects of DIP on NH3 and GHG emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

air inside the cylinder, resulting in a significant reduction in the de­

gree of in-cylinder mixture stratification and the decrease of the local
equivalence ratio. This shortens the speed of initial combustion flame
propagation of mixtures. At the same time, the advance of DIT causes the
pre-mixed fresh charge in the cylinder to reach the ignition condition in
advance, and the ignition time is also advanced accordingly. From
Fig. 12(b), it can be seen that due to the advanced ADDF combustion
process, the inflection point of in-cylinder combustion temperature rise
is significantly advanced and the peak value of in-cylinder average
temperature increases, which is consistent with the research results of
Shin et al. [48]. As shown in Fig. 12(c), the CA05, CA50 and CA90
continuously shift forward with the advance of DIT. As the DIT is
advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, and the CA50 is
advanced from 11.79 ◦ CA ATDC to 4.66 ◦ CA ATDC, which is beneficial
for improving the BTE of ADDF engine. The ignition delay is shortened
with the advance of DIT. This is because the in-cylinder fuel–air mixing
time is prolonged and the chemical reaction activity of the mixture is
enhanced. At this moment, the diesel spray is atomized and evaporated
at high temperatures, thus shortening the physical preparation time
before fuel combustion. When the DIT is advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to
Fig. 11. Effects of DIP on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine.
− 12 ◦ CA ATDC, the ignition delay decreases from 13.6 ◦ CA to 12.5 ◦ CA.
The relationship between combustion duration and DIT is nonlinear.
pressure increases, and the corresponding phase advances. As the DIT is
When the DIT is − 6 ◦ CA ATDC, the combustion duration is the smallest,
advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, the peak pressure in­
which is beneficial for reducing heat transfer loss of ADDF engine.
creases from 6.26 MPa to 7.82 MPa. In dual-fuel mode, the peak HRR
Fig. 13 shows the effects of DIT on IMEP and COVIMEP of ADDF en­
decreases with the advance of DIT. This is because, under low-loaded
gine. From Fig. 13, it can be seen that with the advance of DIT, IMEP
conditions, earlier DIT increases the mixing time of ammonia-diesel-

9
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 12. Effects of DIT on in-cylinder combustion process of ADDF engine.

enhanced. The impact of DIT on the cyclic fluctuations of ADDF engine is

relatively small, indicating that the operation of ADDF engine is rela­
tively stable, with the COVIMEP fluctuating between 2.28 % and 3.21 %.

3.3.2. Emission characteristics

Fig. 14 shows the effects of DIT on regulated emissions of ADDF
engine. From Fig. 14(a), it can be seen that as DIT advances, the emis­
sions of NOx gradually increase, which is related to the high combustion
temperature. The earlier diesel injection causes the expansion of the
high-temperature combustion area of ADDF combustion. However, Soot
emission decreases with the advance of DIT. This is due to the long
mixing time, which makes high reactivity diesel widely distributed in
the cylinder. Multiple ignition points and rapid combustion in the cyl­
inder are conducive to Soot oxidation and decomposition, which is a
significant advantage of dual-fuel combustion. The emissions of CO and
HC significantly decrease with the advance of DIT, as shown in Fig. 14
(b). When DIT is advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, the
emissions of CO and HC decrease by 71.3 % and 52.7 %, respectively. It
can be seen that adjusting DIT can effectively improve the combustion
organization inside the cylinder and reduce the probability of incom­
Fig. 13. Effects of DIT on IMEP and COVIMEP of ADDF engine. plete combustion of combustible mixtures.
Fig. 15 shows the effects of AEF on the NH3 and GHG emissions
gradually increases. When DIT advances from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA characteristics of dual-fuel engine. Under low-loaded conditions, the
ATDC, IMEP increases from 0.294 MPa to 0.321 MPa. This is because, advance of DIT improves the reactivity of in-cylinder mixture. When DIT
with the advance of DIT, more ignition cores are generated inside the is advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, NH3 emission de­
cylinder and dispersed in the lean mixture far away from diesel spray. creases from 10538 ppm to 4472 ppm, a relative decrease of 57.6 %. It
The ignition effect of diesel on the premixed gas has been improved, can be seen that advancing DIT is an effective measure to reduce un­
ultimately, the effective capacity of the engine to perform work is burned NH3 emission, which is consistent with the research conclusion

10
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

Fig. 14. Effects of DIT on regulated emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

Fig. 15. Effects of DIT on NH3 and GHG emissions characteristics of ADDF engine.

of Liu et al. [49]. There is a negative impact on GHG emissions with

advance of DIT, as shown in Fig. 15(b). Although there is no significant
change in CO2 and CH4 emissions, N2O emission increases significantly.
As DIT is advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to − 12 ◦ CA ATDC, N2O emission
increases from 141 ppm to 169 ppm, an increase of 19.9 %, which also
leads to an increase in CO2-equivalent emissions from ADDF engine.

3.3.3. Fuel economy

Fig. 16 shows the effects of DIT on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine
under low-loaded conditions. As DIT advances, the BTE of ADDF engine
gradually increases. When DIT is advanced from − 4 ◦ CA ATDC to
− 12 ◦ CA ATDC, the BTE increases from 27.6 % to 31.9 %, while BSEC
decreases from 13 MJ/kWh to 11.3 MJ/kWh. This is because the
advanced DIT causes the phase of combustion heat release to advance,
the combustion center is advanced near top dead center, and the volu­
metric capacity of ADDF combustion increases. So, under low-loaded
conditions, appropriately advanced DIT can enable ADDF engine to
achieve higher power efficiency, which is superior to the original
operating condition (BTE = 30.2 %), while also generating lower
pollutant emissions. Fig. 16. Effects of DIT on BTE and BSEC of ADDF engine.

4. Conclusions engine was modified to achieve the ammonia/diesel dual-fuel (ADDF)

combustion mode, and the effects of AEF and injection parameters (DIP
In current research, a four-cylinder turbocharged common-rail and DIT) on in-cylinder combustion, emission components and fuel

11
J. Liu et al. Fuel 360 (2024) 130544

economy of ADDF engine at low load were systematically investigated. Declaration of competing interest
The main research findings are summarized as follows:
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
(1) Due to the inert combustion of ammonia fuel, the introduction of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
ammonia will delay the combustion process of ADDF engine, the work reported in this paper.
significantly increase the ignition delay and combustion dura­
tion, and reduce the peak combustion pressure and HRR, which is Data availability
not conducive to the improvement of BTE. At AEF = 60 %, the
combustion inside the cylinder deteriorates extremely, with IMEP The authors do not have permission to share data.
only accounting for 73.9 % of pure diesel mode, and COVIMEP
reaches 5.06 % at this time. With the increase of AEF, the NOx, Acknowledgment
Soot and CO2 emissions of ADDF engine significantly decrease,
while the unburned NH3 and N2O emissions sharply increase, This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
which to some extent offsets the carbon reduction effect of of China (No. 51806086), and the National Major Agricultural Project of
ammonia fuel, resulting in an increase in equivalent CO2 China (No. NK20221601).
emissions.
(2) The increase of DIP can change the spatial distribution of in- References
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