Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Effects of intake conditions on a dual-fuel spark-assisted compression

ignition engine with polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether and methanol
as fuels
Tiankui Zhu , Yuxiao Qiu , Xin Yan, Zhan Gao , Lei Zhu *, Zhen Huang
Key Laboratory for Power Machinery and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dual-fuel spark-assisted compression ignition (DF-SACI) is an advanced engine combustion mode. The use of
PODE polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (PODE) and methanol as fuel can reduce the carbon emissions of the DF-SACI
Methanol engine. To improve the combustion continuity and minimize the knocking and emissions of DF-SACI engines, the
Intake conditions
effects of intake heating and boosting were investigated. The results showed that the combination of intake
SACI
heating and delayed spark ignition promoted fuel diffusion and prevented multi-peak heat release. Intake
DMDF
boosting promoted the transformation of compression ignition into flame propagation ignition. Intake heating
and boosting allowed engine combustion optimization. The brake thermal efficiency was 41.4 % and 44 % when
the brake mean effective pressure was 0.6 and 0.8 MPa, respectively, and the maximum pressure rise rate, co­
efficient of cyclic variation in the indicated mean effective pressure, and emissions were within reasonable
ranges. A high intake air temperature combined with delayed spark ignition reduced the enrichment of PODE,
thereby reducing the self-ignition probability of the fuel mixture, which can reduce knocking. When intake
boosting was applied, the adoption of an excess air coefficient (λ) of 1.8 eliminated knocking under most con­
ditions. Intake heating improved fuel reactivity and increased the ratio of compression ignition, to allow for the
simultaneous reduction of hydrocarbon (HC) and NOx emissions. The effects of intake boosting on NOx and HC
emissions were related to the energy ratio of PODE. As the energy ratio of PODE is between 47 % and 68 %, the
appropriate increase in λ reduced both HC and NOx emissions. The results are conducive to the development of
low-carbon engines and can provide a new direction for engine research.

addition improved thermal efficiency and reduced soot emissions. Liu

et al. [11] found that biodiesel–PODE mixtures featured a shorter
1. Introduction combustion duration (CD) and lower soot emissions (<0.01 g/kWh)
than diesel. Wu et al. [12] reported that the double main-injection
Low-carbon fuel [1,2] is a major focus in energy research. Polyoxy­ strategy yielded a 48 % indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) and low CO
methylene dimethyl ether (PODE) and methanol, both alternative fuels and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. O’Connell et al. [13] found that
for engines, can be prepared through chemical synthesis [3,4], which is compared with the combustion of pure diesel, the combustion of a 50 %
beneficial for reducing carbon emissions. Several studies have been PODE–diesel mixture generated 67 % lower emissions of particulate
conducted on PODE and methanol, with emphasis on their applications matter (PM) and exhibited 2.5 % higher efficiency. The above research
in internal combustion engines [5,6]. suggests that PODE is a suitable modifier for diesel.
PODE, with the molecular formula CH3O(CH2O)nCH3, is an acetal Methanol is a high-octane fuel that can be combined with high-
polymer with a methyleneoxy backbone, in which the oxygen content is cetane PODE to form dual-mode dual-fuel. Turner et al. [14] investi­
>40 % [7]. As PODE contains no carbon–carbon bonds, its combustion gated the effects of methanol on the performance of single- and dual-fuel
involves exceptionally low emissions [8]. In addition, PODE can be used engines and found that the in-cylinder temperature was effectively
without modifying the structure of an engine injection system [9]. Tong reduced due to the high latent heat of methanol, thereby reducing NOx
et al. [10] studied the combustion process of a reactivity-controlled emissions. Li et al. [15] found that blending gasoline with alcohols
compression ignition engine with PODE and gasoline as fuels. PODE

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tonyzhulei@sjtu.edu.cn, tonyzhulei@gmail.com (L. Zhu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.129709
Received 24 May 2023; Received in revised form 5 August 2023; Accepted 3 September 2023
Available online 14 September 2023
0016-2361/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Nomenclature IAT intake air temperature

ID ignition delay
BMEP brake mean effective pressure ITE indicated thermal efficiency
BTE brake thermal efficiency IMEP indicated mean effective pressure
C10 10 % mass fraction burned Kpeak knock peak
C50 50 % mass fraction burned n engine speed
C90 90 % mass fraction burned NOx nitrogen oxide
CD combustion duration Pmax maximum cylinder pressure
CI compression ignition PODE polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether
CO carbon monoxide RCP rapid combustion period
COV coefficient of cyclic variation Rmax maximum pressure rise rate
DF-SACI dual-fuel spark-assisted compression ignition Rp energy ratio of PODE
DMDF dual-mode dual-fuel SCP slow combustion period
EGR exhaust gas recirculation Spk spark ignition time
FPI flame propagation ignition TDC top dead center
HC hydrocarbon λ excess air coefficient
HRR heat release rate

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

(methanol, ethanol, and butanol) advanced the combustion phase due to high oxygen content (50 %), resulted in less soot emission [17].
the high combustion velocity of the blend. The combustion of the blend PODE–methanol blends are often used as fuels due to the differences
yielded higher HC emissions and lower NOx emissions. Wang et al. [16] in the physical and chemical properties of the two components. Liu et al.
investigated the unregulated emissions from a methanol-fueled vehicle. [18,19] studied the performance of an engine fueled with a
The unburned methanol emissions increased by factors of least 1.6 and PODE–methanol blend. Compared with the pure PODE (P100M0), the
5.7 when misfire rates of 6 % and 9 % were used, respectively. Another blends with 30 % methanol (P70M30) exhibited 20.7 % and 16.1 %
study found that compared with other alcohols, methanol, owing to its lower NOx emissions and 90.3 % and 43.7 % lower soot emissions at 25

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Table 1 SACI, dividing the combustion into multiple stages, including the spark-
Engine specifications. induced stage, the flame propagation stage, and the compression igni­
Item Specifications tion stage.
Combining dual-fuel with SACI extends the load range of SACI and
Bore (mm) × stroke 88 × 82
(mm) enables the stratification of the mixture [31–33], thereby offering the
Displacement (L) 1.995 potential for further efficiency improvements. Zhao et al. [34] con­
Compression ratio 15:1 ducted a study on a 13:1 compression ratio engine using dual-fuel SACI,
Intake valve timing IVO: 20◦ CA ATDC/IVC:100◦ CA BTDC with gasoline ignited by PODE. Compared to gasoline-only ignition, the
Exhaust valve timing EVO: 116◦ CA ATDC/EVC: 4◦ CA BTDC
Direct-injection system Electronically controlled high-pressure common rail
thermal efficiency was improved by 49 %, 29 %, and 27 % at brake mean
injection effective pressure (BMEP) = 2,3,4 bar. Liu et al. [35] have conducted
Port-injection system Electronically controlled common rail injection similar studies. Benajes et al. [36] experimentally found that DF-SACI
Nomenclature: IVO: intake valve opening, IVC: intake valve closing, EVO:
could effectively expand the operating range at low loads. Hunicz
exhaust valve opening, EVC: exhaust valve closing, CA: crank angle, ATDC: after et al. [37] showed that in DF-SACI, the spark ignition could be manually
top dead center, BTDC: before top dead center. controlled, while the compression ignition (CI) process was mainly
affected by the chemical reaction kinetics. Both SI and CI influence the
coefficient of cyclic variation in the indicated mean effective pressure
Table 2 (COVIMEP). The above studies demonstrate the advantages of dual-fuel
Fuel properties [4,50]. SACI engines in terms of efficiency and emissions.
Intake condition optimization is an important strategy because DF-
Fuel Properties Methanol PODE3 PODE4 PODE5
SACI usually needs auxiliary means to ensure CI. Intake heating can
Cetane number 78 90 100
–
accelerate fuel atomization, improve the uniformity of the mixture dis­
Research octane number 109 – – –
Boiling point (◦ C) 65 156 202 202 tribution, and increase the laminar flame velocity [38]. A high intake air
Density (kg/m3) 790 1020 1060 1100 temperature (IAT) favors the generation of the initial fire cores in SI
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 20.09 19.1 18.4 17.9 engines [39,40]. Woo et al. [41] studied an ethanol compression ignition
Oxygen content (%) 49.93 47.1 48.2 49 (ECI) and found that at an IAT of 60 ◦ C, ECI combustion could start at a
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 1100
low engine speed. At an IAT of 100 ◦ C, the maximum cylinder pressure
– – –

(Pmax) and the heat release rate (HRR) further increased significantly.
Kim et al. [42] studied a biodiesel engine and found that as the IAT
Table 3 increased from 20 to 60 ◦ C, the particle diameter of soot decreased by
Operating parameters. 25 %, and the total mass decreased by 11.7 %.
Item Value Intake boosting is an important strategy for optimizing intake con­
ditions. The increase in intake mass can reduce combustion temperature,
Engine speed (r/min) n = 1600
Load (MPa) BMEP = 0.4/0.6/0.8
which can reduce heat loss and NOx emissions [43]. Zhao et al. [44]
Direct-injection pressure (MPa) 15 studied a gasoline direct injection (GDI)engine and found that lean-burn
SOI (◦ CA BTDC) 10–100 (Variable) combustion and EGR resulted in a higher thermal efficiency and reduced
Port-injection pressure (MPa) 0.5 NOx emissions by ~90 %. Parket al. [45] investigated the effects of the
Port-injection timing (◦ CA BTDC) 350
equivalence ratio and the lean burn mode in a single-cylinder engine.
IAT (◦ C) 30, 50, 70
Rp (%) 0–68 (Variable) The maximum ITE in the lean burn mode was high (40.6 %). Liu et al.
λ 1.1–2.6 (Variable) [46] studied a dual-fuel engine with direct-injection natural gas and
Spk (◦ CA BTDC) 8–36 (Variable) port-injection gasoline and found that the engine’s thermal efficiency
n: engine speed; BMEP: brake mean effective pressure. was higher in the lean burn mode. Hoppe F et al. [47] combined water
injection with the lean-burn mode and obtained a higher ITE than that of
the original machine. Using optical measurements, Nagasawa T et al.
% and 75 % loads, respectively. Duraisamy et al. [20] compared the
[48] investigated the effects of thermal stratification and knocking in
combustion characteristics of methanol–diesel mixtures with those of
ultra-lean-burn spark-ignition engines. They found that lean burn can
methanol–PODE mixtures. The increase in the methanol ratio signifi­
improve thermal efficiency and reduce knock intensity. Ning et al. [49]
cantly reduced the NOx and soot emissions but slightly increased HC and
studied a methanol engine and found that the test engine under lean-
CO emissions. Li et al. [21] studied the combustion and emission char­
burn conditions achieved a higher ITE and released low HC, CO, CO2,
acteristics of PODE–methanol mixtures and found that increasing the
and NOx emissions.
methanol ratio prolonged the ignition delay (ID) period, increased the
The use of PODE and methanol as fuels for DF-SACI engines can
premixing ratio, and reduced NOx emissions. The authors [22] also
reduce carbon emissions, and the high reactivity of PODE can promote
found that the combustion of PODE-methanol produced more NOx but
methanol combustion. However, the stratification of the
less HC, CO, and soot compared with the combustion of PODE-diesel. Liu
PODE–methanol mixture results in a multi-stage heat release, which
et al. [23] compared the combustion performances of four dual-fuel
creates a reduction in combustion continuity that is not conducive to
combinations (PODE-iso-octane, PODE-methanol, PODE-ethanol, and
BTE improvement. The increase in the ratio of CI shortens the duration
PODE-n-butanol) and found that PODE-n-butanol achieved the highest
of high temperatures, which is not conducive to HC emission reduction.
brake thermal efficiency (BTE) when the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
Moreover, an increase in the PODE ratio causes knocking. Intake con­
rate was 45 %.
dition optimization has been shown to improve engine operation, but
In addition to the fuels, the advanced combustion mode is conducive
research on DF-SACI is limited. The optimization of the intake condi­
to carbon emission reduction. Spark-assisted compression ignition
tions is expected to improve the combustion and emissions of PODE and
(SACI) preserves high thermal efficiency while enabling precise control
methanol.
over combustion process through spark ignition [24]. SACI was origi­
In this study, a heater and a supercharger were installed on the intake
nally devised as an improvement to HCCI [25,26]. Compared with spark
line to adjust intake temperature and pressure. This study explores the
ignition (SI) and HCCI, SACI can better control the C50 (50 % mass
efficiency and emission variables of DF-SACI and presents comprehen­
fraction burned (MFB) location) [27]. Wang et al. [28,29]and Pastor
sive results that provide support for the efficient and low-emission
et al. [30] conducted optical diagnostics of the combustion process of
operation of the DF-SACI engine.

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 2. Division of the multi-stage combustion of DF-SACI.

2. Experimental setup and testing methodology fraction ratio of 47:39:15. The fuel properties are shown in Table 2.

2.1. Engine test cell

2.3. Experimental method

To achieve a DF-SACI combustion mode, the compression ratio of the

A thermal management system was used to heat the coolant to 90 ◦ C,
engine was increased from 10:1 to 15:1 by replacing a new piston on a
after which the engine was started. After the lubricating oil temperature
spark ignition engine (Fig. 1). Methanol was injected into the intake
and exhaust temperature stabilized, the test was started. During the test,
port, and PODE was directly injected into the cylinder. The independent
the coolant was maintained at 90 ± 2 ◦ C. The desired engine speed was
injection of PODE and methanol enables the engine test bench to have
achieved using a dynamometer, while the desired engine torque was
real-time fuel design capability.
achieved through the manual adjustment of the fuel injection quantity.
The original platform was a 2.0 L gasoline direct-injection engine
After the adjustment of the control parameters, the engine performance
with four cylinders, four valves, and an injection pressure of 15 MPa.
was allowed to stabilize for 2 min, after which data recording
The engine was modified to meet the demands of DF-SACI. An electronic
commenced. The combustion process was divided into different stages
supercharger was installed to adjust the intake pressure, which allowed
according to the percentage of the total heat release represented by the
the fine control of λ by an electronic throttle. Furthermore, a heater was
cumulative heat release. C10, C50, and C90 denote the crank angles
set up in the intake pipe to increase the IAT. The equipment information
corresponding to the 10 %, 50 %, and 90 % mass-fraction-burned lo­
is shown in Fig. 1, and the engine specifications are shown in Table 1.
cations, respectively. ID is defined as the angle from the spark ignition
The test devices included a CAC265 alternating current dynamom­
time (Spk) to C10. The rapid combustion period (RCP) is defined as the
eter (Powerlink, Changsha, China) and a 2.0 L engine (NLE, SAIC,
angle from C10 to C50. The slow combustion period (SCP) is defined as
Shanghai, China). The dynamometer controlled the engine speed and
the angle from C50 to C90, and CD is the angle from C10 to C90. Kpeak is
accelerator pedal position and collected temperature and pressure sig­
the knock peak value, which is automatically calculated by the com­
nals. The fuel consumption meter incorporated a Coriolis mass flow­
bustion analyzer, and the calculation method is the Siemens VDO
meter and recorded the mass flow of the fuel. The cylinder pressure
algorithm.
sensor and the crankshaft sensor measured the cylinder pressure and the
The Rp is given by the following Eq. (1):
crankshaft position, respectively. The concentrations of the three pol­
lutants of interest in the exhaust gas (CO, HC, and NOx) were determined RP =
mPODE ⋅LHVPODE
⋅100% (1)
using a gas analyzer (Horiba MEXA-7500EGR), through non-spectral mPODE ⋅LHVPODE ⋅mmethanol ⋅LHVmethanol
infrared absorption analysis, hydrogen flame ion analysis, chem­ mPODE is the consumption of PODE. LHVPODE is the lower heat value
iluminescence analysis, and magneto-pressure analysis. An M670 (Dana, of PODE. mmethanol is the consumption of methanol. LHVmethanol is the
USA) electronic control unit (ECU) system containing an MPC5674F lower heat value of methanol.
chip (NXP, USA) was used. The ECU application layer program was self- BTE can be defifined as the ratio between the net work(Wnet) and
developed to meet the needs of the experiment. The cylinder pressure, released energy from fuel. BTE was calculated by Eq. (2).
which was the average value from 400 cycles, was collected by a com­
bustion analyzer. Other data were transmitted to the host computer via a BTE =
Wnet
⋅100% (2)
controller area network. mPODE ⋅LHVPODE + mmethanol ⋅LHVmethanol

2.2. Fuel properties 2.4. Test plan

The port-injection fuel was methanol, and the direct-injection fuel The operating characteristics of the engine were studied via the
was PODE, which was a mixture of PODE3/PODE4/PODE5 at a molar combination of intake condition optimization and the injection strategy.

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 3. Effects of the IAT on the cylinder pressure and HRR of DF-SACI.

The parameters involved in the intake condition included the IAT and λ. there is no appearance of compression ignition. And the combustion
To avoid the cross effect of the intake condition parameters, natural process can be further categorized into stratified ignition and stratified
aspiration was used in the study of intake heating. The injection strategy compression ignition, as depicted by stages II and III in Fig. 2. In com­
focused on the start time of injection (SOI) and the energy ratio of PODE parison to SACI, for DF-SACI, the predominant component of the
(Rp). At different IATs, the influences of the SOI and Spk on combustion mixture near the cylinder wall is methanol, characterized by a low
were studied, and the effects of multi-parameter cooperative control on mixture concentration, which only allows for flame propagation igni­
RCP and SCP were analyzed. λ and Rp were combined to study the tion, resulting in the formation of stage IV in Fig. 2. The flame propa­
conversion law of combustion. Based on the research on intake condi­ gation combustion of stage IV takes place after the compression ignition,
tions and the fuel injection strategy, the factors affecting the engine distinguishing it from SACI.
operating efficiency and emissions were clarified. The test was per­ As shown in Fig. 2, the second derivative is used to divide the heat
formed under the common operating parameters of the engine (Table 3). release stages. Stage I represents Spk to the formation of the fire core.
After stage I, which is a short period, SI-induced flame propagation
3. Results and discussion commences (stage II). Owing to the effect of fuel stratification, multi-
stage SI occurs, as seen in regions III and III-1. With the development
3.1. Research on the multi-stage combustion of DF-SACI of stage III-1, the temperature and pressure in the cylinder increase,
which leads to CI in region III-2. The mixture at the edge of the cylinder
Wang et al. [28,29] pointed out that SACI can be divided into flame is less reactive and cannot be compression-ignited; the mixture is later
propagation ignited and subsequent formation of compression ignition. ignited by flame spread (stage IV).
Differently from SACI, DF-SACI utilizes dual-fuel independent injection, In Fig. 2, the occurrence of multi-stage heat release is correlated with
involves not only concentration stratification but also stratification of the physicochemical properties of methanol and PODE, as well as the
octane numbers. These stratifications introduce additional combustion intake conditions. Methanol exhibits homogeneous distribution and has
stages, as illustrated in Fig. 2. It can be observed that the occurrence of a minor influence on mixture stratification. However, methanol has a
these combustion stages is selective, with a low PODE injection quantity, high latent heat of vaporization, and under the DF-SACI mode, lowering

5
T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 4. Effects of the IAT on ID, RCP, SCP, and CD. SOI is variable in (a) and (b). Rp is variable in (c) and (d).

the temperature leads to a reduction in the compression ignition pro­ are 28, 24, and 20 ◦ CA BTDC, respectively.
portion. The intake heating offsets the unfavorable effects of methanol In Fig. 3a, at an intake temperature of 30 ◦ C, with the advancement
vaporization. Intake boosting can elevate the temperature of the of the SOI, the cylinder pressure first increases and then decreases. The
compression stroke but might result in overly lean mixtures. PODE has a heat release rate curve indicates that the combustion phase advances
high cetane number, and its diffusion and evaporation in the cylinder. Its and then retards. The reason is that as the SOI advances, the extent of
impact on combustion modes is more evident compared to methanol. PODE diffusion increases. With a slight increase in diffusion, the region
Intake heating enhances PODE’s reactivity, facilitating an increase in the of highly reactive mixture expands. A significant increase in diffusion
compression ignition proportion. Simultaneously, intake heating pro­ leads to a reduction in PODE concentration, resulting in a decrease in the
motes PODE’s evaporation, enhancing the swirling effect’s influence on highly reactive mixture region. At an intake temperature of 70 ◦ C, the
diffusion. As PODE diffusion increases, it initially enlarges the highly combination of higher intake temperature and a delayed ignition strat­
reactive region. With further diffusion, this highly reactive region egy causes the diffusion of PODE to reach a substantial level at the SOI of
transitions into a low reactivity zone. While intake boosting does dilute 30◦ CA BTDC. When the SOI is advanced, the decrease in PODE con­
PODE concentration, unlike methanol, PODE can maintain high reac­ centration leads to a reduction in the highly reactive region.
tivity under conditions of high excess air ratio. Subsequent sections As shown in area I in Fig. 3a, when the SOI is too close to Spk, there is
provide a quantitative analysis of this phenomenon. not enough time for PODE to diffuse to form a combustible mixture,
which is not conducive to combustion. When the SOI is far away from
Spk, the PODE concentration is too low, which is unfavorable for com­
3.2. Effect of the intake conditions on the combustion process
bustion. In region II, an interval exists between the SOI and Spk, and the
interval circumvents the over-concentrated region of PODE. The HRR
3.2.1. Intake heating
curve presents a clear change rule. In region III, when the SOI is close to
To control C50 within a reasonable range, Spk needs to be postponed
the top dead center (TDC), the CI peak appears. As the SOI advances,
if intake heating is adopted. At IATs of 30, 50, and 70 ◦ C, the Spk values

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 5. Effects of λ on the cylinder pressure and HRR.

HRR decreases, and the CI peak turns into a flame propagation ignition gas increases, which is beneficial to CI. The increase in IAT accelerates
(FPI) peak. The combustion mode transformation occurs because when PODE diffusion, thereby reducing the high concentration of PODE. The
the SOI is far away from TDC, the high-concentration area of PODE is IAT-induced increase in reactivity is not sufficient to offset the influence
reduced, which deteriorates CI by reducing the cetane number of the of the small high-concentration area. Therefore, the peak of HRR de­
mixed gas. creases at high IATs.
In Fig. 3b, as the ratio of PODE increases, the compression ignition As shown in Fig. 4a, the SOI is divided into three stages. In stage I, as
proportion enlarges, resulting in an increase in the peak cylinder pres­ the SOI advances, the diffusion ranges of PODE increase, and the amount
sure. Simultaneously, the position where the peak occurs advances, and of combustible mixture increases. The high IAT increases the reactivity
this trend is distinct. When the intake temperature is raised from 30 ◦ C to of the mixture, which shortens ID. In stage II, ID and the RCP first
70 ◦ C, the extent of PODE diffusion increases, leading to a reduction in decrease and then increase as the SOI advances, because at a SOI of
the compression ignition proportion. Consequently, the peak heat 40 ◦ CABTDC, the advancement of the SOI reduces the PODE concen­
release rate diminishes, and the peak cylinder pressure also decreases. tration, which prolongs ID and the RCP. At IAT = 30 ◦ C, the SCP first
In regions IV and V of Fig. 3b, HRR increases with increasing Rp, increases and then decreases as the SOI advances. Under this condition,
because the increase in Rp improves the reactivity of the mixture, which the SCP is prolonged because of the separated combustion of PODE and
can accelerate combustion. Moreover, the cetane number of the mixed methanol. As the IAT increases to 70 ◦ C, PODE atomization is

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 6. Effects of λ on ID, RCP, SCP, and CD. λ is variable in (a) and (b). Rp is variable in (c) and (d).

accelerated, and the combustion continuity of PODE and methanol in­ Analyzing the cylinder pressure curve reveals that an increase in λ ele­
creases. Therefore, in the interval of SOI = 0–50◦ CA BTDC, SCP con­ vates the pressure during the compression stroke. During the pre-
tinues to shorten. In stage III, the prolonged PODE diffusion reduces the ignition phase and early combustion, the cylinder pressure remains at
high-reactivity area, thereby prolonging ID. Intake heating can improve relatively high values. As combustion progresses, the impact of λ on
the mixture reactivity and shorten ID. combustion speed becomes evident, leading to lower cylinder pressure
As shown in Fig. 4c and d, ID decreases with the increase in Rp, values. With the PODE ratio rising from 17 % to 68 %, the mixture
because the increase in PODE improves the mixture reactivity, which is demonstrates a heightened tolerance for high λ, resulting in a minor
beneficial for ID reduction. The effect of IAT on ID is low because high decrease in combustion speed and no significant reduction in the peak
temperatures promote PODE diffusion. The RCP is mainly affected by cylinder pressure.
the flame propagation speed (Fig. 3b), which leads to little variation in As shown in Fig. 5a, at Rp = 17 %, the area I of HRR decreases as λ
the RCP. The SCP shortens with increasing IAT, because a high IAT in­ increases. At λ = 2.25, the mixture is too lean to be compression ignited.
creases methanol reactivity. A high IAT also promotes PODE diffusion, However, at an Rp of 68 %, although λ dilutes the mixture, a highly
which further improves methanol reactivity. At an IAT of 30 or 50 ◦ C, reactive area still occurs in the cylinder, which causes a stable stage I. As
the SCP increases as Rp increases. A low IAT is not conducive to PODE Rp increases, the low-reactivity mixture partly transforms into a high-
diffusion, which leads to the separation of PODE and methanol. reactivity mixture, and the proportion of SI decreases (see area II).
The role of λ is mainly to promote the transition from CI to FPI, and HRR
3.2.2. Intake boosting decreases with the increase in λ (Fig. 5). The increase in λ reduces the
In Fig. 5a, as the λ increases, the compression ignition proportion mixture concentration and the combustion rate and promotes the
decreases, accompanied by a reduction in the peak heat release rate. transformation of CI into SI.

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 7. Effects of the intake conditions on COVIMEP. (a–b) under different IAT; (c–d) under different λ.

In Fig. 5b, the same intake temperature and excess air ratio were Rp of 17 %. When Rp is 17 %, the increase in λ results in the destruction of
employed, with cylinder pressure variation mainly arising from changes the high-reactivity regions. As Rp increases to 47 %–68 %, the high-
in Rp and BMEP. At a BMEP of 0.4 MPa, an increase in the Rp advances activity area decreases as λ increases but still exists; thus, ID changes
the combustion phase and concentrates heat release, resulting in higher low. Moreover, the reduction in the high-activity area reduces the
cylinder pressures. Given the use of varying ignition timing in this sec­ combustion rate, and then RCP increases. At an Rp of 68 %, a lean
tion, at a BMEP of 0.8 MPa, the peak cylinder pressure does not exhibit a mixture at the edges of the cylinder reduces the combustion rate,
monotonic trend. For instance, at a Rp of 68 %, although the combustion resulting in a longer SCP. As λ increases, the SCP appears to shorten,
phase is concentrated, the peak cylinder pressure remains lower due to because combustion continuity increases, increasing the combustion
the ignition timing delay. rate of methanol.
Fig. 5b illustrates the effect of fuel design under different BMEP Fig. 6c and d illustrate the effect of Rp on CD under different BMEP.
conditions. C50 is controlled to 5 ◦ CA ATDC through Spk adjustment to As Rp increases, ID shortens, because the increase in Rp results in more
achieve a high efficiency. At an Rp of 8 %, the combustion form is SI. As high-reactivity mixture in the cylinder, which favors combustion. At a
Rp increases, a two-stage heat release occurs. At BMEP = 0.4, CI appears high load, the combustion rate is high, and the RCP is short owing to the
at Rp = 68 %. With the increase in BMEP, CI can occur even at a low Rp. high temperature and pressure. Moreover, CI increases with the increase
This shows that a low Rp could be used to achieve the effect of CI at high in Rp, which shortens the RCP. At a low load, the increase in Rp in­
loads. At BMEP = 0.8 MPa, a higher BTE is obtained, as detailed below. tensifies the mixture stratification, which increases the RCP. According
As shown in Fig. 6a and b, when Rp is 17 %, ID increases with the to Fig. 5b, the difference in combustion mainly occurs in the RCP stage.
increase in λ. When Rp is 68 %, ID maintains the same trend as that at an The combustion form of the SCP stage is flaming propagation and

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 8. Effects of the intake conditions on knocking. (a–b) under different IAT; (c–d) under different λ.

ignition; therefore, the change in SCP is small. CD finally decreases with owing to the higher reactivity of PODE. In Fig. 7d, COVIMEP is less than 3
the increase in BMEP, which improves engine efficiency. %, indicating good combustion stability. According to the overall anal­
ysis, DF-SACI has good combustion stability, and a high level of lean
burn can be achieved in DF-SACI through Rp adjustment.
3.3. Effects of the intake conditions on COVIMEP and knocking
The knock threshold considered in Fig. 8 is Kpeak = 0.1 MPa. The
determination of the knock threshold refers to the research of Zhou and
As shown in Fig. 7a and b, there are many working conditions under
Fan et al. [51,52]. In Fig. 8a, as Rp increases, the octane number of the
which COVIMEP is less than 2 %. This indicates that the combustion is
mixture decreases and the probability of knocking increases. The impact
stable in DF-SACI. IAT has less impact on COVIMEP, possibly because
of IAT on knocking is mainly reflected in the change in mixture distri­
although the intake heating improves the reactivity of the mixture, it
bution. With the decrease in IAT, the PODE diffusion degree is small, the
reduces the high-concentration area. The interaction of the high-
octane number of the mixed gas in the PODE-enriched area decreases,
reactivity and low-concentration causes the COV not to change signifi­
and the anti-knock performance is poor. The strategy of delaying Spk at
cantly. As shown in Fig. 7c, COVIMEP increases significantly with the
high temperatures is also beneficial for knocking reduction.
increase in λ at λ = 2–2.5, because the reactivity of the mixture decreases
As shown in Fig. 8b, at an SOI of 0–40 ◦ CABTDC, as the SOI advances,
owing to lean burn. Furthermore, the increase in Rp reduces COVIMEP

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 9. Effects of the intake condition on the BTE. (a–b) under different IAT; (c–d) under different λ.

the premix ratio increases, and Pmax advances. Owing to the stratifica­ concentration stratification of the mixture, which in turn results in
tion of the mixed gas, some PODE occurs outside the CI region, which combustion separation. As the temperature increases, the mixture ho­
can result in knocking. At an SOI of 40–100 ◦ CABTDC, the PODE mogenization level increases. Therefore, at IAT = 70 ◦ C (stageII), the
diffusion time is long, and the low-octane region is reduced, resulting in BTE does not change significantly.
less knocking. As Rp increases from 0 to 43 %, the BTE first increases and then
As shown in Fig. 8c, when λ increases to 1.5, the heat capacity of the decreases (Fig. 9b). A small increase in Rp can speed up combustion and
mixture increases, the combustion temperature decreases, and knocking increase the BTE. Further increases in Rp result in combustion separa­
weakens. Fig. 8c also reveals that under high Rp conditions, adopting a tion, which negatively affects BTE. As IAT increases, the BTE increases
high λ can reduce knocking. At λ = 1.8, the optimization of the operation accordingly because high temperatures can accelerate combustion so
of different loads eliminates knocking under most working conditions that Spk is delayed to keep C50 constant, which increases the level of
(Fig. 8d). isovolumic combustion.
As shown in Fig. 9c, the BTE first increases and then decreases as λ
3.4. Effect of the intake conditions on the BTE increases. The increase in λ can increase the oxygen content, tempera­
ture, and pressure at the end of the compression stroke. Moreover, the
As shown in Fig. 9a, the combustion form of PODE shifts from reduction of the combustion temperature can reduce the heat loss of the
diffusion combustion to premixed compression ignition and finally to wall surface. However, with a large increase in λ, the mixture is too lean,
FPI as the SOI advances. In stage I (Fig. 9a), the ratio of premixed and the combustion performance worsens, leading to a decrease in the
compression ignition increases as the SOI advances, which is beneficial BTE. As Rp increases from 17 % to 68 %, the highest point of the BTE
to improve the BTE. In stage III, premixed compression ignition transi­ corresponds to a larger λ. This reveals that improving the quality of
tions to FPI; therefore, the BTE drops. In stage II, as the IAT increases PODE allows for higher levels of lean burn.
from 30 to 50 ◦ C, the BTE first decreases and then increases. At this As shown in Fig. 9d, at BMEP = 0.8 MPa, BTEmax is 44 %. This shows
temperature range, the low level of PODE diffusion results in the that DF-SACI can obtain a high BTE through λ adjustment. At BMEP =

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 10. Correlation between the BTE and Pmax and Rmax. (a–b) under different IAT; (c–d) under different λ.

Fig. 11. Decrease in NOx and HC emissions with increasing IAT.

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T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 12. Correlation between HC and NOx emissions.

0.6 MPa, the BTE can be further improved through IAT increase in a slight increase in HC emissions.
(Fig. 9b). However, further research is needed on inlet heating at BMEP Fig. 13 shows the relationship between the BTE and NOx emissions.
= 0.8 MPa. As shown in Fig. 13a, increasing the IAT to 70◦ C results in a BTE of
In Fig. 10a, for most of the points, particularly those with BTE > 40 >40.5 % while keeping NOx emissions at <1000 ppm. The trans­
%, the corresponding Rmax is less than 0.4 MPa/◦ CA, which satisfies the formation in combustion mode is the main contributor to the increase in
operation of the engine. Moreover, there is still room for further the BTE, which does not lead to a large increase in NOx emissions. As
improvement in Rmax. In addition, the Pmax of most of the working shown in Fig. 13b, intake boosting results in a high BTE. The increase in
conditions is within a reasonable range in Fig. 10b. Intake heating is the heat capacity of the mixture reduces the combustion temperature,
favorable to the BTE without worsening the engine’s operation. but does not cause an increase in NOx emissions. For example, at Rp = 47
Fig. 10c and d show that Rmax is 0.34 MPa/◦ CA at BMEP = 0.8 MPa %, as λ increases from 1.1 to 1.9, the BTE reaches its peak, while NOx
and BTE = 44 %. The Rmax under multiple working conditions is less emissions continue to decrease.
than 0.35 MPa/◦ CA, which makes the engine run smoothly. However, In Fig. 13 c, λ is a constant value of 1.8. As BMEP increases, both the
the increase in Pmax requires a higher engine strength. When BMEP is BTE and NOx emissions increase. At BMEP = 0.8 MPa, NOx emissions are
0.6 MPa, a higher BTE is obtained at λ = 1.6–2.0, and the corresponding less than 650 ppm in the BTE range of 43 %–44 %. Although the increase
Rmax and Pmax are in reasonable ranges. A decrease in λ leads to an in­ in NOx emissions corresponds to a high BTE, the overall NOx emissions
crease in the combustion ratio of CI and then an increase in Rmax. are within a reasonable range.
Moreover, the heat release is concentrated at TDC, and as the isovolume
combustion ratio increases, Pmax increases. 4. Conclusions

3.5. Effect of the intake conditions on emissions The multi-stage combustion, anti-knock performance, and emission
performance of DF-SACI are optimized in this study through intake
HC and NOx emissions are mainly affected by combustion tempera­ heating and boosting. A control strategy that considers both efficiency
ture and high-temperature duration. A trade-off usually exists between and emissions is obtained with PODE and methanol as fuels. The main
HC and NOx emissions from SI engines. However, Fig. 11 shows that conclusions are as follows.
both NOx and HC emissions decrease as the IAT increases. HC emission
decreases because the intake heating increases the fuel reactivity. (1) A high BTE can be obtained through the coordinated control of
Moreover, an increased CI ratio results in a shorter high-temperature the intake conditions and the injection strategy. At BMEP = 0.6
duration, which reduces NOx emissions. MPa, the BTE is 41.4 %, and at BMEP = 0.8 MPa, the BTE is 44 %.
The operating conditions illustrated in Fig. 12a include the fuel ratio Meanwhile, the engine operates smoothly, and pollutant emis­
design and the optimization of the injection and ignition strategies. At sions are at a reasonable level.
IAT = 30 ◦ C, HC emissions cannot be reduced to <1500 ppm via the (2) Inlet heating combined with delayed spark ignition can enhance
optimization of the control strategy. However, at a higher IAT of 70 ◦ C, combustion continuity, and consequently improve thermal effi­
HC emissions decrease to <1500 ppm. HC emissions at some operating ciency. Increasing the λ through intake boosting can promote the
points are less than 900 ppm, while NOx emissions are less than 550 transition from compression ignition to flame propagation igni­
ppm. This result indicates that intake air heating can optimize the tion. Selecting a small λ for fuels with a high methanol ratio can
reduction of pollutant emissions from DF-SACI. yield a high BTE.
As shown in Fig. 12b, NOx emissions are less than 580 ppm at λ ≥ 1.8. (3) Optimization of the intake conditions can reduce knocking. A
At Rp = 68 %, both NOx and HC emissions decrease as λ increases from high IAT with delayed Spk promotes PODE diffusion, thereby
1.3 to 1.9, because the increase in the compression stroke temperature reducing the self-ignition probability. When intake boosting is
and pressure increases the reactivity of the fuel. Moreover, the trans­ applied, the adoption of a λ value of 1.8 eliminates knocking
formation from SI to CI shortens the high-temperature duration. At Rp = under most conditions.
17 %, the combustion process is closer to SI; therefore, NOx and HC (4) Intake heating weakens the trade-off relationship between NOx
emissions exhibit a trade-off relationship. Nevertheless, NOx emissions and HC emissions. At BMEP = 0.6 MPa, HC emissions at some
are reduced through the increase in λ at Rp = 17 %, although this results

13
T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

Fig. 13. Correlation between the BTE and NOx emissions.

operating points are less than 900 ppm, while NOx emissions are Writing – review & editing. Zhan Gao: Writing – review & editing. Lei
less than 550 ppm. Zhu: Project administration. Zhen Huang: Funding acquisition, Meth­
(5) The effects of intake boosting on pollutant emissions is dependent odology, Project administration.
on the fuel ratio. Intake boosting greatly reduces NOx emissions
while slightly increasing HC emissions. As Rp increases to a range Declaration of Competing Interest
of 47–68 %, the appropriate increase in λ reduces both HC and
NOx emissions. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
This paper explores the effects of intake conditions and fuel design on the work reported in this paper.
DF-SACI. The transformation rules of the combustion form are clarified.
These research results provide a new direction for research on engine Data availability
efficiency and emissions, which is conducive to the development of low-
carbon engines. Data will be made available on request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement Acknowledgements

Tiankui Zhu: Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Valida­ This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
tion, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Yuxiao Qiu: China (No. 52071216 and U2241256).

14
T. Zhu et al. Fuel 357 (2024) 129709

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