Compilation

Notes

Anthropology

Unit - 2.3
Marriage
 List of Lectures
1. Unit - 2.3 Marriage
 2

Marriage (Part-1)

Definition and Universality

1. George Murdock- In the book Social Structures (1949) - Marriage is a universal social institution that
involves residential co-habilitation and economic cooperation that leads to a’nuclear family’.
Exception - Nayar community
2. Edward Westermarck - “The History of human marriage” 1891. In this book, Westermarck defined
“Marriage is a relationship between one or more man/men and woman/women that is recognised by
customs and laws which involves certain rights and duties, both in case of the partners entering the
union and children born out of this partnership/union.
Exception- Excludes homosexuality eg Azande of Sudan.
3. Kathleen Gough - This definition is given based on the Nayars of Kerala - According to her, marriage
are a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons that provides that a child born
to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of the relationship and is accorded full birth
status rights common to normal members of the society or social stratum.
Exception - Nandi Of Kenya
[ Note -
❖ Kathleen Gough studied the Nayars of Kerala in great depth and said that Nayars seem to have
treated marriage apart from sex and economic relations between men and women. The basic household
unit is called the taravad that is matrilineal. The term enangar is applied to a matrilineal lineage.
❖ A ritual marriage called the thali kettu kalyanam in which a man tied a gold chain around the neck of his
bride was conducted in a public ceremony. This marriage was performed before puberty or at about that
stage in the life of a girl. A girl was married in this manner to a man who belonged to an Enangar other than
hers. After attainment of puberty by the bride she was required to live together with her ritual husband for
three days in a continuous succession. After this brief period of cohabitation a ritual bath was given to the
couple after which the loincloth of the bride was ritually torn into two halves to establish that the ritual
 3

husband did not have any exclusive sexual rights over her from that moment onwards. He neither had any
more responsibilities with regard to her. Sometimes he never sees her again.
❖ Now the women who customarily live in large taravad were exposed to free cohabitation with men coming
from the Enangars of her ritual husband or from other higher caste groups particularly the Namboodiri
Brahmins.
❖ These men were called the visiting husbands had sexual relations with the woman but no responsibilities or
support to the woman or the children. However during the period of her pregnancy one of these visiting
husbands usually came forward to give gifts in order to finance the childbirth expenditures. But it
should not be assumed that this person served as father to the children born because it was irrelevant in the
matrilineal society. A child only socially belonged to the matrilineage and the matrilineal household of the
mother.]
4. William N. Stephens-
His book ‘ The Family in cross-Culture perspective’ (1963). According to him 'a socially legitimate
sexual union, begun with public pronouncement undertaken with the idea of permanence, assumed
with more or less explicit marriage contract which spells out reciprocal economic obligations between
spouses, and their future children'.
Exception - Live-in relationship and Nayars community


 2

Marriage (Part-2)

William N. Stephens
His book ‘The Family in cross-Culture perspective’ (1963). According to him 'a socially legitimate sexual
union, begun with public pronouncement undertaken with the idea of permanence, assumed with more or
less explicit marriage contract which spells out reciprocal economic obligations between spouses, and their
future children'.

Live-in relationship
[Note - Additional information- The couple is also regarded as married if they live together for a considerably
long period until proven otherwise.
 Since living relationships also support pre-marital sex, there are high chances of a child being born. These
children, unlike the successors born out of wedlock, do not have any rights over the inheritance. Besides this,
society treats them as illegitimate children, which is unacceptable. * However, the Hon’ble Supreme Court
cleared them of this ill-fated. And granted them the status of a legitimate child along with the right to
property.
 The apex court has given five different types of living together in the excellent judgement of Indra
Sarma Vs V.K.V. Sarma in 2013.
 Despite live in relationships becoming legal, they remain non-binding for the partners.
 The Indian Law/Supreme Court is trying to bring in change. Moreover, the legal position of this foreign
concept is being expanded. India has a wide definition of live-in relationships.]
And Nayar community [Already mention this community marriage process under previous notes]
Notes and Queries on Anthropology 1951 - Marriage in a union between a man and a women such that the
children born to that women are recognised as legitimate offspring of both the parents/ parents.
Exception:
Homosexuality Polygamy not considered
Malinowski - ‘Scientific theory of culture and other essays’ (1944). A legal marriage is one which gives a
women socially recognised husband and her children a socially recognised father.
Exceptions: Polygamy not considered and Nayar
 3

Madan and Majumdar : ‘Introduction to social Anthropology’(1956) - Views - Define marriage as an

institution that ensures biological satisfaction ( sexual gratification) and psychological satisfaction (
children being born) and on a wider plane ensures two fold survival (group and culture). Exception - Live
in relationship and Homosexuality
Radcliffe Brown :
‘The African system of kingship and marriage’ (1950). Marriage is a social arrangement by which a child is given
a legitimate position in society determined by parenthood in the social sense.
 Social arrangement
 Child legitimacy position
 Parenthood
Exception:
Live in relationship
Edmund Leach (gives functional perspective and roll of marriage):
1. Establish the legal father of a woman’s children and the legal mother of a man’s children.
2. Give either or both spouses a monopoly in the sexuality of the other.
3. Give either or both spouses rights to the labor of the other.
4. Give either or both spouses rights over the other’s property.
5. Establish a joint fund or property—a partnership—for the benefit of the children.
6. Establish a socially significant “relationship of affinity” between spouses and their relatives.
Concept of Universal definition-
Start by the definition of -
According to George Murdock Marriage is a universal social institution that involves residential co-
habilitation and economic cooperation that leads to a nuclear family’.
Since culture deflects society to society, forms of marital arrangement also differ. Thus there is variety of marital
arrangements, for example –
With respect to the Concept and examples-
(a) Marriage gives recognition of sexual relations between sexes.
(b) It is publicly recognised and socially sanctioned.
(c) Marriage brings other rights and obligations between the sexes.
Examples -
1. A situation in which several men obtain both sexual and domestic services from one woman, but one man
legitimizes her offspring (Polyandry as in the Toda).
2. A-situation in which one man may have all these rights and obligations to one woman (monogamy as in most
of the tribes.
3. Situation in which a man has all these rights and obligations to one woman but virtually none of her children,
even though they are, recognised as his (ghost marriage as ‘in the Nuer).
 4

On the basis of these common points, several definitions gave different dimensions ( With respect to the
definition)
 According to Westermarck “Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is
recognised by custom or law and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of the parties
entering the union and in the case of the children of it”. Exception- homosexuality eg Azande of Sudan
 According to Notes and Queries on Anthropology, “Marriage is defined as a union between a man and
a woman as such that children, born by the woman are recognised as the legitimate offspring of bot)
the partners”.
 George Murdock- In the book Social Structures (1949) - Marriage is a universal social institution that
involves residential co-habilitation and economic cooperation that leads to a’nuclear family’. Exception -
Nayar community
 Kathleen Gough - This definition is given based on the Nayars of Kerala - According to her, marriage
are a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons that provides that a
child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of the relationship and is
accorded full birth status rights common to normal members of the society or social stratum.
Exception - Nandi Of Kenya
 A very broad definition to cover all those marital forms is that: - “Marriage is a socially recognised and
relatively stable union between, a man and a woman, providing sexual access, legitimizing offspring and
establishing other rights and obligations between the partners and other units of society”.
 Exception- But there is still a marital form as among Nayar of Kerala which goes beyond this broad
definition. Among matrilineal but polyandrous Nayars, a girl is usually ritually married before
puberty to a man who after this rite needs not to have contact with her. The performance of this rite
authorizes her to have sexual relations with anyone who visits her. The children born to her are maintained
by her matrilineal family. In Nayar, the union between husband and wife is not stable. Thus an universal
definition of marriage is however difficult.
At this point we can mention the Edmund Leach functional perspective -
1. Establish the legal father of a woman’s children and the legal mother of a man’s children.
2. Give either or both spouses a monopoly in the sexuality of the other.
3. Give either or both spouses rights to the labor of the other.
4. Give either or both spouses rights over the other’s property.
5. Establish a joint fund or property—a partnership—for the benefit of the children.
6. Establish a socially significant “relationship of affinity” between spouses and their relatives.
Marriage is a universal institution, however there is a problem with the definition of marriage. The reason
is that marriage is an institution determined by culture. It is a cultural rule that determines whom you marry and to
whom you have not to marry. What form of marriage is one society may be prohibited in another. Since culture
deflects from society to society but it’s present in every society one or the other form. So we can say there is
no universal definition of marriage.

 2

Marriage (Part-3)
Marriage law, the body of legal specifications and requirements and other laws that regulate the initiation,
continuation, and validity of marriages. Marriage is a legally sanctioned union usually between one man and one
woman.
Law of marriage
1. Incest taboo
2. Endogamy
3. Exogamy
4. Hypergamy
5. Hypogamy
1. Incest taboo -
❖ Incest : Sexual intercourse between individuals related in a certain degree of kinship (According to the
Seligman, a thinker) OR "Intimacy with a blood relative".
Definition
Incest taboo is any cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between certain members of the same
family, mainly between individuals related by blood.
Explanation of incest taboo
1. Biological reason- Incest leads to genetic degradation due to close inbreeding. This is the reason there is
a taboo on mating between close relatives.
2. Functional- Structural explanation-
a. To prevent the disruptive effect of sexual competition within the kinship group.
b. The importance of marital alliance as a means of broadening the scope of social integration.
Aspect of incest and in east taboo

Dimension:
❖ Theological Dimension - Adam and Eve
❖ Old Civilization - egyptian civilisation
❖ Hawaii Royal Family - practice incest on a large scale.
 3

Subjectivity in respect to incest and incest taboo (Case Studies)

1. Kathleen Barrow and Anna Maze -
❖ they studied the Egyptian civilisation
❖ Accoding to them Data - In 1st century AD - 24% incest evidence is found.
❖ In the 2nd Century AD - this evidence increased24% to 37%.
2. Irving Hallowell - Red Indian tribe name Ojibwa studied by him . He observed- 18 out to 24 persons are
from incest.
3. M Fortis was a South African-born anthropologist, best known for his work among the Tallensi and
Ashanti in Ghana.
❖ He noticed that 20 years before his recent there was a provision for death sentence for incest. But
that converted into a heavy fine (because of a decline in population).
❖ Incest Taboo Theories:
1. Biological Degeneration/Inbreeding Theory - C.H.Morgan (an Evolutionary Thinker) - Early Homo or
our ancestors observed that breeding between/among close blood relatives produced offspring with
deformities.
i. Eg: Australopithecus (4 to 1 mya).
ii. When breeding happens between people who are not related then very healthy offspring are born.
2. Family Disruption Theory-Malinowski (Funcationlist theory) - In order to prevent the family from
disruption Incest Taboo is formed. This theory was presented by Malinowski. According to him,
“Sexual relations within a family members would create many rivalries, enmity, jealousy, tension, and
disturbance which effects the function of a good family”. So, incest taboo means to keep the unity and
function of the family intact. Incest taboo is necessary for the protection of the family members from
disturbance and other rivalries.
 4

1. Childhood Familiarity Theory by Westermarck

❖ Incest taboo in the form of Exogamy.
❖ This theory was presented by Edward Westermarckn in 1920. According to this theory, People who have
been brought up together from each other are like siblings. These people would not be sexually attached
to each other. To test the hypothesis, a study was conducted on a family of Israel, in which the married
pair bore a child and was kept in a separate center where other children of the same age were present.
They were nourished and reared in that center and had no relations with their parents. When they reached
maturity, it was observed that among 125 parts of male and female, there was no single case of sexuality with
other group members.
❖ So, it was proved that the persons who are born, reared and socialized in the same place have no sexual attraction
with each other.
   

PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 2

Marriage (Part-04)
Laws of Marriage:
1. Incest Taboo
2. Endogamy
3. Exogamy
4. Hypergamy
5. Hypogamy
1. Incest Taboo:
❖ Incest:
➢ According to Seligman, Incest refers to sexual relations between individuals who share a specific
degree of kinship. It is viewed as a universal cultural taboo present in almost all societies. This
prohibition serves to prevent harmful consequences of inbreeding, maintain stable family structures, and
promote social cohesion by encouraging exogamous marriages between different kinship groups.
➢ Intimacy with blood relatives, commonly referred to as incest, is universally regarded as taboo due
to its potential detrimental effects on individuals and societies. It emphasize the Westermarck effect,
where close childhood proximity creates psychological aversion to sexual relations, preventing disruptive
family dynamics and supporting genetic diversity through exogamous unions.
❖ Concept of Incest taboo:
➢ The incest taboo is a universal cultural prohibition against sexual relations or marriage between close
relatives, found in virtually all societies.
➢ It serves multiple functions:
✓ First, it prevents harmful consequences of inbreeding, such as increased genetic disorders.
✓ Second, it fosters stable family structures by discouraging rivalries and conflicts within families.
✓ Third, it promotes exogamous marriages, strengthening alliances between different kinship groups.
➢ For instance, the Native American tribes strictly adhere to the incest taboo, marrying outside their
immediate clan to maintain social harmony and foster cooperation between different tribal groups.
❖ Incest Taboo Theories:
A. Biological Degeneration/Inbreeding Theory (C. H. Morgan):
➢ This theory posits that the incest taboo evolved as a response to the potential dangers of inbreeding.
➢ C. H. Morgan proposed that early human societies recognized the risks associated with mating among
close relatives, leading to the development of the incest taboo.
➢ For example, during the Australopithecus period (approximately 4 to 1 million years ago), primitive
human-like creatures might have encountered negative consequences due to inbreeding, such as an
increased risk of genetic abnormalities and reduced chances of survival for offspring. Thus, the taboo
against incest emerged as a protective measure to ensure the health and survival of future generations.
B. Family Disruption Theory:
➢ According to Malinowski, the incest taboo helps to establish and maintain stable family structures and
social cohesion. If close family members were allowed to marry, it might create tensions, rivalries, and
conflicts within the family, ultimately destabilizing the entire social fabric.
 3

➢ One example can be found in the Trobriand Islanders, studied by Malinowski himself. The Trobriand
Islanders strictly adhere to the incest taboo, and marriage outside the family is an essential aspect of their
social structure, fostering harmony and cooperation among their clans.
C. Childhood Familiarity Theory:
➢ Westermarck's theory suggests that individuals who grow up together during early childhood develop
a psychological aversion to sexual relations with each other. This is because they become desensitized to
any potential sexual attraction due to their close proximity and constant interaction during their formative
years. This phenomenon, known as the Westermarck effect, creates a sense of familiarity that naturally
discourages incestuous relationships.

  
Stepdad

➢ For instance, the Israeli kibbutzim, where children are raised collectively, exhibit a significant decline
in incestuous relationships due to the strong Westermarck effect.
D. Psychoanalytic Theory:
➢ Sigmund Freud proposed that the incest taboo emerges from the Oedipus complex and the desire to
avoid the potential psychological consequences of unresolved sexual feelings for close family members.
➢ He argued that society institutes the incest taboo to prevent internal conflicts and maintain societal
harmony.
➢ For example: a son may have sexual attraction towards his mother while the legitimate sexual attraction
between mother and father is only permitted.

Sexually attracted Mother

Son

competition Sexual right to

to prevent it mother

Incest taboo rules Father

In family and society

➢ Freud's theories, while controversial and debated, offer a psychoanalytic perspective on the origin of the
incest taboo in human societies.
E. Cooperation Theory:
➢ It is also known as Marry out / Die out Theory.
➢ Claude Lévi-Strauss suggested that the incest taboo encourages exogamous marriages, i.e., marriages
outside one's immediate social group, which promotes alliances between different kinship groups. These
intergroup marriages foster social cohesion, create networks of cooperation, and prevent conflicts
between different groups.
 4

G-2

G-1 G-3

➢ For example, in certain Native American tribes, marriage alliances between clans were formed to ensure
mutual support and prevent inter-clan conflicts, thereby strengthening the social fabric.
F. Instinctive Horror Theory:
➢ Lowie proposed that the incest taboo is genetically programmed into human beings as an instinctive
horror, leading to an inherent aversion to incestuous relationships. This instinctive aversion functions as
a form of biological safeguard against inbreeding, ultimately contributing to the survival and health of the
population.
➢ While this theory lacks empirical evidence, it highlights the potential role of evolutionary factors in
shaping human behavior and cultural norms.
2. Endogamy:
❖ Mclennan in his book ‘Primitive Marriage (1865) used the term Endogamy.
❖ According to McLennan, endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a specific social or kinship
group.
❖ He observed that certain ancient societies encouraged endogamous unions to maintain group cohesion,
preserve traditions, and control property and inheritance within the closed social boundaries.
❖ Endogamy promotes social cohesion, preserves cultural traditions, and reinforces group identity.
❖ Endogamous unions often occur within the same caste, ethnicity, or religious community, restricting marriage
choices to maintain social boundaries.
Concept:
❖ It is a marriage practice where individuals are allowed or required to marry within specific social, cultural, or
religious groups. It promotes social cohesion, preserves cultural traditions, and reinforces group identity.
Endogamy Cultural Group
(Eg: Religion, Caste)

❖ Endogamous unions often occur within the same caste, ethnicity, or religious community, restricting marriage
choices to maintain social boundaries.

NOTE:
Endogamy v/s Incest:

❖ Incest ❖ Endogamy
 5

Definition Sexual relations between close relatives, Marriage practice of marrying within a specific
often with a taboo. social or kinship group

Scope Focuses on the sexual aspect of relationships Encompasses the broader concept of marriage
within kinship. and partner selection.

Purpose Generally seen as a social taboo to prevent Aims to promote social cohesion, preserve
inbreeding and maintain social order. cultural identity, and control resources within a
closed group

Forms of Endogamy :
1. Caste System in India : Hypergamy (Anuloma) is a form of endogamy prevalent in the Indian caste system
where a person marries someone from a higher caste. This practice is based on the belief in maintaining social
hierarchy and avoiding the mixing of castes.
➢ For example, a woman from a lower caste marrying a man from an upper caste exemplifies hypergamy.
2. Subcaste: Subcaste endogamy involves individuals marrying within their specific sub caste or jati. Each sub
caste has its distinct customs, traditions, and social status.
➢ For instance, within the Thakur or Tyagi caste in Uttar Pradesh, individuals typically marry partners
from their own subcaste to preserve their social and cultural identity.
3. Ethnic Endogamy: Certain ethnic communities, like the Nagas and Khasis in Northeast India, practice ethnic
endogamy.
➢ They prefer to marry within their own ethnic group to maintain their unique cultural practices, language,
and traditions.
➢ This reinforces their collective identity and helps preserve their distinct heritage.
4. Racial Endogamy: It involves individuals choosing marriage partners exclusively from their own racial
group.
➢ For example, some Native American tribes in the United States historically practiced racial endogamy
to uphold their racial purity and safeguard their unique lineage.
5. Class Endogamy: It refers to individuals marrying within their social or economic class. This practice is
often seen in societies with distinct social stratification.
➢ An example is found in traditional societies where nobility or aristocrats marry within their social class
to maintain their privileged status and wealth.


 P
A
G
E
Marriage (Part-5) \*
M
E
Laws of Marriage: R
1. Incest Taboo G
EF
2. Endogamy O
3. Exogamy R
M
4. Hypergamy
A
5. Hypogamy T
2. Endogamy: 5

❖ Mclennan in his book ‘Primitive Marriage (1865) used the term Endogamy and Exogamy.
❖ According to McLennan, endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a specific social or
kinship group.
❖ He observed that certain ancient societies encouraged endogamous unions to maintain group cohesion,
preserve traditions, and control property and inheritance within the closed social boundaries.
❖ Endogamy promotes social cohesion, preserves cultural traditions, and reinforces group identity.
❖ Endogamous unions often occur within the same caste, ethnicity, or religious community, restricting
marriage choices to maintain social boundaries.
Concept:
❖ It is a marriage practice where individuals are allowed or required to marry within specific social, cultural, or
religious groups. It promotes social cohesion, preserves cultural traditions, and reinforces group identity.
❖ Proper definition- Marriage is taking place within a particular group .
❖ It can be a religious boundary, cultural boundary.
❖ Marriage within the group (that form of marriage is endogamy)

❖ Endogamous unions often occur within the same caste, ethnicity, or religious community, restricting marriage
choices to maintain social boundaries.
❖ Forms of Endogamy :
1. Caste System in India : Hypergamy (Anuloma) is a form of endogamy prevalent in the Indian caste
system where a person marries someone from a higher caste. This practice is based on the belief in
maintaining social hierarchy and avoiding the mixing of castes.
➢ For example, a woman from a lower caste marrying a man from an upper caste exemplifies
hypergamy.
 P
A
G
E
2. Subcaste: Subcaste endogamy involves individuals marrying within their specific sub caste or jati. Each \*
sub caste has its distinct customs, traditions, and social status. M
➢ For instance, within the Thakur or Tyagi caste in Uttar Pradesh, individuals typically marry E
R
partners from their own subcaste to preserve their social and cultural identity.
G
3. Ethnic Endogamy ( Based on the tribe) - Endogamy is the practice of marrying within the same ethnic, EF
cultural, social, religious or tribal group. In endogamous populations everyone will descend from O
the same small gene pool. Certain ethnic communities, like the Nagas and Khasis in Northeast India, R
M
practice ethnic endogamy. A
➢ This reinforces their collective identity and helps preserve their distinct heritage. T
5

4. Racial Endogamy: It involves individuals choosing marriage partners exclusively from their own racial
group.
➢ For example, some Native American tribes in the United States historically practiced racial
endogamy to uphold their racial purity and safeguard their unique lineage.
5. Class Endogamy: It refers to individuals marrying within their social or economic class. This practice
is often seen in societies with distinct social stratification.
➢ An example is found in traditional societies where nobility or aristocrats marry within their social
class to maintain their privileged status and wealth.
Causes of Endogamy Marriage:
1. Policy of Separation - Some people do not want to live with other people of an outside group. They considered
themselves pure while others were impure. They want to live separately and so they practice endogamy.
2. Accumulation of wealth- Some people practice endogamy in the sense that the wealth does not go waste but
remains within the same family. If a woman married in the same group will bring all the dower and her children
to that family or group.
3. Sense of superiority and inferiority - The people of one group considered themselves superior and others
inferior. That sense of people made them marry within the same group.
4. Religious Differences- Religious differences also compel a person to practice endogamy. The people of one’s
group considered their blood purity while that of others impurity of blood. So, they do not want to mix with
them because they are religiously prohibited. Our religion does not allow a Muslim to marry a Non-Muslim.
5. Racial and cultural differences - There must occur some racial and cultural difference b/w the two groups or
castes. Everyone has close relation to its own race and follows the same culture. So, these differences allow a
person to practice endogamy.
6. Geographical Separation - The people of two different groups living at a distance from one another. They
are not ready to marry away from his ancestral territory which causes endogamy.
 P
A
G
E
Endogamy Advantages: \*
1. Maintain numerical Force (Tribals) - examples- Naga M
2. To maintain the lineage. In India prince state marriage with another princely state. It maintains the E
R
purity of blood. Examples: Ancient Egyptians. G
3. Religious and ethnic traditions eg Parsi Tradition EF
O
4. Sense of Unity who use the terms William Brown.
R
5. Behavioral/Cultural aspect - Cultures that practice endogamy require marriage between peoples within M
specific social groups, social classes, or ethnicities as a central part of their moral, cultural, religious, or A
traditional beliefs. Endogamy can be caused by conscious decision, cultural pressure, or geographic T
5
isolation.

6. Women feel satisfaction due to the prior understanding in that family and have no new situation.
7. The wealth goes into the same family.
Endogamy Disadvantages:
1. Restricts the mate selection - example - Haryana maximum village not found bride from their son.
2. Ethnocentrism - Ethnocentrism is measuring or judging one's own culture against another culture and can
lead to judging someone else's culture negatively. Ethnocentrism is also the belief that one's own cultural rules
are the best and often better than another culture's rules.
➢ It creates ethnocentric behavior.
➢ According to this thought process people are not ready to get married beyond their culture and they
want to protect their sense of unity. Because of this concept people are facing difficulty finding a
partner.
3. Regionalism - example of Greater Nagalim and Gorkhaland.
4. Health - Practice inbreeding leads to various diseases. Continued inbreeding reduces fertility and even
productivity. Which is called inbreeding depression. So it’s not healthy if closer relatives marry each other.


PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 2

Marriage (Part-6)
1. Laws of Marriage:
1. Incest Taboo
2. Endogamy
3. Exogamy
4. Hypergamy
5. Hypogamy
3. Exogamy
Definition- It is a rule/Law/norm where a women forced by the social norms to marry outside the social group.
(Exo = outside, gamy = marriage) Exogamy refers to the rule that a man must marry someone outside
his own group. The most important reason of these exogamous rules is to prevent marital alliances between
the close blood relations. For example: clans in tribal communities and Gotra system in Hindu society.
⮚ If a man and a woman belong to the same Gotra, they cannot marry each other.
⮚ Hoebel defined exogamy as, “the social rule that requires an individual to marry outside a culturally
defined group of which he is a member.”
⮚ Malinowski assumed that exogamy is the prohibition of marriage between members of one descent
group (clan) which is explained in incest taboo. Such rule is reported among Gonds, Baiga, Ho,
Oraon, etc.
⮚ Exogamous marriage systems function as a "means of securing or displaying the interlocking of social
groups with one an. other" (Levi-Strauss, 1966:109). The exchange systems of exogamy provide a means
to develop social relations with other.
⮚ It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying
within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual
contacts among themselves.
Forms of Exogamy:
1. Gotra System - For example, Atri, Chhikara, and Sharma, etc. People with the same gotra are considered to
be brothers and sisters because they are stated to have shared the same lineage from a common male ancestor.
Gotra exogamy can be termed as marrying an individual outside of his/her gotra.
2. Diety-eg - vittu peramal, Andra Pradesh and Telangana.
3. Clan- eg - Maria Gond (Chhattisgarh) - Exogamy is the practice of marrying outside one's group, clan, or
kinship. It is often called out-marriage due to the importance of looking outside one's group.
4. Parvara : Common saint concept - Pravara exogamy is the rule that forbids marriages between members of
fame pravara. Pravara refers to 'Rishi' ancestors whom a Brahmin invokes at the sacrifice to Agni. According
to this rule, members having the same Rishi ancestor are not eligible to marry one another. Pravara exogamy
is applicable only to Brahmins.
 3

5. Village exogamy (this is not practice every where) - example - sarkhanda village in Uttarakhand. -
'Village' here refers to the relationship of the tribe. Tribes are considered to be a close form of society, which
makes every person inclusive of it. Marrying outside the tribe or village is called 'village exogamy
Advantages/Reasons:
1. Childhood Familiarity – Westermarck
2. Alliance Creation - National unity. Exogamy leads to national unity, solidarity and avoids ethnocentrism.
3. Stability and peace
4. Diversify mate selection- Selection in choice partner. Exogamy gives the chance of the selection of a partner
because of the vast area.
5. Increase in relatives. Due to the practice of exogamy the number of relatives are increases and also manpower.
6. Love and sympathy. Exogamy leads to love and sympathy b/w two opposite groups or tribes.
7. No hereditary Diseases. Due to exogamy no hereditary diseases come to face. Hereditary diseases produce
infertility in women and cancer in children which is avoided by exogamy. ( Gardner and Sutherland's
Chromosome Abnormalities and Genetic Counseling)
Disadvantages:
1. Moving out – monetary.
2. Cultural Contrast: University of Helsinki (Finland)- leading to divorces. - Cultural differences b/w the
spouses may lead to maladjustment and dissatisfaction
3. It does not maintain the purity of blood and separation of groups.
4. It leaked out the business skills and other secrets of a family.
5. The wealth can be transmitted to outside families.
6. Women feel unhappy because of no prior understanding with the members of that family.
4. Hypergamy :
Definition - It is a practice of marrying a spouse of a higher caste or social status than themselves.
➢ With respect to caste system- Man(higher caste) while Women ( lower caste)
➢ Hypergamy is a system of marriage where a man gets his daughter married to a person of the same or higher
social and economical status. This type of system is found in the stratified societies like Hindus, wherein
it is practiced to retain the social status and prestige of the group. In Hindu society this is known as
Anuloma.
➢ Manu and others writer gave the concept of Anuloma. ( it’s acceptable)
➢ As per Hindu scriptures, Anuloma marriages or unions are not advocated but were tolerated and
accepted historically.
➢ On the other hand, the reverse union called Pratiloma marriages, where a high born woman unites
with a man of low birth (relative to the woman) was condemned.
 4

Distribution of Hypergamy -
❖ India
❖ Ancient Greece
❖ Europe
❖ Other empire
❖ Imperial china
❖ Japan
Advantages -
❖ Social acceptable
❖ Upgradation of status
❖ Recused Divorce rate
❖ Cultural relativism
Issues -
❖ Dowry issues
❖ Gender inequality - female foeticide
❖ Restriction in mate selection
❖ Ethnocentrism
❖ Caste based discrimination
5. Hypogamy - Act or practice of marrying a spouse of a lower caste or status.
➢ Pratiloma or hypogamy is a union of a bride to a groom in a lower social class. While hypogamy isn't
traditionally accepted and even discouraged in Hindu culture, it's a growing trend because of the
progression of women and their status.
➢ This is prohibited in Manusmriti.
➢ Hypogamy is marrying someone considered to be of lower economic or social class or caste.
Hypogamy has been found to be practiced more by men than by women. For men power and control
is the one of the strongest attainments and what often leads them to pursue a hypogamous
relationship.


 2

Marriage (Part-7)

Types of Marriage
Definition - An ‘arrangement’ of marital living based on the ‘number of spouses’. The type, functions, and
characteristics of marriage vary from culture to culture, and can change over time.
Concept based on:
❖ ‘Law’ (eg - Hindu Marriage act)- According to the Hindu marriage act people are not Marry more than one
person.
❖ Social Custom/ Tradition - According to the Sharia law or the Muslim Marriage Laws in India, a man can
have up to 4 wives, but a woman can only have one husband at a time.
❖ Political situation/War - In some areas men are going to warfare so they generally die. Then the woman will
marry her husband's brother. This concept comes from this kind of situation.
❖ Environment - Some area people's life spans are short due to the environment conditions . If the husband
expires then women can marry her husband’s brother.

[Murdock (1967) - ‘ Ethnographic Atlas’

❖ Monogamy only - 16%

❖ Polygyny = 83%

❖ Polyandra = <1%

❖ Unknown/others = Remains]
 3

A. Monogamy: One man getting married/marrying only one woman or vice-versa.

⮚ Monogamy is a relationship with only one partner at a time, rather than multiple partners.

Merit :
1. A monogamous marriage minimizes wrangles/conflicts on property ownership/inheritance.
2. It enhances security among the family members.
3. It enhances commitment/undivided love.
4. More stable.
5. Higher women status.
6. Struggle marriages are less if everyone has one spouse.
7. It upholds the dignity/ honor /confidence/trust among the family members.
8. It reduces the risk of contracting infections/sexually transmitted diseases.
9. Providing/catering for family needs is easier.
10. It reduces delinquency among the family members.
11. Monogamous marriage enhances/promotes intimacy/conjugal rights between the spouses.
Demerit
1. Extra marine affairs .
2. Bride price increase.
3. Crime against women increased.
Types of Monogamy
A. 1. Serial - one wife at one time
Having only one monogamous relationship at a time, but multiple partners throughout a lifetime due to
death, divorce, or choice.

Examples- Khasi
B. 2. Non-Serial - one wife only for the lifetime. He will not marry again. Examples - Oroan. kadar, Birhor.

B. Polygamy - Polygamy is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one
wife at the same time.
 4

A man or woman is permitted to marry more than one woman or man and live with all partners at the same time.
Here, a man is married to more than one woman.

or

Merite:
1. Show of power
2. Less possibility of extramarital affairs - Having more than one partner can reduce the rate of cheating. People
who have multiple partners have a lower incentive to cheat on their partners. In fact, if you have a big selection
of different partners, you will not feel too much urge to go out and to cheat on your partners.
3. Having Varieties: when there are multiple partners you have different varieties.
4. Getting bored: Another advantage of polygamous marriage is that there will be lower risk of people getting
bored in their marriage after the whole wedding and maybe child bearing couples tend to get bored in the
marriage.
5. Status symbol: In some cultures, having multiple spouses at the same time is also considered as kind of a status
symbol. This is especially true for men.
Demerite:
1. Family struggle ( Adjustment) - If there are two many wives then the family faces lots of internal problems
towards property, fathers love etc.
2. Stability issues - Co-wives reported several negative consequences of polygamy such as jealousy, lack of trust,
unhappiness, loneliness, unequal financial division, and social privileges among the multiple wives those are
consistent with previous studies conducted in UAE, Kuwait, Egypt, Jordan.
3. Economic burden ( in general case ) - If you have multiple partners and you have to provide for all of them,
this can also be quite problematic from a financial standpoint. In fact, many people underestimate the costs
related to polygamy and are surprised at how expensive it can be to have multiple partners. The more spouses
you have, the more expensive your lifestyle tends to be.
4. Problematic- Polygamy can be problematic from a legal and religious way. In Many countries all over the
world, polygamy is not permitted by law and marrying multiple partners is simply not allowed.
5. Unhappiness and Child’s neglect- Polygamous marriage can also lead to a state where spouses get stuck in
unhappy marriages. In fact, in many polygamous relationships, spouses will be treated rather poorly and will
also not be allowed to earn their own money. In turn, the level of dependence on their partner is enormous and
those spouses will often not be able to leave the marriage due to financial reasons, even though they might not
be happy in their marriage at all.
 5

6. Gender discrimination- situation whereby one gender is valued than the other, the gender that is less valued
tends to get neglected.
B. Types of Polygamy:
B. 1. Polygyny - A custom/type of martin where a man is marrying multiple women.
B. 1.1. Sororal - Sororal polygyny (White 1988) is described as a marriage in which a man is married to two or
more sisters. This is considered the "best kind" of polygyny, because the sisters get along well and are not
jealous; nonetheless, this type is found in fewer societies than is non sororal polygyny.

Examples - Gond, Ho, Munda tribes

➢ can be Islamic marriage
B.1.2. Non - Sororal - Non-sororal polygyny is the practice of one man being married to at least two women at the
same time, but the co-wives are not related to each other. Example - Bahia, also Gonda tribes have both kinds of
marriage.

Polygyny Reason/ merit -

1. Alliance creations - The alliance theory, also known as the general theory of exchanges, is a structuralist
method of studying kinship relations. It finds its origins in Claude Lévi-Strauss's Elementary Structures of
Kinship (1949). Levi-Strauss' model attempted to offer a single explanation for cross-cousin marriage, sister-
exchange, dual organization and there is one more person is R. Keesing)
2. Mark of status (Arab world) - Polygamous unions are legal in the United Arab Emirates Muslim polygamy,
in practice and law, differs greatly throughout the Islamic world. If some person has multiple wives it is
considered that his social status is high.
3. Political advantage - It was very common for kings and other royalty to have many wives, both as a way to
make alliances with other states or noble families and to ensure that they would have plenty of heirs.
4. Extra labor - women can divide their work.
5. Child care and companionship - Connie Anderson (Study in USA) - see that in a family if one wife’s
child is born the second wife is taking care of it.
6. General urge on the part of man to collect women - Ralph Linton.
7. Behavioral anthropologist - ‘If the man has the resources then why not’.
 6

8. Post partum sex taboo (views by Ember and Ember) - Sexual gratification (Sexual gratification means
providing sexual arousal or pleasure or appealing to prurient interest but does not require overt evidence of
arousal such as an erection, vaginal lubrication, ejaculation, or orgasm.)


 2

Marriage (Part-8)
Polygyny
Demerits:
1. Polygyny often results in familial conflicts, along with the emergence of feelings of envy and jealousy leading
to reduced overall family stability due to complex relationships.
2. It often gives rise to a large number of offspring and may lead to deteriorating social indicators.
3. Polygyny escalates the economic burden by necessitating the support of multiple wives and their families,
potentially straining resources for housing, healthcare, education, and other essentials.
4. In polygyny, the husband's death intensifies economic burden, leaving multiple wives and dependent children
financially and socially vulnerable.
5. In polygyny, women often experience lower socio-economic status; for instance, studies have shown that in
regions where polygyny is prevalent, women may have limited access to education, healthcare, and economic
opportunities, contributing to their overall disadvantage.
Case Study: Gibson and Mace's (2005) research, centred on Mali's Dogon community, revealed that polygyny
intensified competition and disputes among co-wives due to resource scarcity and favouritism. This rivalry
detrimentally affected child welfare and household harmony, underscoring how polygyny can foster intra-family
discord and imbalances, ultimately compromising the family's overall stability.
Polyandry:
Polyandry refers to a form of marriage or family arrangement in which a woman has
multiple husbands simultaneously.

Types of Polyandry:
 3

Reasons / Merits:
1. A scarcity of women can lead to polyandry, where multiple men marry one woman.
Example: During specific historical contexts, like post-war periods or times of elevated male mortality, certain
societies such as the Marajoara culture in ancient Brazil engaged in polyandrous arrangements due to the
scarcity of women, resulting in shared marriages among brothers to ensure familial continuity.
2. Polyandrous marriages can contribute to population control as it reduces the number of children born within
such unions, often due to the shared responsibility for fatherhood.
EXAMPLE: In parts of Tibet where polyandry is practiced historically, scarce agricultural land resources and
a desire to prevent the division of land among multiple heirs can motivate families to limit the number of
offspring through this marital arrangement.
3. Polyandry can be a strategy to prevent the fragmentation of property among multiple heirs, as shared marriages
among brothers help maintain the integrity of family resources.
EXAMPLE: Among the Nyinba people of Nepal, polyandry has been practiced to ensure that land and
property remain undivided within the family unit, safeguarding the family's economic stability.
4. In certain instances of polyandrous marriage, women may experience an elevated status due to increased
support and shared responsibilities.
Example: Among the Toda tribe in India, where polyandry has been practiced, women enjoy higher social
standing as they are central to the family economy and hold significant decision-making power in agricultural
and household matters.
5. It can help consolidate resources and reduce the financial burden on individual households.
Example: Among the Marajoara culture in ancient Brazil, polyandrous arrangements helped manage limited
resources, as multiple brothers shared a household and contributed to the family's economic endeavors.
Demerits:
1. The presence of multiple husbands vying for attention and paternal rights can lead to interpersonal conflicts,
which might affect the harmony within the household and disrupt the stability of the marriage.
2. Polyandry marriages can subject women to heightened sexual pressure from multiple husbands, causing
potential emotional strain and impacting their well-being within the marital context.
3. Polyandry can elevate the risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) due to the increased number of sexual
partners within the marital arrangement. (Point is general for all polygamous society)
4. Recent researches have indicated that in the context of polyandry, there is a growing concern about rising
levels of infertility among women. This might be attributed to factors such as increased sexual activity, stress,
and potential health risks associated with multiple partners.
Case study: A case study focusing on the Toda tribe in India, known for practicing polyandry, revealed that
despite women's substantial influence in household and agricultural decisions, this arrangement can lead to conflicts
within the family. The allocation of a single wife among brothers occasionally led to disputes regarding property
distribution and inheritance, potentially straining familial ties and disturbing the harmony of the household.
 4

Group Marriage/ Polygynandry:

❖ A type of marriage where there may exist monogamy, polygyny, polyandry and other sub-types
simultaneously.

Reasons/ Merits:
1. Polygynandry may facilitate alliance creation by fostering interconnected relationships between multiple
families or individuals, it aligns with Lévi-Strauss's notion of using marriage to build social cohesion and
prevent antagonism between groups.
2. Mujamdar and Madan in their book-An Introduction to Social Anthropology underscored the recognition
of sexual needs as a fundamental aspect of human relationships and marriage. Polygynandry can therefore be
motivated by the pursuit of sexual gratification through multiple partners.
Case study: "Walking marriages" among the Matsigenka tribe in the Peruvian Amazon enable individuals to
establish and end relationships with greater flexibility. This has been proposed to enhance community cooperation
and support, as individuals maintain connections with multiple partners over time, potentially resulting in a network
of shared resources and collective child-rearing.
Demerits:
1. Polygynandry's multiple partners can trigger envy, jealousy, and conflicts over attention, fairness, and
resources.
2. The intricate emotional dynamics, potential for unequal attention, and challenges in resource distribution
within polygynandrous marriages can lead to enduring instability over time.
Case study: The Trobriand Islanders in Papua New Guinea, studied by anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski,
provide a striking case highlighting the overall drawbacks of polygynandry.While the Trobriand Islanders don't
 5

strictly practise it, the system is seen to disrupt social harmony and create tensions among individuals, affecting
overall community cohesion and stability.


 P
A
G
E
Marriage (Part-9) \*
M
E
FUNCTIONS OF MARRIAGES: R
George Peter Murdock defined Marriage as a universal institution that involves residential cohabitation, economic G
EF
co-operation and the formation of the nuclear family. (The above definition outlines the function of marriage.) O
1. Fulfillment of Biophysical Needs : Mujamdar and Madan in their book-An Introduction to Social R
Anthropology -Emphasized that Psychological satisfaction and sexual gratification as an important function M
A
of marriage.
T
❖ Marriage fulfills the fundamental biophysical needs by offering companionship, a regulated context for 5
reproduction and helps in reducing sexual competition.
2. Creation of New Families - One of the functions of marriage is to establish a new family unit, where
individuals come together to form a cohesive social entity.
❖ George Peter Murdock in his book Social Structure emphasized how marriage serves as the foundation for
forming stable family units and transmitting social norms across generations.

3. Specifies Rights and Duties - Marriage specifies rights and duties between partners, outlining their roles
within the relationship.
❖ Edmund Leach, through his analysis of kinship systems, demonstrated how marriage creates social bonds by
establishing rules and obligations that regulate interactions within families and broader communities.
EXAMPLE: In the Kinyankole culture, prenuptial agreements are traditionally negotiated between families
before marriage. These agreements outline the rights and duties of each partner, as well as the responsibilities of
their respective families.
4. Marriage serves the function of forging alliances between families or social groups. Alliances play a role in
mutual defense, wartime cooperation, participation in rituals, and fostering economic collaboration.

❖ Claude Lévi-Strauss- highlighted the notion of marriage as an alliance creator, asserting that exchanging
women in marriage forms bonds, prevents conflicts, and builds cooperation among communities.
 P
A
G
E
EXAMPLE: Marriage in the Maori tribe historically served to create alliances between different iwi (tribal \*
groups). Marriages were often arranged to forge strategic relationships, facilitate trade, and ensure peaceful M
coexistence between tribes. E
R
5. Economic Cooperation - Marriage promotes economic cooperation by combining resources, skills, and labor
G
between families to enhance collective well-being. EF
Thinkers like George Peter Murdock, Edmund Leach, and Mayer Fortes recognised marriage's significance in O
fostering economic cooperation through resource pooling, establishment of social roles, and marriage payments, R
M
respectively. A
EXAMPLE: In Maasai culture, cattle are of great significance, serving as a symbol of wealth and status. When a T
marriage occurs, cattle are often exchanged between families as part of the marriage arrangement. The pooled cattle 5
resources provide a safety net during times of need, such as drought or other challenges.
6. Division of Labour - Marriage establishes a division of labor as partners assume specialized roles, enhancing
household efficiency and resource management.
❖ Edmund Leach's structuralist perspective underscores how marriage assigns distinct roles, contributing to
efficient household functioning and broader social structures.
CASE STUDY
7. Marriage upholds cultural continuity by passing down
traditions, values, and heritage across generations,
fostering social cohesion.
❖ Mujamdar and Madan in their book-An
Introduction to Social Anthropology emphasized
that marriage involves the means to maintain
cultural continuity helping to ensure the
preservation and evolution of a society's cultural
identity.
Data : Arrange Marriage - 95 to 97% ( Cultural
continuity)
Examples: Practice of arranged marriages in certain
societies.


PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 2

Marriage (Part-10)

Marriage payment
❖ EVANS PRITCHARD - No woman is left unmarried, where a woman is treated as a good or a product , which
could be bought/sold.
❖ RADCLIFFE BROWN - Marriage payments are a means to compensate the women’s family, for disruption
of its solidarity, and for the right to demand reimbursement in case the bride is killed or injured.
Introduction
❖ MEYER FORTIS - Book ‘Marriage in tribal society 1962’. Marriage Payments in a general view are the
one which involve transfers, whether they may take place in the form of valuables, livestock, money , labor or
in form of a symbolic goods which symbolize transfer to the husband the marital rights over his wife and the
parental rights over the children that would be born to her. Example- Ashanti Tribe

Marriage Forms- In about 75% of the societies known to anthropology, one or more explicit economic transactions
take place before or after the marriage Such economic transactions may take several forms: bride price, exchange
of females, gift exchange,dowry etc.
According to the Murdock:

1. Bridewealth/ bride-price or marriage payment, is a gift of money or goods from the groom or his kin to the
bride's kin. The gift usually grants the groom the right to marry the bride and the right to her children. It may
be paid in goods, money, land or livestock.
Forms/Examples:
❖ The Swaji of South Africa or Nuer ( Africa): cattle
❖ The Saine of New Guinea and Ifugao of Philippines give pig as bride wealth.
❖ Navajo in Somalia - horse
❖ Kwakiutl Red Indians - blanket
 3

❖ Todas (India) - clothes

Reasons:
1. William Stephen - Bride price, a form of marriage payment leads to Legitimacy.
2. Robert Harry Lowie - Bride price is raising the status of a woman.
3. RADCLIFFE BROWN - Marriage payments are a means to compensate the women’s family, for disruption
of its solidarity.
4. Ember and Ember - This type of marriage payment Increases the stability of marriage.
5. MEYER FORTIS - transfer to the husband the marital rights over his wife and the parental rights over the
children that would be born to her. (Marital Rights + Parental rights) Of all the forms of economic transactions
involved in marriage, bride price is the most common - 44% of societies with economic transactions
during marriage. According to the Murdock 47.9%
 It is not payment for women, but rather is seen as a way of valuing the labor of women, the effort involved by
the bride’s family in raising the female and the labor value of the woman’s offspring. It is more common in
patrilineal and patrilocal systems. It is also common where land is abundant and the labor of women and
children contributes to group welfare. Examples: Nandi tribe, Subanun of Philippines, Manus of
Admiralty Islands.

2. BRIDE SERVICE - Requires the groom or prospective groom to work for the bride's family, sometimes
before the marriage, sometimes after. It varies in duration, from a few months to several years. Forms
- North Alaskan, Eskimo . lepcha tribe.
Reason -
I. As mentioned under earlier headings
II. As an alternative to bride wealth. Example of Ho tribes

3. WOMEN EXCHANGE/ EXCHANGES OF FEMALES - A sister or female relative of the groom is

exchanged for the bride. eg. Tiv of West Africa.

Forms/ Examples:
❖ Munda (Jharkhand)
❖ Tiv Tribe Nigeria
❖ bhotiyas of Uttarakhand
 4

Reasons:

❖ The exchange of women is an element of alliance theory — the structuralist theory of Claude Lévi-
Strauss and other anthropologists who see society as based upon the patriarchal treatment of women
as property, being given to other men to cement alliances. Such formal exchange may be seen in the
ceremony of the traditional Christian wedding,in which the bride is given to the groom by her father.
❖ R. Keesing - It helps in creation of stronger bonds between families (via alliance formation).

4. GIFT EXCHANGE : gift exchange, also called ceremonial exchange, the transfer of goods or services that,
although regarded as voluntary by the people involved, is part of the expected social behavior.
Involves the exchange of gifts about equal value by the two kin groups to be linked by marriage. eg.
Andaman Islanders.
❖ According to William Stephen - Gift exchange is the sum up of bride price and dowry. ( Gift exchanges
= Bride price + Dowry)
❖ Frequency- 2.7% (According to the Murdock)
Forms/Examples:
❖ radcliffe brown andaman islanders
❖ Bronisław Malinowski trobriand islands
Reasons:
 It gives solidarity (based on reciprocity)
❖ Marcel Mauss- Book ‘The gift’. ( Mauss emphasizes that exchanging gifts resulted from the will of attaching
other people – 'to put people under obligations', because "in theory such gifts are voluntary, but in fact they
are given and repaid under obligation".)
 R. Brown - Gift exchange shows social status.

5. DOWRY -
 women frequently receive dowries in lieu of a right of inheritance from their-father's estates(Goody
and Tambiah 1973).
 5

 It is usually a substantial transfer of goods or money from the bride’s family to the bride, the groom, the
groom’s kin or the couple.
 A woman’s dowry might include personal possessions such as clothing and jewels, money, servants or
land.
 It was practiced in medieval Europe and is still prevalent in South Asia.
Forms/ examples: It’s happened in almost all the areas in our country.
❖ Land
❖ Money
❖ Livestock
❖ cash,
❖ jewelry,
❖ electrical appliances,
❖ furniture, bedding,
❖ crockery, utensils,
❖ car
❖ and other household items that help the newlyweds set up their home.
Reason/ Cause:
❖ Customs and traditions – A majority of dowry-related cases in India take place to adhere to the customs and
traditions of Indian society. People tend to follow what has been followed through the years and stick to such
customs even if it causes discomfort to them.
❖ Social structure – The Indian society is mainly patriarchal and the dowry system is largely the manifestation
of the patriarchal nature of the Indian society where women are being considered as a burden on the family and
giving dowry is one kind of compensation for transferring its burden whereas male offsprings are considered
to be superior and breadwinners thus making families demand dowry for them.
❖ Fear of ill-treatment – Many families in India give dowry to get rid of their insecurity of ill-treatment of their
daughters by their in-laws. There is a perception that giving dowry will ensure their daughter’s security after
marriage and non-discrimination.
❖ Societal pressure – Many a time, it becomes a matter of status to give dowry. In Indian society, it has become
a common phenomenon to measure one’s status by the amount of money one spends on their daughter’s
marriage.Similarly, the more educated and well-to-do family the groom belongs to, the amount of dowry is that
high. The pressure thus increases on both fronts, on the bride’s side to pay more, on the groom’s side to demand
more.
❖ Social constraints – Compulsion to marry within one’s caste or clan further intensifies the problem. These
limitations deplete the pool of desirable grooms leading to a lack of desirable options thus helping the desirable
side to demand more.
❖ Illiteracy – Lack of education and awareness among people persuades them to give and demand dowry. If
families were aware that women have equal status as men and they are not to be treated as a burden, then this
system might have not been perpetuated.
Positive function of dowry :
❖ Marital exchange such as bride-price affirms an alliance between two families united by marriage.
❖ provides a bride with some protection against an abusive husband.
❖ Should she leave her husband, a woman’s family may demand full or part of her dowry be returned.
❖ a young couple may use the dowry to set up their own household.
 6

❖ Finally,a woman may need to rely upon her dowry for support should her husband die and she has no
rights to inheritance.
Negative effects:
❖ Harassment deaths, suicides is most common .
❖ Gender discrimination– As the trend goes, dowry is one of the heavier financial burdens to be borne by
the bride’s family, this invites discrimination against girls right from their birth.They are not educated
and treated at par with their male counterparts and are often killed before or after their birth (female
foeticide and infanticide).As per the State of World Population 2020 report by the United Nations Population
Fund (UNFPA), India accounts for 45.8 million of the world’s 142.6 million “missing females” over the past
50 years.As per the report, between 2013 and 2017, about 460,000 girls in India were missing at birth each
year. Gender-biased sex selection accounts for about two-thirds of the total missing girls, and post-birth female
mortality accounts for about one-third, the report said.
❖ Violence against women – It has been the case that despite the payment of dowry by the bride’s parents,
the groom’s families keep on demanding more, eventually leading to violence against women. Women are
tortured physically and mentally and many are killed and burned.Many women who cannot bear the torture
commit suicide.As per the NCRB data, dowry deaths rose from about 19 per day in 2001 to 21 per day in
2016.In 2019, reported dowry death cases in India amounted to more than 7.1 thousand.According to the
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2019 data for IPC cases, a woman becomes a victim of dowry death
roughly every one hour.
❖ Gender imbalance – As the cases of violence against women and dowry-related deaths increase, the malice of
sex selection before birth and female foeticide and infanticide rise leading to the fall in the sex ratio leading to
gender imbalance which has grim consequences for the future.
❖ Declined social status and self-esteem of women – Since women face such discrimination from early
childhood, they have low self-esteem compared to men of their age. They are made to believe that they are a
burden on their families and thus undesirable.


 2

Marriage (Part-11)

Marriage Regulations
Marriage regulations refer to the social norms, rules, and legal frameworks that govern the institution of marriage
within a given society. These regulations vary widely across cultures and time periods, influencing who can marry,
how marriages are arranged, and the roles and expectations of spouses.
According to the R.Needham - ‘Rethinking marriage and Kinship(1971)’.

1. Proscriptive marriage- A proscriptive marriage system is one that strictly not allowed.
Examples - Incest. An incest taboo is any cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between certain
members of the same family, mainly between individuals related by blood.
2. Prescriptive marriage- The prescriptive rule is a marriage regulation which directs an individual whom he
can/should marry.
I. Endogamy - According to McLennan, endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a specific
social or kinship group.
 3

II. Exogamy - It is a rule/Law/norm where a women forced by the social norms to marry outside the social
group.(Exo = outside, gamy = marriage) Exogamy refers to the rule that a man must marry someone
outside his own group. .
III. Hypergamy - Hypergamy is a system of marriage where a man gets his daughter married to a person of
the same or higher social and economical status. This type of system is found in the stratified societies
like Hindus, wherein it is practiced to retain the social status and prestige of the group. In Hindu society
this is known as Anuloma.
IV. Hypogamy - Act or practice of marrying a spouse of a lower caste or status.
3. Preferential marriage -
I. Primary-
➢ Paraller cousin- Parallel cousin (plural parallel cousins) The child of one's father's brother or of one's
mother's sister; a cousin related via same-gender siblings rather than opposite-gender ones (the latter
being a cross-cousin).

In the diagram above D and E are the son and daughter of two brothers B and C.
They are both members of the same patrillineage.
❖ Cross cousin marriage - Cross-cousin marriage (i.e., marriage with the offspring of a parent's opposite-sex
sibling) is the most common preferred marriage arrangement across cultures. Example - Gond Tribe
[Additional information-
Role -
 4

The role of cross-cousins is especially important in some cultures. For example, marriage is promoted between
them in the Iroquois system. Parallel cousins are occasionally the subject of promoted marriage, such as the
preferential marriage of a male to his father's brother's daughter, common among some pastoral peoples. Such
a marriage helps keep property within a lineage. On the other hand, parallel cousin unions in some cultures
would fall under an incesttaboo, since parallel cousins are part of the subject's unilineage whereas cross-cousins
are not.]
II. Secondary
➢ Levirate - Levirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged
to marry his brother's widow. Levirate marriage has been practiced by societies with a s trong clan
structure in which exogamous marriage (i.e. marriage outside the clan) is forbidden.
➢ Sororate - Sororate marriage is a type of marriage in which a husband engages in marriage or sexual
relations with the sister of his wife, usually after the death of his wife or if his wife has proven infertile.
Marriage regulations encompass a range of aspects, including:
1. Eligibility and Consent - Societies often have age requirements for marriage and may require the consent of
individuals involved, particularly when one or both parties are considered minors. Consent might also extend
to parental or community approval.
2. Endogamy and Exogamy- Some societies encourage marriage within specific social, ethnic, or religious
groups (endogamy), while others promote marriage outside these groups (exogamy). These rules influence
social cohesion, identity, and the exchange of resources.
3. Monogamy and Polygamy- Marriage regulations also dictate whether a society practices monogamy (one
spouse) or polygamy (multiple spouses). Polygamy can take the form of polygyny (one husband, multiple
wives) or polyandry (one wife, multiple husbands).
4. Arranged vs. Love Marriages- Societies differ in whether marriages are arranged by families, matchmakers,
or other intermediaries, or if individuals have the freedom to choose their partners based on personal
preferences and feelings.
5. Gender Roles and Responsibilities- Marriage regulations often establish roles and responsibilities for spouses
based on cultural norms. These roles may be complementary, hierarchical, or evolving to reflect changing
societal values.
6. Divorce and Dissolution- Regulations surrounding divorce, separation, and the dissolution of marriages vary
widely. Societies may have strict criteria for ending a marriage, or divorce may be relatively accessible.
7. Inheritance and Property Rights- Marriage regulations can affect the distribution of property and inheritance
rights, particularly in relation to spouses and children.
8. Same-Sex Marriage - In recent years, the recognition of same-sex marriages has brought about changes in
marriage regulations in many societies, challenging traditional norms and sparking debates.
 5

Marriage regulations to understand how they shape social structures, power dynamics, gender relations, and
individual identities within a given culture or society. These regulations often reflect and reinforce broader social
norms and values.
Marriage forms in Hinduism
1. Brahma form of marriage:
➢ The Brahma form of marriage is said to be the best and mostly practiced throughout India.
➢ Thus the “gift of the daughter, clothed and decked, to a man learned in the Vedas, whom her father
voluntarily invites and respectfully receives, is the nuptial rite called “Brahma”.
➢ C.D. Banerjee is of the view that this form of marriage was called so because it was fit for the Brahmans.
➢ The Hindu Sastrakaras have considered it the highest, purest and most evolved method of marriage as it
was free from physical force, carnal appetite, imposition of conditions and money.
2. Daiva form of Marriage:
➢ The Daiva Vivaha is a righteous form of marriage.
➢ It is a form of marriage unique to the ancient Brahmins, where a man gifts his richly bedecked daughter's
hand in marriage to a priest who officiates at the former's sacrifice ceremony, in lieu of paying the letter a
nominal sacrificial fee.
3. Arsha marriage:
➢ It is a form of marriage where a man gifts his daughter as a bride, after receiving one pair of cattle, a cow
and a bull, or two pairs from a groom, the exchange being perceived as a matter of the law, rather than the
sale of the former's daughter.
4. Prajapatya marriage:
➢ In a Prajapatya marriage, the bride's father goes in search of a groom, rather than the other way around,
which makes it inferior to a Brahma marriage.
5. Gandharva marriage:
➢ The Gandharvavivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. It is a form of love marriage that arises out of
the mutual love shared between a youth and a maiden, where the primary purpose is sexual intercourse.
➢ It is not approved because no consultation of one's family members or the performance of ritual ceremonies
takes place.
➢ It is considered to be permissible to the members of the Kshatriya varna, and only the Vaishya and the
Shudra varnas according to Smriti texts though it has grown increasingly common in the present-day due
to the practice of dating among the newer generations.
6. Asura marriage:
➢ The Asuravivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. It is a form of marriage where a bridegroom receives
a maiden, after having given of his own free will as much wealth as he can afford, to the bride, and her
kinsmen.
 6

➢ As a form of marriage performed by paying a bride price, it is generally stated to be forbidden, though it is
sometimes cited to be allowed for members of the Vaishya and Shudra varnas.
7. Rakshasa marriage:
➢ The Rakshasa Vivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage.
➢ It is the marriage performed after a non-consenting maiden is seized by force or abducted by a man.
➢ When such a maiden is abducted, she is described to weep as her relatives are assaulted and slain, and their
house is wrecked.
➢ The marriage is then celebrated in the absence of the father of the bride by the family of her abductor.
➢ It is a reprehensible form of marriage that is condemned by the Manusmriti and is punished by law in
society in the present day.
8. Paishacha marriage:
➢ The Paishacha Vivah is a non-righteous form of marriage.
➢ When a man stealthily rapes a woman who is asleep, intoxicated, or mentally challenged, it is regarded to
be a marriage, though only to preserve the honor of the woman.
➢ This is condemned in the Manusmriti as a sinful act. In modern times, this is classified as a form of date
rape and is a crime in most countries.
Ways through which the Tribals Acquire their Mates
1. Probationary Marriage:
➢ In this type of marriage, a tribal youth lives in the house of the girl for weeks or months together.
➢ Thereafter, if both the boy and the girl like each other, they may enter into wedlock, or in case of dislike
they may be separated.
➢ If marriage is not solemnized, the boy will have to pay compensation to the girl’s parents.
➢ It is called a probationary marriage because the boy stays in his would -be father-in-law’s house as a
probationer.
➢ Eg: The Kuki tribe of Arunachal Pradesh is said to follow this type of marriage.
2. Marriage by capture:
➢ In the marriage by capture, both the boys and the girl are known to each other for long.
➢ But marriage cannot be solemnized either due to the unwillingness of the parents of either party or due to
the inability on the part of the boy to pay the bride price.
➢ Therefore capture appears to be the only way out. Sometimes the captures are pre-arranged and often take
place in fare, and festival markets.
➢ This type of marriage is practiced among the Kondha, Juang, Bhuinya, Kharia, Birhor, etc.
3. Marriage by trial:
➢ This is a peculiar type of tribal marriage practiced among the Bhils of Madhya Pradesh. In this type of
marriage, the courage and bravery of the young man is appreciated and recognized.
➢ Traditionally, on the ‘Holi’ day a group of Bhil bachelors and spinsters meet at the end of the village in a
large field and fix up a wooden pole, at the field.
 7

➢ They keep a litter ‘gur’ and coconut at the top of the pole and make two circles around the pole. The inner
circle is made by the spinners around the pole and the boys make the outer ring.
➢ The girls sing and dance in the inner ring and the unmarried boys who make the outer circle try to push
through the girls by breaking their inner ring and climbing on the pole to eat the ‘gur’ and coconut.
➢ If a boy comes out successful in his endeavor, he is free to choose any girl in the group for marriage.
4. Marriage by Purchase:
➢ The man pays the price for the bride to her parents before he has her as his wife.
➢ The price paid may be in the form of cash or kind. This type of marriage is widely prevalent among a
number of tribes all over India. The price is paid by the groom’s father to the girl’s father according to
traditional custom.
➢ This payment, also known as bride prices, emphasizes the sale and purchase of a bride.
➢ This type of marriage is found among the Kondh, the Juang, the Ho, and the Munda. The Renghma Nagas
also practice this way of acquiring mates.
5. Marriage by Service:
➢ Some tribals have evolved the solution of higher bride price which the economically weaker tribal youths
cannot afford to.
➢ If the bride-groom is unable to pay the bride price, he has to serve in his would be father-in-law’s house as
a servant and marries the girl after the lapse of a specific period.
➢ During the period the boy works in the house of the would be father-in-law without any payment and
equalizes the bride price through his free service.
➢ The Gond and the Baiga practice this marriage. The Gond and the Baiga call the boy Lamini and Lamena
respectively.
6. Marriage by exchange:
➢ If a son and daughter of marriageable age are available in two families they may exchange the daughters
and do not pay any bride price for obtaining the bride.
➢ In tribal India, the Kondh, the Saora, the Juang, Bhuiyan the Santal etc.; practice this type of marriage.
7. Marriage by Elopement:
➢ Among many Indian tribes unmarried boys and girls lead dormitory life and often involve in sexual
relationships by coming in contact with each other.
➢ At times the tribal girls and boys may spend nights together while on dance expeditions to neighbouring
villages.
➢ If the parents do not give consent, to the love of the would-be spouses for marriage, they flee away to some
other place without any information to the parents.
➢ Such delinquent couple may, later on, be received back by their parents. Sometimes the parents make a
search for the eloped couple and arrange their marriage. In this type of marriage, bride price is easily
avoided.
➢ The Juang, the Santal, the Bhuinya, the Kondha and the Saora practice this type of marriage.
 8

➢ This marriage practice is also prevalent among the tribals of the Chotanagpur Region as ‘Udra-Udri
Cholki’.
8. Marriage by Intrusion:
➢ This is the reverse way of the marriage by capture, wherein a girl desirous of marrying a particular tribal
male expresses her willingness and goes to his family.
➢ She forcibly thrusts herself onto him and stays with him, despite the non -acceptance of the male.
➢ In the process she is subjected to humiliating treatment and refusal of food and often physical torture.
➢ But in spite of such humiliation, disrespect, or torture if she sticks to the marriage and stays there she is
accepted and the marriage is performed.
➢ The Juang, Kondh, and the Bhuiyan practice this marriage. But such marriages are widely reported from
the Birhor and Ho tribes of the Chotanagpur region.


 2

UNIT 2. 3 Marriage

Marriage-
Exception of Marriages
1. Nayar of Kerala - The "visiting husband" had very Little importance in his wife's family and had no
responsibility for any children he might sire. His main responsibilities were for his sister's children. The
practice of polyandry also placed a limitation on relationships between men and their own biological children.
2. ‘Na’ of China - The Na of China, farmers in the Himalayan region, live without the institution of marriage.
Na brothers and sisters live together their entire lives, raising the women's children.
3. Ghost Marriages( Nure) - The “ghost marriage” is a practice similar to the levirate, whereby a woman marries
a man in the name of his deceased brother. This rare form of alliance is found in very few cultures and aims at
ensuring the legacy of a lineage.
Example - For rich women among the Nuer of South Sudan, it is a means of preserving their own wealth; a
woman can thus take on the role of a man and marry another woman, who will bear children in the name of
the “ghost pater.”

4. Nandi of Kenya - In Nandi, a female husband should always be a woman of advanced age who has failed to
bear a son. The purpose of the union is to provide a male heir.
5. Adopted marriages in Japan - Generally in Japan, a woman takes her husband's name and is adopted into
his family. When a family, especially one with a well established business, has no male heir but has an unwed
daughter of a suitable age, she will marry the mukoyōshi, a man chosen especially for his ability to run the
family business.
6. Uncle Niece Marriage - Avunculate marriage was common among South India's Hindus. Currently, it is
mostly practiced in rural and small to medium cities. The most common form is where the elder daughter is
married away to her youngest maternal uncle. The wedding is usually called Maman Kalyanam (Thai Maman
Kalyanam in Tamil Nadu).
 3

Additional information-
‘Live in relationship’ within the institution of marriage -
A "live-in relationship" typically refers to an arrangement where a couple chooses to live together and share their
lives without being legally married. This often involves sharing a household, responsibilities, and possibly financial
matters. It's an alternative to traditional marriage, allowing individuals to experience companionship, intimacy, and
partnership without the formalities of marriage.
However, the term "within the institution of marriage" seems a bit contradictory, as marriage itself is a distinct
legal and social institution. If you mean a situation where a couple lives together without being married but still
maintain the commitment and characteristics of a marital relationship, that would essentially be a live-in
relationship with marriage-like dynamics. Keep in mind that the legal rights and obligations associated with
marriage might not apply in such a situation, so it's important to understand the legal implications in your
jurisdiction.
The couple is also regarded as married if they live together for a considerably long period until proven
otherwise -
 Since living relationships also support premarital sex, there are high chances of a child being born. These
children, unlike the successors born out of wedlock, do not have any rights over the inheritance. Besides this,
society treats them as illegitimate children, which is unacceptable.
 However, the Hon’ble Supreme Court cleared them of this ill-fated. And granted them the status of a legitimate
child along with the right to property.
 The apex court has given five different types of living together in the excellent judgment of Indra Sarma Vs
V.K.V. Sarma in 2013.
 Despite living in relationships becoming legal, they remain non-binding for the partners.
 The Indian Law/Supreme Court is trying to bring in change. Moreover, the legal position of this foreign
concept is being expanded. India has a wide definition of live-in relationships.)