Module 3 | Lesson 1 - RAMAYANA BY THE RAMAYANA

VALMIKI ( Indian Literature) The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic that

follows Prince Rama's quest to rescue his
INDIAN LITERATURE beloved wife Sita from the clutches of Ravana
The Indian literary tradition is primarily one of with the help of an army of monkeys. It is
verse and is also essentially oral. The earliest traditionally attributed to the authorship of the
works were composed to be sung or recited and sage Valmiki and dated to around 500 BCE to
were so transmitted for many generations 100 BCE.
before being written down. As a result, the
earliest records of a text may be later by several Comprising 24,000 verses in seven cantos, the
centuries than the conjectured date of its epic contains the teachings of the very ancient
composition. Hindu sages. One of the most important literary
works of ancient India, it has greatly influenced
Among the noted outputs include: art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and
southeast Asia, with versions of the story also
Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the appearing in the Buddhist canon from a very
Mahabharata early date. The story of Rama has constantly
been retold in poetic and dramatic versions by
Puranas, mythological writings some of India's greatest writers and also in
narrative sculptures on temple walls. It is one of
Gitagovinda(The Cowherd's Song) by Jaydev the staples of later dramatic traditions, re-
enacted in dance-dramas, village theatre,
Religious love poems written in Maithili (eastern shadow-puppet theatre, and the annual Ram-lila
Hindi of Bihar) by the poet Vidyapati (Rama-play).

Shakuntala by Kalidasa’s, a heroic play, a model Origins

for ages The original five books of an oral epic of local
northern significance dealing with a hero and his
The Panchatantra and Hitopadesha, collections exile, the abduction of his wife by a rival king and
of wit and wisdom in the Indian style, teaching her rescue became conflated into seven books
proper conduct through animal fables and in which the hero Rama became an avatar of the
aphorisms. god Vishnu, the scene shifted to encompass the
whole of India, and the struggle to recover his
Noted Indian Literature Authors: wife became a metaphor for the final triumph of
the righteous.
1. Rabindranath Tagore, the first Indian to win
the Nobel Prize for literature (1913) and wrote AN OVERVIEW OF THE RAMAYANA
Gitanjali, his masterpiece Rama, prince of Ayodhya, won the hand of the
2. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) for his beautiful princess Sita but was exiled with her
Glimpses of World History, Discovery of India, and his brother Laksmana for 14 years through
and An Autobiography the plotting of his stepmother. In the forest Sita
3. Mulk Raj Anand who wrote was abducted by Ravana, and Rama gathered
Untouchable(1935) and Coolie(1936) an army of monkeys and bears to search for her.
4. RK. Narayan, writer of novels and tales of The allies attacked Lanka, killed Ravana, and
village life in southern India. rescued Sita. In order to prove her chastity, Sita
Among his many works are Swami and entered fire, but was vindicated by the gods and
Friends,, The English Teacher(1980), The restored to her husband. After the couple's
Vendor of Sweets(1983), and Under the Banyan triumphant return to Ayodhya, Rama's righteous
Tree (1985). rule (Ram-raj) inaugurated a golden age for all
5. Anita Desai with Clear Light of Day(1980)and mankind.
In Custody(1984)
 exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains
Characters of the Ramayana Rama's sandals and places them on the throne
as a gesture that Rama is the true king.
Rama Sumitra is Dasharatha's wife and mother of the
is the hero of the Ramayana epic, an incarnation twins Lakshmana and Satrughna.
of the God Vishnu. The eldest and favourite son
of Dasaratha, King of Ayodhya, he is a virtuous Hanuman
prince and is much loved by the people. He is is the wise and resourceful monkey who helps
exiled from Ayodhya due to the plotting of his Rama in his quest to defeat Ravana and rescue
stepmother, Kaikeyi. Sita.

Sita Sugriva
is Rama's wife and daughter of King Janaka of is the ruler of the monkey kingdom. His throne
Mithila. Sita is the epitome of womanly purity was taken by his brother Bali, but Rama helps
and virtue. him to defeat the usurper in return for his
assistance in finding Sita.
Laksmana
(seen here) is Rama's younger brother. BASIC HINDU BELIEFS IN RAMAYANA
Completely loyal to Rama, he chooses to go • Dharma is the moral balance of all things.
with Rama and Sita when they are exiled from Dharma is played out in all aspects of life:
Ayodhya. religious, social, family

Ravana • Karma is the belief that a person

is the king of Lanka and has 10 heads and 20 experiences the effects of his or her
arms. He received a boon from the God Brahma actions—that every act or thought has
that he cannot be killed by gods, demons or by consequences.
spirits, after performing a severe penance for
10,000 years. After receiving his reward from • Samsara Reincarnation represents the
Brahma, Ravana began to lay waste to the earth cycle of life, death, and rebirth in which a
and disturbed the deeds of the good Hindu person carries his or her own karma. A
sages. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama person may experience effects of past
to defeat him, assisted by an army of monkeys lives and a worldly status depends upon
and bears, thus circumventing the boon given actions in a past life. Good thoughts and
by Brahma. actions can liberate a person.

Dasaratha • Moksha is like heaven for the Christian,

is the King of Ayodhya, Rama's father. Hindus strive to reach moksha or a state
Kausalya is Rama's mother, Dasaratha's chief of changeless bliss. This is achieved by
wife. living a life of religious devotion or moral
integrity. The ultimate reward is a release
Kaikeyi from samsara and union with God.
is Dasaratha's wife and Rama's stepmother.
She demands that Rama be banished to the
forest and that her son Bharata be awarded the
kingdom instead.

Bharata
is the second son of Dasaratha. When he learns
that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into
exile, causing Dasaratha to die broken hearted,
he storms out of the palace and goes in search
of Rama. When Rama refuses to return from his
 Influenced by the tide of the world literature, it
Module 3 | Lesson 3 - ANALECTS by provided wide and amiable communication
CONFUCIUS ( Chinese Literature) between writers and readers.

Core Content: ANALECTS by CONFUCIUS Present-Age Literature

CHINESE LITERATURE Present-age literature is that which has
evolved since the establishment of the People's
Chinese literature can be divided into four main Republic in 1949. During this time, there was a
periods: classical literature, modern literature, logjam as a consequence of the Cultural
contemporary literature and the present-age Revolution that lasted for nearly 10 years. That
literature. era is now long past and we now have a
favorable turn on events and a great number of
Classical literature responsible writers deepen the literary forms
Classical literature refers to the earliest period and content. Nowadays literature prospers. As
and covers works from three thousand years the Chinese nation is a racial mix of Han people
ago to the late Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), and together with 55 other ethnic groups, literature
is a virtually unbroken strand enduring dynastic reflects this. The various ethnic groups have
changes. Written in an ancient form of language contributed greatly in this field.
that is very different from present day Chinese,
it needs to be carefully studied to be understood. GREAT CHINESE WRITERS
Since it was nearly always developed under the
reign of centralized and unified government, it is Tu Fu
imbued with the thoughts of a culture that Tu-Fu received a Confucian education and his
embraced slavery and a feudal society. It was poems speak of the sad fate of the people, and
steeped in an enclosed environment that hardly his deep hatred of war.
had any real links with religion or least of all the
literature of foreign cultures. Li Po
Li Po was probably the greatest Chinese poets
Modern Literature of pre-modern times. It is generally agreed that
Modern literature refers to the period he and Tu Fu raised the shih, a Chinese verse
from the Opium War in 1840 to the May Fourth form to its highest level of power and
Movement in 1919. As the decadent reign of the expressiveness; later poets at times
Qing failed to inspire the minds of people, the approached but never surpassed them.
literary forms had remained unchanged; till the
Opium War in 1840. Then they absorbed the ChuangTzu was a leading thinker representing
impact of western thoughts as foreigners poured the Taoist strain in Chinese thought. Using
in China and established their colonies. Novels, parable and anecdote, allegory and paradox,
poetry and other works began to appear with a he set forth the early ideas of what was to
theme of patriotism and a revelation of social ills. become the Taoist school.

Contemporary Literature Lao Tzu is a contemporary of Confucius and

Contemporary literature spanned the Chinese verse form amd known for his work
period from 1919 to the foundation of modern in entitled Tao-Te Ching
1949 and took on a new vigor, despite the fact
that Chinese was in the throws of checkered and
complicated times. This period was distinctive
as it brought into being a new and revised
literary language, form, content and skills
allowing it to evolve into an independent and
open art available to the whole of society. It
attached great attention to people's lives and a
future with strong political tendencies.
 province and was buried in the town of Qufu
(also transliterated as Chü-fou and Kufow), the
THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS
capital of the state of Lu in ancient times. A
The Analects (Lun-yü) is a collection of moral temple honoring Confucius and his disciples
and ethical principles enunciated by the was built in 1724 on the site where his house
Chinese thinker Confucius (K’ung Fu-tzu) in once stood. Just outside the town is the tomb of
conversations with his disciples. These Confucius and other members of the K’ung
principles set standards for individual conduct family.
and the administration of government and
community. After Confucius died in 479 BC, his
followers compiled his teachings in the form of GENERAL THEME OF THE ANALECTS
dialogues between him and his students. The
Running through the teachings of Confucius is
resulting collection highly influenced
this theme: A man should lead an upright life,
educational, social, and cultural thought in
educate himself, and contribute to the
China and elsewhere.
betterment of society. The superior man, he
says, respects elders, cultivates the friendship
of good people, presides over his subordinates
The passages in The Analects appear as
with a fair and even hand, continually educates
dialogues between Confucius and his disciples.
himself, overflows with love for fellow human
In 479 BC, when Confucius died, these disciples
beings, and in general sets a good example for
began collecting and compiling the dialogues.
others to follow.
Over the next two-and-a-half centuries,
followers of Confucian ideals saw the work STYLE OF THE ANALECTS
through to its conclusion in 221 BC.
The passages in The Analects are terse and
easy to understand. Many of these passages,
though presented in the form of conversation,
THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS
are epigrams that stand alone as wise and
Confucius, or K’ung Fu-tzu, was born in China memorable admonitions. The statements make
on Sept. 27 or 28, 551 BC, in the state of Lu, frequent use of parallel structure and antithesis
now Shantung Province. The Chinese observe as in the following passages from The Analects:
his birthday, called Teachers’ Day, on Sept. 28.
The Master said, "If a man in the morning hear
The father of Confucius was said to have been
the right way, he may die in the evening without
a member of the nobility, but the K’ung family fell
regret" (Book 4, Chapter 8).
into poverty after his death, when Confucius
was just three. In spite of his family’s financial The Master said, "Is virtue a thing remote? I wish
problems, Confucius received a good education to be virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand" (Book 7,
in music, arithmetic, calligraphy, and other Chapter 29).
disciplines. After marrying at age nineteen, he
When a country is well-governed, poverty and a
earned a living tending stable animals and
mean condition are things to be ashamed of.
keeping accounts for granaries. Then he
When a country is ill-governed, riches and
became a philosopher and teacher.
honour are things to be ashamed of" (Book 8,
Meanwhile, his wife gave birth to a son and two Chapter 13, Number 3).
daughters. In his early fifties, he accepted
prestigious government employment in his
region, overseeing public works and efforts to Examples of Specific Teachings
combat crime. However, the powers-that-be
later drove him from office, probably because he The following specific examples of the teachings
incurred their displeasure. In his later years, he of Confucius were excerpted from a translation
spent his time interpreting classic Chinese of The Analects by James Legge:
literature. He died in 479 BC in his home
The Golden Rule neighborhood? (Book 15, Chapter 5, Numbers
1 and 2).
Tsze-kung asked, saying, "Is there one word
which may serve as a rule of practice for all When you have faults, do not fear to abandon
one's life?' The Master said, "Is not them (Book 1, Chapter 8, Number 4).
RECIPROCITY such a word? What you do not
The Master said, "With coarse rice to eat, with
want done to yourself, do not do to others" (Book
water to drink, and my bended arm for a pillow;–
15, Chapter 23).
I have still joy in the midst of these things.
Comment: This precept is similar to the golden Riches and honours acquired by
rule of the Christian Bible, as enunciated in the unrighteousness, are to me as a floating cloud"
Sermon on the Mount and reported by Matthew (Book 7, Chapter 15).
(Chapter 7, Verse 12: All things therefore
The Master said, "If a man in the morning hear
whatsoever you would that men should do to
the right way, he may die in the evening without
you, do you also to them) and Luke (Chapter 6,
regret" (Book 4, Chapter 8).
Verse 31: And as you would that men should do
to you, do you also to them in like manner). The Master said, "Is virtue a thing remote? I wish
to be virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand" (Book 7,
Other Rules to Live By
Chapter 29).
1. The Master said, "Without
recognizing the ordinances of The Master said, "The superior man is modest
Heaven, it is impossible to be a in his speech, but exceeds in his actions" (Book
superior man. 14, Chapter 29).
2. "Without an acquaintance with
the rules of Propriety, it is The Master said, "The superior man is
impossible for the character to be distressed by his want of ability. He is not
established. distressed by men's not knowing him" (Book 15,
3. "Without knowing the force of Chapter 18).
words, it is impossible to know The Master said, "What the superior man seeks,
men" (Book 20, Chapter 3) is in himself. What the mean man seeks, is in
Right Living others" (Book 15, Chapter 20).

The Master said, "Man is born for uprightness. If Foresight

a man lose his uprightness, and yet live, his The Master said, "If a man take no thought about
escape from death is the effect of mere good what is distant, he will find sorrow near at hand"
fortune" (Book 6, Chapter 17). (Book 15, Chapter 11).
The Master said, "The superior man in Prudence
everything considers righteousness to be
essential. He performs it according to the rules The Master said, "The cautious seldom err"
of propriety. He brings it forth in humility. He (Book 4, Chapter 23).
completes it with sincerity. This is indeed a
superior man" (Book 15, Chapter 17).
Laziness
Tsze-chang asked how a man should conduct
himself, so as to be everywhere appreciated. Tsai Yu being asleep during the daytime, the
Master said, 'Rotten wood cannot be carved; a
The Master said, "Let his words be sincere and wall of dirty earth will not receive the trowel. This
truthful, and his actions honourable and Yu!–what is the use of my reproving him?"
careful;– such conduct may be practiced among (Book 5, Chapter 9)
the rude tribes of the South or the North. If his
words be not sincere and truthful and his actions Government
not honourable and careful, will he, with such The Master said, "To rule a country of a
conduct, be appreciated, even in his thousand chariots, there must be reverent
attention to business, and sincerity; economy in Tsze-lu said, "If you had the conduct of the
expenditure, and love for men; and the armies of a great State, whom would you have
employment of the people at the proper to act with you?"
seasons" (Book 1, Chapter 5).
The Master said, "I would not have him to act
The Master said, "He who exercises with me, who will unarmed attack a tiger, or
government by means of his virtue may be cross a river without a boat, dying without any
compared to the north polar star, which keeps regret. My associate must be the man who
its place and all the stars turn towards it" (Book proceeds to action full of solicitude, who is fond
2, Chapter 1). of adjusting his plans, and then carries them into
execution" (Book 7, Chapter 10, Numbers 2 and
When a country is well-governed, poverty and a
3).
mean condition are things to be ashamed of.
When a country is ill-governed, riches and Humanity and Treatment of Others
honour are things to be ashamed of" (Book 8,
Zi Zhang asked Confucius about humanity.
Chapter 13, Number 3).
Confucius said: “To be able to practice five
Tsze-chang asked about government. The virtues everywhere in the world constitutes
Master said, "The art of governing is to keep its humanity." Zi Zhang begged to know what these
affairs before the mind without weariness, and were. Confucius said: “Courtesy, magnanimity,
to practise them with undeviating consistency" good faith, diligence, and kindness. He who is
(Book 12, Chapter 14). courteous is not humiliated, he who is
magnanimous wins the multitude, he who is of
Chi K'ang asked Confucius about government,
good faith is trusted by the people, he who is
saying, "What do you say to killing the
diligent attains his objective, and he who is kind
unprincipled for the good of the principled?"
can get service from the people" (Book 17,
Confucius replied, "Sir, in carrying on your
Chapter 6).
government, why should you use killing at all?
Let your evinced desires be for what is good, Tsze-yu asked what filial piety was. The Master
and the people will be good. The relation said, "The filial piety of now-a-days means the
between superiors and inferiors, is like that support of one's parents. But dogs and horses
between the wind and the grass. The grass must likewise are able to do something in the way of
bend, when the wind blows across it" (Book 12, support;–without reverence, what is there to
Chapter 19). distinguish the one support given from the
other?" (Book 2, Chapter 7)
The Duke of Sheh asked about government.
Tsze-chang asked how a man should conduct
The Master said, "Good government obtains,
himself, so as to be everywhere appreciated.
when those who are near are made happy, and
those who are far off are attracted" (Book 13, The Master said, "Let his words be sincere and
Chapter 16, Numbers 1 and 2). truthful, and his actions honourable and
careful;– such conduct may be practiced among
Duties of Youth
the rude tribes of the South or the North. If his
The Master said, "A youth, when at home, words be not sincere and truthful and his actions
should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his not honourable and careful, will he, with such
elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He conduct, be appreciated, even in his
should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the neighborhood? (Book 15, Chapter 5, Numbers
friendship of the good. When he has time and 1 and 2).
opportunity, after the performance of these
Poetry
things, he should employ them in polite studies"
(Book I, Chapter 6). The Master said, "In the Book of Poetry are
three hundred pieces, but the design of them all
Military Strategy
may be embraced in one sentence–'Having no
depraved thoughts' " (Book 2, Chapter 2).
Education Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1725)
Ueda Akinari (1734–1809)
The Master said, "Learning without thought is
Yokoi Yayū(1702–1783)
labour lost; thought without learning is perilous"
Santō Kyōden (1761–1816)
(Book 2, Chapter 15).
Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831)
Kyokutei Bakin (1767–1848)
Nakane Kōtei(1839–1913)
Module 3 | Lesson 4 - HAIKUS by BASHO (
Edo Meisho Zue (travelogue, 1834)
Japanese Literature)
Hokuetsu Seppu (work of human geography,
1837)
Core Content: HAIKUS by BASHO
Modern literature
JAPANESE LITERATURE
Akiyuki Nosaka(1930–)
Early works of Japanese literature were heavily
Sawako Ariyoshi (1931–1984)
influenced by cultural contact with China and
Hisashi Inoue (1933–2010)
Chinese literature, often written in Classical
Kenzaburō Ōe (1935–)
Chinese. Indian literature also had an influence
Michiko Yamamoto (1936–)
through the diffusion of Buddhism in Japan.
Kenji Nakagami (1946–1992)
Eventually, `Japanese literature developed into
Haruki Murakami (1949–)
a separate style in its own right as Japanese
Natsuo Kirino (1951–)
writers began writing their own works about
Ryū Murakami (1952–)
Japan, although the influence of Chinese
literature and Classical Chinese remained until
What is a Haiku?
the end of the Edo period. Since Japan
reopened its ports to Western trading and
haiku
diplomacy in the 19th century, Western and
is a specific type of Japanese poem which has
Eastern literature have strongly affected each
17 syllables divided into three lines of 5, 7,
other and continue to do so.
and 5 syllables.
SIGNIFICANT AUTHORS AND WORKS
Haikus or haiku are typically written on the
Famous authors and literary works of significant
subject of nature.
stature are listed in chronological order below.
The word haiku (pronounced hahy-koo) is
Classical literature
derived from the Japanese word hokku meaning
“starting verse.”
Ōtomo no Yakamochi (c.717–785):
Man’yōshū
Examples of Haikus
Sei Shōnagon (c.~966–c.10??): The Pillow
For examples of haiku, consider these classic
Book
poems written by Japanese poets:
Murasaki Shikibu (c.973–c.1025): The Tale of
Genji
Example 1
Medieval literature
From time to time
The clouds give rest
Yoshida Kenkō (c.1283–1352): Tsurezuregusa
To the moon-beholders.
The Tale of the Heike (1371)
— Matsuo Basho
Early-modern literature
Ihara Saikaku (1642–1693)
Example 2
Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694)
Sparrow’s child
out of the way, out of the way!
the stallion’s coming through Module 3 | Lesson 5 - Vengeful Creditor by
Chinua Achebe (African Literature)
— Kobayashi Issa
Core Content: Vengeful Creditor by Chinua
Example 3 Achebe

Over the wintry AFRICAN LITERATURE

forest, winds howl in rage African literature comprises the oral and written
with no leaves to blow. works of the continent, composed in either
African literature is still developing distinctive
— Natsume Soseki styles. The widespread African oral tradition,
however, is rich in folktales, myths, riddles, and
As is clear from these examples, most haikus proverbs that not only convey an imaginative
examine natural themes such as weather, view of the world but also serve a religious,
animals and plants, and changing seasons. social, and educational function. The oral
Haikus can be serious and meditative, free of tradition has had a significant effect on the
mood, or playful and fun. written literature. Although some African poetry
was written more than a thousand years ago,
The Importance of Using Haikus the majority of African literacy works have only
been produced in the 20th century, most of them
Haikus are important in that they are a highly after World War II. Unlike Europe, the Middle
traditional form of Japanese poetry which has East, and parts of Asia, black Africa has no
been in existence as early as the 1600s. Haikus ancient traditions of written literature. The
later spread to the west in the 1800s. Haiku earliest examples are Muslim – inspired
shows that in as few as three lines and religious writings from North Africa. Much of
seventeen syllables, interesting observations sub-Saharan Africa was illiterate until Christian
about nature and life can be made. They show missionaries arrived in the 19th century.
that poetry does not have to be about lofty Therefore, little African literature has existed for
subjects but can make an animal as small as the more than a hundred years; the major
grasshopper or a subject as simple as the wind exceptions are an Arabic literature in western
interesting, important, and mentionable Sudan, Swahili literature on the East Africa
coast, and Ge’ez literature in Ethiopia.

The first major works in West Africa appeared in

the 1905s at the end of the colonial era and were
primarily concerned with reinterpreting African
history from an indigenous point of view that
stressed the dignity of the African past.

Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart

(1958)
documents the disintegration of a rural
community under the impact of Westernization
and is a classic statement of this archetypal
theme. Another celebrated classic is Amos
Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drunkard (1952).
After independence, the literary emphasis in
West Africa changed from a preoccupation with
the past to a confrontation with the present.
Wole Soyinka, Achebe, and Ayi Kwei Armah
wrote bitter satires aimed at contemporary evils colonialism, Christianity, and rebellion in the
in their own societies, and in recent years East African peoples. Both novels were
Nigerian poets, novelists, and dramatics have influenced by the realism of West African writer
described the horrors of the Nigerian Biafran Chinua Achebe. In A Grain of Wheat (1967),
war and its aftermath, a period of military rule. however – Ngugi’s most successful novel about
the Mau Mau rebellion – his style is more
Under South African apartheid, writing in mature.
English by blacks and by Coloureds (racially
mixed South Africans) was impeded by racial VENGEFUL CREDITOR BY CHINUA ACHEBE
oppression and censorship. The novelist Peter AUTHOR’S BACKGROUND
Abrahams found conditions so repressive that
he left South Africa in 1939 at the age of 20. The ACHEBE, Chinua (1930), Nigerian novelist and
Harsh Publications and Entertainments Act of poet, whose first novel, Things Fall Apart (1958)
1963, the first of many such censorship laws, set the theme for his subsequent work: the
severely limited publishing by non-whites and impact of the Western influences on the
the most talented South African black writers traditional African society. Achebe’s other works
began to leave banned; many poets were include The Arrow of God (1964) and A Man of
imprisoned, and many others including the the People (1966). Unsentimental, often ironic,
famous poet Dennis Brutus and the novelist they vividly portray tribal culture and the very
Alex La Guma – fled to less hostile speech of the Ibo people. Achebe’s later works
environments. (Brutus returned for a visit in the include a short-story collection, Girls at War
more liberal climate of 1992). The literary works (1972), and Christmas in Biafra and Other
of white South Africans, even those critical of the Poems (1973). Since 1971 he has been coeditor
regime, were generally better received. of Okike, one of Africa’s most influential literary
magazines.
AFRICAN WRITERS AND POETS
SOYINKA, Wole (Born in Nigeria, July 13,
1934)
is perhaps the foremost English-language poet
and certainly the most celebrated playwright of
black Africa. His work earned him the 1986
Nobel Prize for literature. Combining Western
dramatic forms with the music, dance, and mime
of Africa, his plays achieve a ritualistic power
and demonstrate the fundamental African
concern with numinous” boundaries: those
between the human and the divine, between life
and death. From his first play, The Swamp
Dwellers, which was produced in London in
1958, most of Soyinka’s theatrical works have
been published (1973 and 1974) as well such
later plays as Death and the King’s Horseman
(1975), Opera Wonyosi (1979), and a Play of
Giants (1984).

NGUGI WATHIONG’O, James (born in Kenya,

January 5, 1938)
is considered the most important East African
novelist. Educated in both Kenya and England,
he taught literature for many years. His first two
novels, Weep Not, Child (1964) and The River
Between (1965), concerning the impact of