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CHAPTER - IV
RAMAYANA

Ramayana is one of the few great epics of ancient India and the story of Rama is ranked as
one of the most popular stories in India and South Asia. The name Ramayana is a compound of
two words: Rama and yana meaning ―vehicle‖ translating to the ―vehicle of Rama‖ or ―Rama's
Journey‖. Ramayana narrates the journey and adventures of the hero Rama, the prince of
Ayodhya who is possibly an incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu to annihilate vice. In the Indian
tradition, Rama lived in Treta Yug, the second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology
(Buck and Nooten xxi). Traditionally, Ramayana is attributed to the Sanskrit poet Srimad
Valmiki. The Sanskrit version of Ramayana, dating to approximately the 5th to 4th century B.C
is known to be ―the most extensive early literary treatment of the life of Rama‖. Asserting this,
Paula Richman writes in her introduction to Many Ramayanas:
Many later Ramayana authors explicitly refer to it either as an authoritative
source or as a telling with which they disagree. For centuries it has been regarded
as the most prestigious Ramayana text in many Indian circles. It has also drawn
the most attention from western scholars (5).

Robert P. Goldman the general editor of a new English translation of Valmiki‘s Ramayana, says:
Few works of literature produced in any place at any time have been as popular,
influential, imitated, and successful as the great and ancient Sanskrit epic poem, the
Valmiki Ramayana (x).

This version of Ramayana is composed of verses called Sloka in Sanskrit language. Valmiki
used the meter called Anustup for versification. These verses are grouped into chapters called
Sargas which narrates an episode or intent. Sargas themselves are grouped into books called
Kaandas. Kaanda, meaning the inter-node stem of sugar cane, refers to a particular phase or an
event of the story in the course of story telling.
The Valmiki Ramayana is a 24,000 couplet-long epic poem over the years, additional verses
and stories have been inspired especially during the medieval Bhakti period when several bhasha
versions were composed. Efforts of textual scholars showed that some portions of Book I Bala
Kanda, and the entire Uttara Kaanda which narrates Sita's expulsion to forest, appear to be later
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additions (Sundararajan 106) possibly during the 2nd century BC or later (Chaurasia 38).
Moreover, according to Goldman, ―the main body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's
divinity and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare and subdued even in the later parts of
the text‖ (45) Along with Valmiki‘s Ramayana, there are hundreds of other tellings and
renderings of the story of Rama to be found in India, Southeast Asia, and beyond (Richman 7).
Three famous renderings of the epic include Shri Rama Panchali or Krittivasi Ramayan by
Krittibas Ojha in Bengali (15th century), Ramayana of Kampan or Iramavataram in Tamil (11th-
12th century), and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Awadhi, an eastern form of Hindi (16th
century) (Sundararajan 106).

Protagonists:

Rama is the central and the hero of the epic. He is believed to be the seventh incarnation of god
Vishnu. In the story Rama is the eldest son and heir of the King of Ayodhya but was sent into
exile for fourteen years.

Laxmana is the younger brother of Rama and the second of the bore princess of Ayodhya and
believed to be incarnation of the Sheshanāga associated with Vishnu. Laxmana was loyal to his
brother and accompanied him in his long exile.

Sita is the adored wife of Rama and the incarnation of goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu.
She followed Rama into exile but was abducted by Ravana. From this point the epic narrates
Rama‘s war with Ravana for the release of Sita.

Dasharatha is Rama‘s father and the king of Ayodhya. He had three queens: Kausalya, Sumitra
and Kaikeyi, and four sons: Rama, Bharata and twins Laxmana and Shatrughna.

Kaikeyi is Dasharatha's queen and Bharata‘s mother. When everything was prepared for Rama‘s
coronation as heir apparent, Kaikeyi forced Dasharatha to declare Bharata as a king and send
Rama into exile.

Bharata is the third son of Dasharatha and Rama‘s brother. When he heard what his mother had
done he refused to crown. He went into the woods to request Rama‘s return. When Rama refused
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to come back as that would have dishonored his father, Bharata carried Rama‘s sandals the
throne and ruled as Rama's regent.

Sugreeva is the King of the monkeys who was banished by his brother Vali. He promised to help
Rama locate Sita if Rama helps him to defeat Vali.

Hanuman is a huge and powerful ape considered the son of the god of the Winds Vayu. He found
Sita in Lanka and played an important role in fighting Ravana.

Ravana is the powerful king of Lanka. He is a rakshasa described as having ten heads and twenty
arms. He received a boon form Parameshwara that he couldn‘t be killed by gods, demons, or
spirits. This boon did not include the human being. Ravana abducted Sita with the help of the
rakshasa Maricha and carried her to Lanka. In the ensuing battle, Ravana was killed by Rama.

Synopsis of the Epic

The Valmiki‘s Ramayana has been arranged into six books or kanda, which are:
Bala Kanda (Book of Youth) [77 chapters]
Ayodhya Kanda (Book of Ayodhya) [119 chapters]
Aranya Kanda (Book of Forest) [75 chapters]
Kishkindha Kanda (The Empire of Holy Monkeys) [67 chapters]
Sundara Kanda (Book of Beauty) [68 chapters]
Yuddha Kanda (Book of War) [128 chapters]

Bala Kanda
Bala Kanda starts with the story of king Dasharatha who had three queens but no children. He
was advised to perform a Putra-Kameshti Yagya. As a consequence, Rama and his three brothers
are born. Nowadays in India Rama's birthday is celebrated as Ramanavami. In another
trajectory(not in Valmiki‘s text), Janaka the king of Mithila and Sita‘s father organized a
‗Swayamvara‟ for Sita and declared that whoever could string the bow bestowed upon heir by
Shiva would marry Sita. Rama was the only one who could wield the bow and this led their
marriage.
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Valmiki‘s Ramayana describes Rama lifting and stringing the mighty bow while visiting Janaka
with Visvamitra.

Ayodhya Kanda
Soon Dasharatha felt it was time to give the reins of the kingdom to Rama. But Kaikeyi whose
jealousy has been aroused by her servant claimed two boons that Dasharatha had long ago
promised her. She asked that Rama should be exiled for fourteen years, and her son Bharata to
become king.

Aranya Kanda

Rama, Sita and Laxmana settle in the forest. Maricha assumed the form of a golden deer to sure
Rama and Laxmana providing opportunity for Ravana to Steal Sita away. Searching for Sita,
Rama and Laxmana met ascetic Shabari who led them to Sugriva and Hanuman.

Kishkindha Kanda

The story continues in Kishkindha Kanda when Rama and Laxmana meet Hanuman. Hanuman
directes them to Sugreeva, the King of the monkeys, who was banished by his brother Vali.
Rama helps him to defeat Vali. When Sugreeva regained the kingdom, he sent four groups to the
four sides of the earth, searching for Sita. Finally Hanuman located Sita in Ravana‘s garden in
Lanka.

Sundara Kanda
This book as Goldman (3) says forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana. The Sundara Kanda
narrates the adventures of Hanuman who finds Sita after a long search. He shows her the signet
ring of Rama and received her own ring for Rama. He allowed himself to be captured and before
leaving Lanka, sets fire to the city.

Yuddha Kanda
The last book of Ramayana describes the great war between Rama and his ape army with
Ravana‘s forces. After a long war, Rama kills Ravana and recovers Sita. Finally, Rama
accompanied by Sita, Laxmana and Hanuman return to Ayodhya where they are welcomed by
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the people. Rama becomes the king and rules the earth for ten thousand years very morally and
ethically.

Variations of Ramayana
One of the common features of the ‗oral epic‘ is the variation of the story. Significantly no
epic in the world has as many versions as Ramayana. Frank E. Reynolds asserts that ―in the
history and literature of religions few stories have been told in as many different ways as the
story of Rama‖ (50). Within India there exist multiple versions of the Ramayana. In the
neighboring countries of Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, China and
Maldives, many Rama-stories exist with different names. Srinivasa Iyengar in his introduction to
Asian Variations in Ramayana writes:

What is perhap even more astonishing than the universal vogue and the great role of the
Ramayana in India is the general diffusion of the story all over the world. Even as, in
India, the Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina and other Ramayana versions vary from one another,
just as the numberless folk renderings and evocations in the plastic and the performing
arts reveal a tantalising versatility in the handling of the Rama-Sita-Ravana theme, the
legend has likewise undergone countless variations in the process of diffusion or
transplantation abroad to the several far-Hung countries of Asia (2).

Camille Bulcke counted three hundred tellings of the epic in various genres. Actually, more
than 300 versions of the Ramayana are identified as extant (Ramanujan 32). Among all, the
Sanskrit Ramayana attributed to the sage Valmiki is known to be the oldest text. This version has
served as the base adapting or translating into many regional languages (bhasha). But as A.K.
Ramanuja explains, ―it is not always Valmiki‘s narrative that is carried from one language to
another‖ (25).

Some of these regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors differ from each
other in important manners. These authors have either adapted the Valmiki Ramayana and
transformed it to suit their own culture, lifestyle and tradition, or translated into the various
regional languages in India. Most of these Ramayana versions are not considered as merely
literal translations; instead they have their own linguistic richness and poetic style. In ―Top 15
Popular Version of Ramayana‖ the entries are arranged according to their period.
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To mention some of the significant examples of the Ramayana story, the 7th century
Bhattikavya by Bhatti is a Sanskrit rendering of the epic. As noted before, Bhattikavya is one of
the sixth paradigmatic example of Kāvya poetry and the earliest example of an "instructional
poem" or śāstra-kāvya. As literature, it stands comparison with the best of Sanskrit poetry.
Ravanavadha (the death of Ravana) is an alternative title of Bhattikavya. It is not possible that
this was the original title as the death of Ravana is only a part of the whole poem. Bhattikavya
may get this title to separate it from other works which relate the death of Ravana. Bhattikavya of
Bhatti is a version including descriptions of cities, mountains, the rising and setting of the sun
and the moon, the ocean and the sports, love and sex. The poem exemplifies Sanskrit grammar
and poetics and rhetoric (Narang website).
The 12th century Iramavataram, also known as a Kampan Ramayanam, written by Kampan
is the Tamil version of the tale. Although Ramavatharam is based on Valmiki's Ramayana, it
differs from the Sanksrit text in many aspects - both in spiritual concepts and in the specifics of
the story line. This work is considered as one of the greatest literary works in Tamil literature.
Schuman describes Kampan‘s Iramavataram thus: ―perhaps the supreme achievement of Tamil
letters, and certainly one of the great works of the world‘s religious literature, is Kampan‘s
version of the Hindu epic, the Ramayana. No creation of Tamil poets has ever been so
passionately loved as Kampan‘s Iramavataram‖ (135).This epic is divided into six chapters
called Kandam in Tamil.
Bala Kandam (Chapter: Childhood)
Ayodhya Kandam (Chapter: Ayodhya)
Aranya Kandam (Chapter: Forest)
Kishkinta Kandam (Chapter: Kishkintha)
Sundara Kandam (Chapter: Beautiful)
Yutha Kandam (Chapter: War)

The Kandams are further divided into 123 sections called Padalam containing around 12,000
verses. The chapter Sundara Kandam on the difficulties faced by the main characters, their
practice of restraint, and their hopes for a better future is the most popular one. Regarding its
religious significance, the epic is read by Hindus during prayers and in some households the
entire epic is read during the Tamil Month of Aadi.
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Kumudendu Ramayana (a Jain version) by Kumudendu and the Ramachandra Charita

Purana by Nagachandra during the 13th century, and Kumara-Valmiki Torave‘s Ramayana
written in the 16th century are three Kannada versions of the Ramayana.

During the 15th century, the Ramayanu written by Krishnadasa Shama in Kardalipura, the
Assamese Katha Ramayana or Kotha Ramayana by Madhava Kandali, and the Bengali Krittivasi
Ramayan by Krittivasa are notable works. Also in this century a Telugu version called The Sri
Ranganatha Ramayana mu was adapted by Ranganatha.

In the 16th century, the Marathi Bhavartha Ramayana was written by Eknath. This narrative
epic of forty thousands couplets in ‗ovi‘ meter has enjoyed huge popularity among the rural folk.
Of forty thousands couplets, twenty- five thousand were written by Eknath; the rest was
completed by his disciple Gawba. While composing this work, Eknath was conscious of the
poetic values and the relationship of poetry with society. As Singh remarks, ―Awareness of the
prevailing conditions and also suggestions to meet the distracting political and social onslaught
are also distinctive feathers of this work‖ (433). In Orissa, Dandi Ramayana or Jagamohan
Ramayana was adapted by Balaram Dasa in Dandibritta variety of prose rhythm. In this form if
the first line consists of twelve letters, the second line can exceed from fourteen to twenty five.
Dandi Ramayana is not a literary translation but is an Oriya imitation of Valmiki Ramayana. It
was put to music and sung by popular singers and presents Oriya customs and traditions, rites
and rituals, feasts and festivalities and the folk tales (Datta 57). During this century the
Malayalam Adhyatma Ramayana Kilipattu written by Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan is noted.
Ezhuthachan is considered the Father of the Malayalam language. The importance of his version
of Ramayana is that it is full of devotion. It is so popular in Kerala that it is used for chanting in
all Hindu homes in Kerala. Ramayana Masam (Ramayana Month) is celebrated every year in
Kerala between mid-Julys to mid-August. This work comprises six chapters as follows:
1. Bala Kanda
2. Ayodhya Kanda
3. Aranya Kanda
4. Kishkindha Kanda
5. Sundara Kanda
6. Yuddha Kanda
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The other significant work of this time is Ramacharitamanasa composed by the 16th-century
Indian poet Goswami Tulsidas (1532–1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means the "lake of the
deeds of Rama". The epic is also called Tulsikrit Ramayan literally means ―The Ramayan
composed by Tulsi” or in other words, ―The Ramayan of Tulsidas‖. As Vyas notes, It has been
the custom to name the Ramayan after its author (10) .The Ramcharitmanas consists of seven
Kāndas or ‗books‘ where the poet compares it to seven steps leading into the holy waters of
Mansarovor a Himalayan lake "which purifies the body and the soul at once‖ (Ghose 118). In his
entry on ‗Ramcharitmanas‘ Class writes, ―The word manas alludes to a sacred lake in the
Himalayas, and so the title may be rendered 'the divine lake of Ram's deeds‖. It also means the
―lake of the mind‖. Rāmcāritmānas, composed in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi, is an epic of some
13,000 lines. This work is considered one of the greatest works of Hindu literature, and is often
referred to as the "Bible of northern India" by Western scholars of Indian literature (Lochtefeld
559). Of the seven books, the first two titled Bāl kānd (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhya kānd
(Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half the work. The later books are Aranya Kānd (Forest
Episode), Kishkindha Kānd (Kishkindha Episode), Sunder Kānd (Pleasant Episode), Lanka Kānd
(Lanka Episode) and Uttar Kānd (Later Episode).

During the 17th century, the Punjabi Ramavatara was written by Guru Gobind Singh, the
Gujarati Tulsi-Krita Ramayana was an adaptation of the Tulisdas Ramayana by Premanand
Swami, and an Urdu version titled the Pothi Ramayana are noted. During the 19th century,
Ramavatara Charita of Prakash Ram is a Kashmiri version. Since its first edition in Persio-
Arabic script, the Ramayana of Praksh Ram has run into six editions as proof of the popularity of
the poem in Kashmir and has served as a model for the epic poets of the Kashmiri language
(Datta 43).

Besides these Indian versions, Ramayana in many versions exists in other Asian cultures. In
Nepal, two versions of Ramayana are present. The first one is a Nepal Bhasa version titled
Siddhi Ramayan written by Mahakavi Siddhidas Mahaju Amatya during Nepal Bhasa
renaissance era. Mahakavi Siddhidas is considered the greatest poet in the language and among
the four stalwarts involved in Nepal Bhasa renaissance. The other one is Bhanubhaktako
Ramayan by Bhanubhakta Acharya in Nepali language, recognized as the first epic written in
this language. It is so lyrical that it is more a song than a poem (Bishnu website).
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Other renderings of Ramayana include a Malaysian version entitled Hikayat Seri Rama.
Although the main plot remains the same, some aspects are modified to suit the local context
such as the spelling and pronunciation of names. Also Laxmana plays a larger role, sometimes
becoming more important than his elder brother Rama. Another work is Kakawin Ramayana of
Java composed in kakawin meter. The Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from the original
Hindu prototype. The first half of this work is similar to the original Sanskrit version, but the
second half is diverges completer to the unrecognizable by Indian scholars of the Sanskrit
Ramayana. One of the main changes is the entery of the all-powerful Javanese indigenous deity
dhayana, the guardian god of Java Semar and his misshapen sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong.
This latter part of the work is the more popular and is performed in all wayang performances.
The other adaption of Ramayana in Indonesia is Ramakavaca of Bali. Phra Lak Phra Lam of
Laos, Maharadya Lawana and Darangen of Mindanao (Philippines), Yama Zatdaw of Burma
(Myanmar), Reamker of Cambodia and Ramakien of Thailand are other renderings of Ramayana
outside India. The Chinese Ming period (1368-1644), the novel Hsi-yu Chi or Journey to the
West has also adopted some aspects of Ramayana. The story deals with the journey of monk
Hsuan-tsang during a pilgrimage to India to obtain Buddhist scriptures. In this journey four
animal disciples accompany him, especially his superhuman monkey disciple Sun Wu-k'ung. In
this novel, the character of Sun Wukong could have been based on Hanuman. Subbaraman in his
essay ―Beyond the Question of the Monkey Imposter: Indian Influence on the Chinese Novel,
The Journey to the West‖ studies the parallels between The Journey to the West and the
Ramayana and states,

…comparisons between the two texts should not simply be limited to the two monkey
characters, but should be expanded to other characters, settings, extended plot lines, and
even thematic organization. The use of these examples will hopefully illuminate the
many ways Indian literature may have influenced the Chinese novel The Journey to the
West without portraying the novel as a foreign (website).

Besides such classic versions of the epic, some Contemporary prose renderings of Ramayana
have been published. Sri Ramayana Darshanam by K. V. Puttappa in Kannada, Ramayana
Kalpavrikshamu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana in Telugu, and Geet Ramayan in Marathi by
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G.D. Madgulkar are three noteworthy examples. In addition, R. K. Narayan wrote a shortened
prose work. Ashok Banker also has written a series of six novels both based on the Ramayana.

Translation of Ramayana into Persian

Traditionally, there is a close cultural relationship between India and Persia which goes back
to ancient times. In Sanskrit literature, especially in Vishnu Puran, Persians are mentioned in
many cases as Parasika. Also the inscriptions of Persepolis and Naqsh-e-Rustam of Emperor
Darius (d. 486 B.C.) located in the south of Iran point to Indus as ‗Hindush‘ from which the term
‗Hindu‘ was derived and later used by Arab geographers and historians. There seems to be a
striking similarity between Vedic gods and the ancient Iranian and Hittite deities. The cult of
sun-worship was brought to India by the Magas who migrated from Sakadvip or Persia around
the first century B.C. Initially they were not admitted into Hindu rituals and ceremonies but in
the course of time they were absorbed into Vedic society and came to be known as Sakadvip or
Maga Brahmans (Momin website).

Close interaction and exchange between Persia and India is reflected in arts and crafts,
architecture, etiquette and manners, music, as well as literary compositions and translations. To
mention an outstanding example, the Indian fable masterpiece, Panchatantra was first translated
into a foreign language during the Sassanid reign of Khosru Anushiravan around 570 CE when
his famous physician Borzuye translated it from Sanskrit into Pahlavi, the Middle Persian
language, entitled Kalile va Demne (Zarrinkoub 374-79).

During the medieval period, Persian language enjoyed a pre-eminent position of cultural and
political spheres in India which consequently influenced to a greater or lesser degree a large
number of Indian languages. The deep impact of Persian on Indian regional languages led some
scholars to claim that ―no other language, apart from Sanskrit which is the mother of all modern
Indo-European languages in the country, has left such a deep and enduring influence on Indian
languages as Persian‖( Momin website).

Persian literary traditions also influenced Indian literature and led to the flourishing of
Persian literature in India. Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian under the patronage
of Muslim emperors and kings. If we leave out the re-telling of the stories of the Ramayana and
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the Mahabharata in Indian regional languages, the first significant translations took place at the
time of Emperor Akbar (Asaduddin website).

Akbar in his efforts to cultivate understanding among religions and to reduce sectarian
tensions between Hindus and Muslims, commissioned translations of Sanskrit, Arabic and
Turkish works into Persian and set up a „Maktab Khaneh‟ or translation bureau. The Sanskrit
texts which were rendered into Persian included Atharbed by Badaoni; Bhagwad Gita by
Faizi; Gangadhar by Abul Fazl; Haribans by Maulana Sheri; Jog-Bashishta by Maulana
Faraniuli; Katha Sarit Sagara by Badaoni; Kishen Joshi by Abul Fazl; Lilavati and Nal
Daman by Faizi; Mahesh Mohanand by Abul Fazl; Singhasana Battisi by Badaoni, as ―Nama-i-
Khird Afza‖; Tajak on astronomy by Muhammad Khan; a treatise on elephants by Mulla
Sheri; Ramayana and Mahabharata by Badayuni and others.

Mullah Abdul Qadir Badayuni, of Akbar‘s court reluctantly translated Ramayana into
Persian. This rendering began in 1585 and was completed around the 1589. Badayuni translated
it under royal pressure and wrote:
In the month of the year nine hundred and ninety seven (997), I finished the translation of
the Ramayana, which has taken me four years. I wrote it all in complete and brought it to
the Emperor. When I wrote at the end of it the couplet
―We have written a story, who will bring it to the emperor?
We have burnt our soul, who will bring it to the beloved?‖
It was much admired. He commanded me to write a preface to it after the manner of the
authors. But, it was no such great recovery from my falling out of favour, and a kutbah
would have to be written without praising the God and the Prophet, I dissimulated. And
from that black book, which is nothing like the book of my life, I flee to God for refuge.
The transcription of Kufr (infidelity) is not kufr and I repeat the declaration of faith in
opposition to heresy, why should I fear (which God forbid!) that a book which was all
written against the grain, and in accordance with a strict command, shall bring with it a
curse‖ (Gandhi website).

Shortly after the translation of Ramayana, the other important Sanskrit epic Mahabharata was
also rendered into Persian as ‗Razm Nameh‘ or the ―Book of War‖. However, following
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Badayuni‘s rendering of Ramayana, other writers began to translate or compose it into Persian.
The number of complete or partial translations of the Ramayana in Persian is not known but over
a period of three centuries (16th to 19th) Ramayana found many versions in Persian. The former
curator of Persian and Arabic manuscripts at the Natural Museum in Delhi estimated that the
number of Ramayana composed in Persian was thirty eight but some scholars set around ninety
(Momin website).

One of these Persian translations was done by Sheikh Sadullah Masih Panipati, being the
reign of Emperor Jahangir. This text Ramayan-e-Masihi was published in 1899 by Munshi Naval
Kishor Press, Lucknow. It remained neglected during Jahangir‘s reign because Muslim readers
had lost their interest in Hindu scriptures. Fanatic Muslims blamed him for composing the
Ramayana. Therefore to justify himself, Masih condemned fanatics in the beginning of his work
under the heading Dar Mazammat-e-Hossad (condemning the jealous). He reminded the
two naats in praise of the Prophet Mohammad written at the start of the epic, and in
‗Peighambar Nameh‟ his other epic poem relating the life and exploits of the Prophet. But there
were ignored by cynic and fanatics. Masih wrote in Persian ‗masnavi‘ style and gave separate
headings to all incidents or episodes. Masnavi is a series of couplets in rhymed pairs (aa, bb, cc,
and so on) as a type of Persian verse used chiefly for heroic, historical, and romantic epic poetry
and didactic poetry. Thus he employed an Indic theme within the literary conventions of the
Persian Masnavi.
Although Masih composed his work based on Valmiki‘s Ramayana , he transformed the
story as a Persian romance between two lovers. Ram and Sita. His work also reflects a mystical-
allegorical dimension while referring to Rama as ‗body‘ and Sita as the ‗soul‘. The attempt of
Rama in searching of his beloved Sita frequently work as allegory of mystical love of a soul
seeking unity with the divine. Saini in his essay ―Ramayana retold in Persian‖ points to this fact
and says:
He [Masih] deals with it as a love poem and not as scripture. Sita is painted like a
beautiful maiden. It was her beauty that attracted Rama to marry her. Ravana also carried
her away when his sister Sarupnakha described her matchless beauty before that demon.
He took Sita to Lanka to marry her and not to avenge the insult heaped on his sister,
whose nose was chopped by Laxmana in presence of Rama. The Hindu poets do not
describe Sita‘s beauty from top to toe. It seems that Masih could not read the Sanskrit
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epic of Valmiki and composed his magnum opus after reading Badayuni or hearing its
bare outlines from his Hindu friends. Still this book is a piece of superb poetry (website).
Another translation of Ramayana into Persian was done by S. Mohar Singh entitled Balmiki
Ramayan. It was published in 1890 by Ganesh Prakash Press, Lahore. Mohar Singh belonged to
Ram Nagar village in Gujranwala district (now in Pakistan). He was employed in Maharaja
Ranjit Singh‘s army. Unfortunately Mohar Singh died before who could complete his work. The
remaining portion of his work was completed by his friend Hiranand Lal using the same meter
and style. Mohar Singh‘s rendering drew on Valmiki‘s Ramayana and he often mentions the
name of the sage gratefully. He did not divide his work to traditional cantos but looking to
masnavi‟s form described all events by various headings. The style of the work is simple but
sometimes Sanskrit words occurred. Saini believes that ―these two poets have not only enriched
the epic tradition related to Rama but have also paved the way for communal amity. One has
painted Rama as a human being with divine qualities and other has depicted him as a divine
being with human characteristics‖ (website).

The figure of Rama was portrayed in Persian literature also through the translations of the
Vedantic text, the Yoga Vasistha. This work is one of the Rama stories which was rendered into
Persian during the Moghul Dynasty. Yoga Vasistha also known as Vasishtha Ramayana is a
Hindu spiritual text and is considered one of the most important scriptures of the Vedantic
philosophy. This book was originally written in Sanskrit and traditionally attributed to Valmiki
while modern scholars estimate its composition as being between the 11th and 14th centuries
AD.

In this work, prince Rama returning from his journey around the country becomes
disillusioned with the world after experiencing vairagya (dispassion). King Dasaratha expresses
his concern to Sage Vasistha who consoles the king that Rama's dispassion (vairagya) was a sign
that the prince was now ready for spiritual enlightenment. He says that Rama has begun to
understand profound spiritual truths, which was the cause of his confusion and he just needed
confirmation. Sage Vasistha asks king Dasaratha to summon Rama. Then, in the court of king
Dasaratha, the sage begins the discourse for Rama which lasts for several days. The answers to
Rama's questions form the entire scripture that is Yoga Vasistha in which Rushi Vasistha
presents his philosophical concepts on salvation.
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One of the significant translations of Yoga Vasistha was carried out by Nizam al-Din
Panipati in the late 16th century A.D. The translation also known as the Jug-Basisht, became
popular among Persian intellectuals with Indo-Persian interests (Leslie104). Later, Jahangir‘s
grandson prince Dara Shikoh commissioned a translation of the Yoga Vasishta. In this work,
Rama is presented as a disciple rather than a semi-divine king. The story begins with Dara
dreaming of Rama and Vasishta and Vasishta asking Rama to feed Dara. Rama embraces Dara
and feeds him sweets which seem to portray a Sufi understanding. Different form Rama of
Akbar‘s translations, the attempt made to combine ruler-ship with spiritual realization and
powers.

Although poorly catalogued, the libraries‘ manuscripts of Persian Rama stories give evidence
of the Rama theme in Persian literature. In Jehangir‘s time Girdhardas, who was a contemporary
of Tulsidas, translated much of Valmiki‘s epic into Persian verse. In Shahjahan‘s time another
rendering of the epic was written entitled Ramayan Faizi. In Aurangzeb‘s time Chandrabhan
Bedil translated Valmiki into Persian verse and prose in 1696 entitled Nargestan. This translation
was published in 1875 in Lucknow.

Later in 1860, a translation was done by Amanat Ray Lalpuri in forty thousand couplets and
arranged into six chapters with. He added a ghazal to each chapter. In the next decade, Meser
Ram Das Ghabel translated four chapters of the Ramayana into Persian. He titled first chapter as
Mobarak(blest), the second as Feragh (seclusion), the third as Jang (battle) and the forth chapter
as Jolus (crown). This translation is in verse. Another translation was by Sumer Chand which
was illustrated during the reign of Farrukh Siyar (1715-16 A.D.) as 258 miniatures throwing light
on the art, architecture, costumes and ornaments of the period besides highlighting the composite
culture of India in the late medieval period (Kuma 11).

Munshi Chagann (1866-1899) also known by his pen name Hasan wrote a prose narrative as
Neirang-e Hasan (Trap‘s of Hasan) or Bahar-e Ayodhya (Spring of Ayodhya) in 1877. He also
wrote a shortened version of the epic included in his book (Abaee 15).
 104

Ramayana and its Impact on Art and Culture

Kathleen M. Erndl, a western Indologist maintains that ―The Ramayana story, more than any
other sacred story in India, has been interpreted as a blueprint for right human action‖. She
asserts that ―although the Ramayana is a myth that can be approached on many levels, it is the
human level that has had the most profound effect on the Indian people‖ (67). Thus the
importance of Ramayana is not limited to its literary features. It functions as a fundamental text
of Hinduism as one of the sacred books illustrating Hindu ethics. Hindus learn the epic as a holy
book from their childhood believing that reading or hearing of it blesses both the reader and
listener. In this regard U. Thein Han states, ―It (the Ramayana) is not only a literary treasure but
also a source of ennobling influence on the relationships of men as parents and children,
husbands and wives, brothers and sisters, relations and friends, teachers and pupils, and rulers
and the ruled‖ (Iyengar xiii). Pointing to its significance in the daily life of the Indians, there are
two all-Indian holidays to celebrate the events of Ramayana: ones Dussehra, a nine-day festival
in October commemorating Rama's victory over Ravana; and the second is Divali, the festival of
Lights in October-November, commemorating Rama and Sita's return to their kingdom
Ayodhya. On the Ramayana‟s wholly salutary impact on the people of India, Fr. C. Bulcke
writes:

The popularity of the Valmiki Ramayana and the voluminous Rama-Literature of many
centuries is a monument to the idealism of India, its high esteem of moral values and its
belief in the ultimate of good over evil. In the same way, the enthusiastic response of the
millions of northern India to the message of Ramacharitamanasa testifies to the deep-
seated religious belief and spontaneous piety of the soul of India (Iyengar 2).

The Ramayana as an impressive monument of poetry has been reflected in other arts. The
story is reflected in songs, theatre, painting, temple architecture and dance as well as in cinema
and television. The 1975 Hindi television serial based on the Ramayana story captivated its
audiences. Philip Lutgendorf wrote about this serial:

The Ramayana serial had become the most popular programme ever shown on Indian
television- and something more: an event, a phenomenon of such proportions that
intellectuals and policy makers struggled to come to terms with its significance and long
 105

range import. Never before had such a large percentage of south Asia‘s population been
united in a single activity; never before had a single message instantaneously reached so
enormous a regional audience‖ (128).

The profound impact of Ramayana can be seen in the Mappila Songs of the Muslims of
Kerala and Lakshadweep as well as in the American song and later film Sita Sings the Blues and.
Ramayana is represented in the Indian performative traditions of Yakshagana. The epic is
painted on the walls of Thailand's Wat Phra Kaew palace temple. Despite Islam forbidden theater
and dance, performing arts based on Ramayana and Mahabharata have survived in Malaysia and
Indonesia. In Indonesia, the world‘s largest Islamic nation, Ramayana and Mahabharata are
compulsory subjects in most the universities. Indonesians take pride in saying ―Islam is our
Religion but Ramayana is our Culture‖ (Kumar 4).In Indonesia, the tales from the epic are
performed in ballet performances, masked danced drama, and Wayang shadow puppetry.

At the 1975 Ramayana seminar that was held in New Delhi, Amin Sweeney gave a masterly
account of ‗The Malaysian Ramayana in Performance‘. He states:

The characters of the Lord Rama, his lady Sita, and their loyal followers still come to life
nightly on the shadow screens of the north-west Malaysia where the performance of at
good dalang can still draw a larger audience than a local open- air cinema showing the
latest in Hollywood coco-cola culture (Iyengar xiii).

The television series ‗Ramayan‘ by producer Ramanand Sagar and ‗Jai Hanuman‘ by Sanjay
Khan are two adoption of Ramayana on the screen. A Japanese animated film ‗Ramayana: The
Legend of Prince Rama‘ (1990) and an Indian animated film ‗Ramayana: The Epic‘ (2010) are
two more examples. The Southeast Asian Games in 1997 used Sri Hanuman as its mascot. He is
a popular figure or deity in all these countries. Kumar writes of the character of Hanuman:

Hanuman or Hanumat or Aanjaneya or Anjata or Maruti is known bydifferent names in

these countries: Hanoman in Balinese, Anoman andSenggana in Javanese, Haliman in
Karbi, Anjat or Anujit in Khmer,Hanmone(e), Hulahman, Hunahman, Huonahman,
Huorahman in Lao,Haduman, Hanuman Kera Putih, Kera Kechil Imam
Tergangga,Pahlawan Udara, Shah Numan in Malay, Laxamana (yes, and Laxmanis
 106

known as Mangawarna) in Maranao, Hanumant in Sinhalese,Anuman in Tamil, Anchat

or Wanon in Thai and Hanumandha orHanumanta in Tibetan (4).

These distinctive features have given Ramayana a unique status and has caused its numerous
permutations as Narayana Rao maintains, ―the Ramayana in India is not just a story with variety
of retellings; it is a language with which a host of statements may be made‖ (114).
 107

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