Unit 1

Q1] Describe the evolution of operating system.
Here's a high-level overview of the key stages in the evolution of operating systems:
1. 1940s-1950s - The Early Days:

 The concept of operating systems began with the development of the first
electronic computers.
 Initially, computers were programmed using machine language, which was
tedious and error-prone.
 Early OSes were simple and primarily focused on managing hardware
resources, like input/output devices.
2. 1960s - Batch Processing:
 The introduction of batch processing allowed users to submit jobs to the
computer, which were then processed in batches.
 OSes like IBM's OS/360 were developed to manage job scheduling, memory
allocation, and device control.
3. 1970s - Time-Sharing and Multitasking:
 Time-sharing OSes like CTSS and Multics allowed multiple users to interact
with a computer simultaneously.
 The development of multitasking systems enabled multiple programs to run
concurrently on a single computer.
4. 1980s - Personal Computers:
 The 1980s saw the emergence of personal computers like the IBM PC and the
Apple Macintosh.
 Operating systems like MS-DOS and early versions of Microsoft Windows
(Windows 1.0) became popular for PCs.
5. 1990s - Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs):
 The 1990s brought widespread adoption of GUI-based OSes, notably
Windows 95 and Mac OS.
 These OSes made computing more user-friendly and accessible to non-
technical users.
6. 2000s - The Rise of Linux and Mobile OSes:
 The 2000s witnessed the growing popularity of Linux as a powerful and open-
source OS.
 The emergence of mobile devices led to the development of mobile operating
systems like iOS and Android.
7. 2010s - Cloud Computing and Virtualization:
 Cloud computing became prominent, with OSes supporting virtualization and
cloud services.
 Windows 10 and macOS continued to evolve with enhanced security and
integration features.
8. 2020s - AI Integration and Edge Computing:
 AI and machine learning are being integrated into OSes to improve
performance and security.
 Edge computing OSes are gaining importance as devices at the network edge
become more capable.
Q2] Explain the difference between monolithic kernel and microkernel With advantages and
disadvantages.
Micro Kernel Monolithic Kernel
Monolithic Kernel:
Advantages: Efficiency: Communication between kernel components is fast and efficient since they
share the same address space.
Low Overhead: There's minimal overhead when switching between kernel and user modes, making
system calls relatively fast.
Performance: Monolithic kernels often have better performance for tasks that require frequent
interactions between kernel components.
Disadvantages:
Lack of Modularity: It can be challenging to add or modify functionality in a monolithic kernel

without affecting the entire system's stability.
Difficulty in Debugging: Debugging can be complex since a bug in one part of the kernel can
potentially crash the entire system.
Security: A vulnerability in one kernel component can compromise the entire system's security.
Microkernel:
Advantages:
Modularity: Microkernels are highly modular, allowing for easier addition or removal of services
without affecting the core kernel.
Fault Isolation: If a user-space component fails, it's less likely to crash the entire system, enhancing
system reliability.
Security: Security is improved since the attack surface is minimized, and potentially vulnerable
components run in user space.
Disadvantages:
Performance Overhead: The need for inter-process communication (IPC) between user-space and
kernel-space components can introduce some performance overhead.
Complexity: Developing and maintaining a microkernel-based OS can be more complex due to the
need for robust IPC mechanisms.
Resource Usage: Running many user-space services can consume more memory and CPU resources
compared to a monolithic kernel.
Q4] What is Operating system? Explain any two types of OS in detail.
i) An operating system (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between computer
hardware and the user or application software.
ii) It provides a set of essential services and functions to manage and control hardware resources,
facilitate software execution, and provide a user-friendly interface.
iii) Operating systems play a crucial role in managing the computer's resources efficiently and
ensuring that different software applications can run concurrently without interfering with one
another.
Here are two types of operating systems explained in detail:
1] Single-User, Single-Tasking Operating System:
a) A single-user, single-tasking operating system is one of the simplest types of operating systems.
b) It is designed to support only one user and execute one task at a time.
c) These types of operating systems were prevalent in the early days of computing.
Characteristics:
Single User: These OSes are designed for a single user, and they do not support multiple user
accounts or concurrent user sessions.
Single Tasking: They can execute only one application or task at a time. The user has to wait until the
current task is completed before starting another one.
Limited Functionality: They offer basic functionality, such as managing input and output devices,
memory allocation, and simple file management.
Examples: Early versions of MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and CP/M (Control Program
for Microcomputers) are examples of single-user, single-tasking operating systems.
Advantages:
Simplicity: These OSes are straightforward and easy to use, making them suitable for early personal
computers.
Low Overhead: They have minimal overhead since they focus on executing a single task.
Disadvantages:
Lack of Multitasking: Inefficient for modern computing needs, as they can't run multiple applications
concurrently.
Limited User Support: They do not support multiple user accounts or advanced security features.
2] Multi-User, Multi-Tasking Operating System:
A multi-user, multi-tasking operating system is a more advanced type of OS that is designed to

support multiple users and the concurrent execution of multiple tasks or processes.
Characteristics:
Multi-User Support: These OSes allow multiple users to log in and work on the same computer
simultaneously. Each user typically has their own user account and workspace.
Multi-Tasking: They can run multiple applications or tasks concurrently, making them suitable for
modern computing needs.
Resource Management: They efficiently manage hardware resources like CPU, memory, and storage
to ensure fair and optimal allocation among users and processes.
Examples: Linux, Windows, macOS, and various Unix-based operating systems are examples of multi-
user, multi-tasking operating systems.
Advantages:
Concurrent Execution: Multiple users can work on the same computer and run multiple applications
simultaneously.
Resource Efficiency: Efficient management of resources ensures fair allocation and optimal system
performance.
Advanced Features: They offer advanced security features, file management, networking, and
support for a wide range of software applications.
Disadvantages:
Complexity: Managing multiple users and tasks can be complex, requiring robust security and
resource management mechanisms.
Overhead: Multi-tasking introduces some overhead for task switching and resource management.
Q5] What is a virtual machine? Explain the concept of virtualization in operating system.
i) A virtual machine (VM) is a software-based emulation of a physical computer.
ii) It allows you to run multiple operating systems (OSes) and their associated applications
simultaneously on a single physical machine.
iii) Virtualization, in the context of operating systems and computing, refers to the process of
creating and managing these virtual machines.
Here's an explanation of the concept of virtualization:

Virtualization in Operating Systems:
a) Virtualization is a technology that enables the abstraction of physical hardware, such as

CPU, memory, storage, and networking, and allows multiple virtual machines to share and
utilize these resources.
b) Each virtual machine operates as if it were running on its dedicated physical computer,
even though it's sharing resources with other VMs on the same physical host.
c) Virtualization is like creating make-believe computers inside a real computer.

d) These make-believe computers (virtual machines) act just like real ones, even though
they're not separate physical machines.
e) This technology lets you run multiple operating systems and software on a single physical
computer, making it more efficient and versatile.
Q5] Explain the four basic functions of Operating Systems?

Operating systems perform various essential functions to manage and control computer
hardware and provide a user-friendly interface for users and applications. Among these
functions, four basic ones stand out as fundamental:
1. Process Management:
 Process Creation: The OS is responsible for creating and terminating
processes (individual program instances). It allocates resources such as CPU
time, memory, and I/O devices to processes.
 Scheduling: It schedules processes for execution, ensuring fair access to CPU
resources. The scheduler determines the order in which processes are
executed, aiming for efficiency and responsiveness.
 Inter-Process Communication (IPC): The OS facilitates communication and
data exchange between processes. This includes mechanisms like pipes,
sockets, and shared memory.
 Synchronization: The OS ensures that multiple processes can safely access
shared resources by providing synchronization mechanisms like semaphores
and mutexes.
2. Memory Management:
 Memory Allocation: The OS allocates and manages memory for processes,
ensuring each process has a suitable portion of RAM to work with.
 Virtual Memory: It provides virtual memory systems, allowing processes to
use more memory than physically available by swapping data between RAM
and disk.
 Memory Protection: The OS enforces memory protection to prevent one
process from accessing or modifying the memory of another process.
3. File System Management:
 File Creation and Deletion: The OS manages files and directories, allowing
users and applications to create, read, update, and delete files.
 File Access Control: It enforces file access permissions, ensuring that only
authorized users or processes can access specific files.
 File I/O: The OS provides mechanisms for reading from and writing to files,
including buffering and caching for efficient data transfer.
 Filesystem Maintenance: It keeps track of file metadata (e.g., file size,
creation date) and manages disk space allocation.
4. Device Management:
 Device Allocation: The OS manages access to hardware devices (e.g.,
printers, disks, network adapters) by allocating them to processes as needed.
 Device Drivers: It uses device drivers to interact with and control hardware
devices, abstracting the underlying hardware details.
 Input/Output (I/O) Handling: The OS handles I/O operations, including
buffering, queuing, and error handling, to ensure data is transferred between
processes and devices reliably.
 Interrupt Handling: It manages hardware interrupts, allowing devices to
signal the CPU when they require attention (e.g., data arrival, completion of a
disk operation).
These four basic functions collectively form the foundation of an operating system's
capabilities. In addition to these core functions, modern operating systems often offer a wide
range of additional features and services, including user interfaces, networking support,
security mechanisms, and more, to meet the diverse needs of users and applications.

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Q1] Describe the evolution of operating system.

1. 1940s-1950s - The Early Days:

Lack of Modularity: It can be challenging to add or modify functionality in a monolithic kernel

Here are two types of operating systems explained in detail:

1] Single-User, Single-Tasking Operating System:

2] Multi-User, Multi-Tasking Operating System:

A multi-user, multi-tasking operating system is a more advanced type of OS that is designed to

Here's an explanation of the concept of virtualization:

a) Virtualization is a technology that enables the abstraction of physical hardware, such as

c) Virtualization is like creating make-believe computers inside a real computer.

Q5] Explain the four basic functions of Operating Systems?

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