NDEJJE UNIVERSITY

COMPUTER REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

GROUP SEVEN

QUESTION:

DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING.

1. OPERATING SYSTEMS.

2. COMPUTER PROGRAMS.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS.

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and

computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a
computer's hardware. It can also be defined as the software that contains the
core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
WHAT IS A KERNEL?

Kernel is central component of an operating system that manages operations of

computer and hardware. It basically manages operations of memory and CPU time.
It is core component of an operating system. Kernel acts as a bridge between
applications and data processing performed at hardware level using inter-process
communication and system calls.
Kernel loads first into memory when an operating system is loaded and remains
into memory until operating system is shut down again. It is responsible for various
tasks such as disk management, task management, and memory management.
OBJECTIVES OF A KERNELS;

 To establish communication between user level application and hardware.

 To decide state of incoming processes.

 To control disk management.

 To control memory management.

 To control task management.

 Types of Kernels;

. Monolithic Kernel
It is one of types of kernels where all operating
system services operate in kernel space. It has
dependencies between systems components. It
has huge lines of code which is complex.
Example:
Unix, Linux, Open VMS, XTS-400
 MICROKERNEL

It is kernel types which has minimalist approach.

It has virtual memory and thread scheduling. It
is more stable with less services in kernel space.
It puts rest in user space.
Example:

Mach, L4, Amiga OS, Minix, K42.

 HYBRID KERNEL

It is the combination of both monolithic kernel and

microkernel. It has speed and design of monolithic kernel and
modularity and stability of microkernel.

Example:

Windows NT, Netware, BeOS.

NOTES:

The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (soft

wares) to interact with a computer's hardware and to manage a system's
hardware and software resources.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is
found almost in every device like mobile phones, personal computers,
mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.
 DEFINITIONS
We can have a number of definitions of an Operating System. Let's go through few
of them:
- An Operating System is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic
functions, such as scheduling tasks and controlling peripherals.
We can refine this definition as follows:
- An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Following is another definition taken from Wikipedia:
- An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware,
software resources, and provides common services for computer programs.
 Architecture
We can draw a generic architecture diagram of an Operating System
which is as below;
 OPERATING SYSTEM GENERATIONS:
Operating systems have been evolving over the years. We can categories this evaluation based on
different generations which is briefed below:

0th Generation(1642-1940’s)
The term 0th generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing
when Charles Babbage invented the Analytical Engine and later John Atanasoff
created a computer in 1940. The hardware component technology of this period
was electronic vacuum tubes. There was no Operating System available for this
generation computer and computer programs were written in machine language.
This computers in this generation were inefficient and dependent on the varying
competencies of the individual programmer as operators.
CHARACTERISTICS

 Characterized with Mechanical gears and Electromagnetic

relays.
 Used Punched Cards for Data storage.
 Were very large
 Generated a lot of heat
FIRST GENERATION (1951-1956)

The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing including

the introduction of Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC I in early 1951, and a bit later,
the IBM 701.
System operation was performed with the help of expert operators and
without the benefit of an operating system for a time though programs began
to be written in higher level, procedure-oriented languages, and thus the
operator’s routine expanded. Later mono-programmed operating system was
developed, which eliminated some of the human intervention in running job
and provided programmers with a number of desirable functions. These
systems still continued to operate under the control of a human operator who
used to follow a number of steps to execute a program. Programming language
like FORTRAN was developed by John W. Backus in 1956.
 CHARACTERISTICS
 Use of vacuum tubes to make circuits
 Use of magnetic drums
 Use of machine language and symbols in instructions
 Very small amount of storage space
 Use of punch cards as I/O devices
 Huge in size and poor in mobility
 Very slow and less reliable output
 Use of high electricity
 Generates too much heats
 Complex and expensive to maintain
 SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964)

The second generation of computer hardware was most notably characterized by

transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. The
first operating system GMOS was developed by the IBM computer. GMOS was
based on single stream batch processing system, because it collects all similar jobs
in groups or batches and then submits the jobs to the operating system using a
punch card to complete all jobs in a machine. Operating system is cleaned after
completing one job and then continues to read and initiates the next job in punch
card.
Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and multiprocessing in
their computing services called the time-sharing system. A noteworthy example is
the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), developed at MIT during the early
1960s.
CHARACTERISTICS

1. Use of transistors
2. Magnetic memory and magnetic storage disks
3. High speed I/O devices
4. Invention and use of high-level languages such as Fortran and Cobol.
5. Reduced size
6. Solution to heat generation
7. Communication by using telephone line
8. Improvement of speed and reliability
 THIRD GENERATION (1964-1979)

The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBM’s announcement of its
System/360 family of computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated
circuits (ICs) which yielded significant advantages in both speed and economy.
Operating system development continued with the introduction and widespread
adoption of multiprogramming. The idea of taking fuller advantage of the
computer’s data channel I/O capabilities continued to develop.
Another progress which leads to developing of personal computers in fourth
generation is a new development of minicomputers with DEC PDP-1. The third
generation was an exciting time, indeed, for the development of both computer
hardware and the accompanying operating system.
 CHARACTERISTICS
 The third-generation computers were small in size to shift compact design from one location to another.
 They are highly portable.
 They are designed and developed to achieve particular tasks and operations.
 High sophisticated technology and design were utilized and implemented to develop third-generation computers.
 They are required high maintenance.
 Due to their compact design, they were used as commercial products.
 Small Scale Integration (SSI) and Medium Scale Integration (MSI) chips were used in third-generation computers
for better performance.
 Their speed was increased from microseconds to Nanoseconds using advanced technology.
 They used a more robust and advanced operating system, which helped develop powerful high-level languages.
 They used Magnetic storage devices for storing data, instructions, and information.
 They were pretty reliable and used monitors and keyboards as input devices.
 The outputs generated by third-generation computers were trustworthy.
FOURTH GENERATION (1979 – PRESENT)

The fourth generation is characterized by the appearance of the personal

computer and the workstation. The component technology of the third
generation, was replaced by very large-scale integration (VLSI). Many Operating
Systems which we are using today like Windows, Linux, MacOS etc. developed
in the fourth generation.
 CHARACTERISTICS
 Microprocessor based system that uses Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.

 Microcomputers became the cheapest at this generation.

 Hand-held computer devices became more popular and affordable

 Networking between the systems was developed and became of every day use in this generation.

 Storage of memory and other storage devices has increased in big amount.

 Outputs are now more reliable and accurate.

 Processing power or speed has increased enormously.

 With increment in the capacity of the storage systems large programs were started to be in use

 Great improvement in the hardware helped great improvement in the output in screen, paper etc.

 Size of the computer devices became such small that even desktop computers were easily
movable along with portable computers such as laptops etc.
 FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF AN
OPERATING SYSTEM.

1. Memory Management
2. Processor Management
3. Device Management
4. File Management
5. Network Management
6. Security
7. Control over system performance
8. Job accounting
9. Error detecting aids
10. Coordination between other software and users
1. MEMORY MANAGEMENT

 Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main

memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
 Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are
not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
2. PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the

processor when and for how much time. This function is called process
scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor
management −
- Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for
this task is known as traffic controller.
- Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
3. DEVICE MANAGEMENT

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective

drivers. It does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
4. FILE MANAGEMENT

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
 An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities
are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS:
Single-and multi-entrusting

A single-tasking framework can just run one program at any given moment, while a multi-
entrusting operating system enables in excess of one program to keep running in
simultaneousness. This is accomplished by time-sharing, where the accessible processor
time is separated between different procedures. Then again in time cuts by an errand
planning subsystem of the operating system. Multi-entrusting might be portrayed in
preemptive and co-agent composes. In preemptive multitasking, the operating system cuts
the CPU time and devotes a space to every one of the projects. Unix-like operating system s,
for example, Solaris and Linux—and in addition non-Unix-like, for example, Amiga OS Bolster
preemptive multitasking. Agreeable multitasking is accomplished by depending on each
procedure to give time to alternate procedures in a characterized way. 16-bit variants of
Microsoft Windows utilized helpful multi-entrusting. 32-bit adaptations of the two Windows
NT and Win9x utilized preemptive multi-entrusting.


Single-client operating systems have no offices to recognize clients, yet may enable different projects to keep running

couple. A multi-client operating system expands the fundamental idea of multi-entrusting with offices that recognize

procedures and assets, for example, circle space, having a place with different clients, and the framework allows

various clients to associate with the framework in the meantime. Time-sharing operating systems plan errands for

proficient utilization of the framework and may likewise incorporate bookkeeping programming for cost distribution of

processor time, mass stockpiling, printing, and different assets to various clients.
Distributed

A conveyed operating system deals with a gathering of particular PCs and

influences them to have all the earmarks of being a solitary PC. The improvement of
arranged PCs that could be connected and speak with each other offered to ascend
to circulated registering. Circulated calculations are done on in excess of one
machine. At the point when PCs in a gathering work in participation, they frame an
appropriated framework.

Templated
In an OS, disseminated and cloud computing setting, templating alludes to making a
solitary virtual machine picture as a visitor operating system, at that point sparing it
as a device for numerous running virtual machines. The method is utilized both in
virtualization and distributed computing administration and is regular in substantial
server rooms.
Real-time
An ongoing operating system is an operating system that certifications to process
occasions or information by a particular minute in time. An ongoing operating system
might be single-or multi-entrusting, however, while multitasking, it utilizes particular
booking calculations with the goal that a deterministic nature of the conduct is
accomplished. An occasion drove framework switches between errands in light of their
needs or outside occasions while time-sharing operating systems switch undertakings in
view of clock hinders.

Embedded
Implanted operating systems are intended to be utilized as a part of inserted PC
frameworks. They are intended to work on little machines like PDAs with less self-rule.
They can work with a set number of assets. They are exceptionally reduced and to a great
degree proficient by the plan. Windows CE and Minix 3 are a few cases of implanted
operating systems.
Library
A library operating system is one in which the administrations
that a run of the mill operating system gives, for example,
organizing, are given as libraries and created with the
application and design code to develop a uni-kernel: a specific,
single address space, machine picture that can be conveyed to
cloud or installed conditions.
CLIENT INTERACTION WITH THE OS:

As a client, you typically associate with the operating system through an

arrangement of orders. For instance, the DOS operating system contains

summons, for example, COPY and RENAME for duplicating records and
changing the names of documents, separately. The orders are
acknowledged and executed by a piece of the operating system called the
charge processor or summon line translator. Graphical UIs enable you to
enter charges by pointing and clicking at objects that show up on the
screen.
 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Operating systems usually come pre-loaded on any computer you buy. Most individuals use the

operating system that already comes with their computer however it is possible to upgrade or change the
initial operating system to suit your preference.
operating system s, for the most part, come pre-stacked on any PC you purchase. A great many people

utilize the operating system that accompanies their PC, however, it's conceivable to redesign or even
change operating system s. The three most regular operating system s for PCs are Microsoft Windows,
Mac OS X, and Linux.
Present day operating system s utilizes a graphical UI or GUI. A GUI gives you a chance to utilize your

mouse to click symbols, catches, and menus, and everything is unmistakably shown on the screen utilizing
a mix of designs and content.
Each operating system 's GUI has an alternate look and feel, so on the off chance that you change to an

alternate operating system, it might appear to be new at first. In any case, current operating system is
intended to be anything but difficult to utilize, and the greater part of the essential standards are the
same.
1. Microsoft Windows

Microsoft made the Windows operating system in the mid-1980s. Throughout the years, there has

been a wide range of renditions of Windows, however, the latest ones are Windows 10 (2015),

Windows 8 (2012), Windows 7 (2009), and Windows Vista (2007). Windows come pre-stacked on most

new PCs, which makes it the most mainstream operating system on the planet.

2. Mac OS X
Mac OS is a line of operating systems made by Apple. It comes preloaded on all new Macintosh PCs or

Macs. The majority of the current forms are known as OS X, and the particular variants incorporate El

Capitan (2015), Yosemite (2014), Mavericks (2013), Mountain Lion (2012), and Lion (2011).

As per Stat Counter Global Stats, Mac OS X clients represent under 10% of worldwide operating system s

—much lower than the level of Windows clients. One explanation behind this is Apple PCs have a tendency

to be costlier. Be that as it may, numerous individuals do lean toward the look and feel of Mac OS X over

Windows.
Linux
Linux is a group of open-source operating systems, which implies they can be altered and
dispersed by anybody around the globe. This is unique in relation to exclusive programming
like Windows, which must be changed by the organization that possesses it. The benefits of
Linux are that it is free, and there are various dispersions—or adaptations—you can look
over.

As indicated by Stat Counter Global Stats, Linux clients represent under 2% of worldwide

operating system s. Be that as it may, most servers run Linux since it's moderately simple to
alter.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAM

What is a program?

 In computing, a program is a specific set of ordered operations for a computer to perform.

In the modern computer that John von Neumann outlined in 1945, the program contains a
one-at-a-time sequence of instructions that the computer follows. Typically, the program is put
into a storage area accessible to the computer. The computer gets one instruction and
performs it and then gets the next instruction. The storage area or memory can also contain
the data that the instruction operates on. Note that a program is also a special kind of data
that indicates how to operate on application or user data.
Computer programs can be characterized as interactive or batch in terms of
what drives them and how continuously they run.

 Interactive programs.
These programs receive data from an interactive user or possibly from another
program that simulates an interactive user. A command interpreter or a
web browser are examples of an interactive program.

 Batch programs.
These programs run, do their work and then stop. A batch program can be started
directly by a user, or it can be invoked to run by an interactive program. A program
that computes and prints out a company payroll is an example of a batch program.
Print jobs are also batch programs.
 CREATING A PROGRAM;
When you create a program, you write it using some kind of computer language. Your language statements

are the source program. You then compile the source program with a special program called a language
compiler, and the result is called an object program -- not to be confused with object-oriented programming.

There are several synonyms for object program, including object module and compiled program. The object
program contains the string of 0s and 1s called machine language that the logic processor works with.

The machine language of the computer is constructed by the language compiler with an understanding of

the computer's logic architecture, including the set of possible computer instructions and the length, or
number of bits, in an instruction.

All kinds of automation mean all kinds of programs, written and run by ordinary people. Learn how improving

your math skills can enhance your programming skills.

Before getting into computer programming, let us first understand computer programs and what they do.

A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer Programming Language to

perform a specified task by the computer.

 THE TWO IMPORTANT TERMS THAT WE HAVE USED IN THE ABOVE
DEFINITION ARE –

 Sequence of instructions
 Computer Programming Language

To understand these terms, consider a situation when someone asks you

about how to go to a nearby KFC. What exactly do you do to tell him the
way to go to KFC?
You will use Human Language to tell the way to go to KFC, something as
follows −
First go straight, after half kilometer, take left from the red light and then
drive around one kilometer and you will find KFC at the right.
Here, you have used English Language to give several steps to be taken to reach KFC. If they are followed in the
following sequence, then you will reach KFC −

Go straight

Drive half kilometer

Take left

Drive around one kilometer

Search for KFC at your right side

Now, try to map the situation with a computer program. The above sequence of instructions is actually a Human
Program written in English Language, which instructs on how to reach KFC from a given starting point. This same
sequence could have been given in Spanish, Hindi, Arabic, or any other human language, provided the person
seeking direction knows any of these languages.

Now, let's go back and try to understand a computer program, which is a sequence of instructions written in a
Computer Language to perform a specified task by the computer. Following is a simple program written
in Python programming Language −

print "Hello, World!"

The above computer program instructs the computer to print "Hello, World!" on the computer screen.
 A computer program is also called a computer software, which can
range from two lines to millions of lines of instructions.
 Computer program instructions are also called program source code
and computer programming is also called program coding.
 A computer without a computer program is just a dump box; it is
programs that make computers active.

As we have developed so many languages to communicate among

ourselves, computer scientists have developed several computer-
programming languages to provide instructions to the computer (i.e., to
write computer programs). We will see several computer programming
languages in the subsequent chapters.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING.

If you understood what a computer program is, then we will say: the
act of writing computer programs is called computer programming.
As we mentioned earlier, there are hundreds of programming
languages, which can be used to write computer programs and
following are a few of them;

 Java
 C
 C++
 Python
 PHP
 Perl
 Ruby
USES OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS

Today computer programs are being used in almost every field, household,
agriculture, medical, entertainment, defense, communication, etc. Listed
below are a few applications of computer programs −
MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer, Chrome, etc., are
examples of computer programs.

 Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special effects

in movie making.

 Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays, and

other medical examinations.

 Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS, Chat, and
voice communication
COMPUTER PROGRAMMER

Someone who can write computer programs or in other words, someone who
can do computer programming is called a Computer Programmer.
Based on computer programming language expertise, we can name a
computer programmer as follows;

 C Programmer

 C++ Programmer

 Java Programmer

 Python Programmer

 PHP Programmer

 Perl Programmer

 Ruby Programmer
 ALGORITHM
From programming point of view, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to resolve any problem. An algorithm is an
effective method expressed as a finite set of well-defined instructions.

Thus, a computer programmer lists down all the steps required to resolve a problem before writing the actual code.
Following is a simple example of an algorithm to find out the largest number from a given list of numbers –

1. Get a list of numbers L1, L2, L3....LN

2. Assume L1 is the largest, Largest = L1

3. Take next number Li from the list and do the following

4. If Largest is less than Li

5. Largest = Li

6. If Li is last number from the list then

7. Print value stored in Largest and come out

8. Else repeat same process starting from step 3

The above algorithm has been written in a crude way to help beginners understand the concept. You will come across
more standardized ways of writing computer algorithms as you move on to advanced levels of computer programming.

END.
GROUP DISCUSSUNTS:

KASOZI INNOCENT SAUL 21/2/306/DJ/443

KAMUHABWA AMOS STEPHEN 21/2/314/DJ/243
NASASIILA BANABUS 21/2/314/DJ/315
BUYINZA IVAN 21/2/314/D/262
KAYANJA MARK 21/2/314/D/344
MUDOOLA DENIS 21/2/314/DJ/244
KAWUKI MARK 21/2/314/E/244
TIM JERRY 21/2/208/D/098
NYEKO GEORGE 21/2/314/DJ/027
KATO EMMANUEL

MWEBE MARK

BALAGADDE PAUL 21/2/222/D/323

MAGEZI CONRAD 21/2/208/D/403
BAMWEYANA NATHANAEL 21/2/208/D/495
BUSUULWA ANDREW 21/2/306/D/447