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General Chemistry 2 1

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Is a branch of chemistry which deals with behaviour and characteristics of electrons.

This subtopic deals with electron occupying space in an atom. The electron occurs in the orbit/
shell at the region called orbital. The orbital is the region where there is a maximum probability
of locating electron. At the same time this topic deals with electron of atom which occurs in a
chemical compound. The general chemistry includes the following aspects or subtopics:-
 Atomic structure.
 Atomic spectrum/ H – spectrum.
 Wave mechanics.
 Chemical bonding.
1.0 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic structure deals with structure and component of an atom. The first scientist discovered
that matter is made up of small particles called atoms. The term atom means indivisible particles.
But later, different scientists put forward atomic models. These atomic models account for
atomic structure. There are several atomic models which include the following:-

• Dalton’s atomic theory.


• Thompson’s atomic theory.
• Bohr’s atomic model.
• Rutherford atomic model.
• Wave particles duality nature of matter.
• Heisenberg uncertainity principle.

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Dalton’s atomic theory includes the following main points:-


i. Matter is made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
ii. Atom is neither created nor destroyed.
iii. Atoms of the same elements are similar especially in mass.
iv. Atoms of different elements are different especially in mass.
v. Atoms of different elements when combine they do so in small ratio whole numbers.

RECENT MODIFICATION OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY


Dalton’s atomic theory was modified because all points were not valid. This resulted into
discover of modern atomic theory. The following include point of modern atomic theory:-

i. Matter is made up of small indivisible particles called atoms was not valid due to the
existence of three particles in atom. Matter is made up of a small divisible particle
called atoms.
Particle Nature of change symbol mass Position
1
Proton +1 1 P 1.00 Nucleus
1
Neutron 0 0 n 1.00 Nucleus
0
Electron -1 -1 e 1/1840 Shell

ii. Atom is neither created nor destroyed was not valid due to the existence of radioactivity
therefore Atom can be created or destroyed by either nuclear fission or fusion.
iii. Atoms of the same elements are similar especially in mass was not valid due to the
existence of isotopes. Atoms of the same elements have either same or different mass.

iv. Atoms of elements are different especially in mass was not valid. Atoms of different
elements have either same or different mass.

v. Atoms of different elements when combine they do so in small ratio of whole number was
not valid because different elements combine by using variable ratio of whole
number.

THOMPSON's EXPERIMENT (DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS)

Thompson’s conducted an experiment to investigate if air conducts electricity. The


following circuit was used during the experiment.

• The emission tube have electrode at each end which is connected to the external circuit. The
emission tube is connected to the vacuum pump in order to maintain the low pressure in the
emission tube.

The circuit is switched on which results into the following observation:-

• The bulb emitted light which indicate that the gas conduct electricity.

• There is glowing of emission tube or emission of light.

• There is fluorescence of emission tube.

• The stream of rays running from cathode to the anode. Through investigation of properties of
cathode rays by using magnetic field, electric field and gold electroscope results into
discover of electron. The cathode rays were the electrons.

EXPLANATION OF THOMPSON’S EXPERIMENT IN TERMS OF ATOMIC


STRUCTURE

Ground state: Is lowest energetic state of an atom. Is a state when an electron filled in the
lowest energy level before filling the highest energy level available. The electron filled in atom
in order of increasing energy level. This state make atom to be stable.

Excited state: Is a state of an atom when electron filled in the highest energy level before filling
lowest energy level available. If the electron excited jumps to the extent that the nuclear
attractive force act upon it result pulling back of electrons. When return back to the ground state
release all amount of energy which was absorbed inform of radiation.

RADIATION: This energy causes glowing of emission tube. When the radiation strikes the
emission tube causes florescence of emission tube.

Convergent limit: Is a state of atom when an electron is removed completely from ground state
to the infinite. The convergent limit occurs if atom gain high energy which result electrons to
jump to the highest energy level where the nuclear attractive force cannot act up on it. This
electron cannot return back to the ground state it result the atom left to positively charged. The
convergent limit is a factor which causes some electrons to move from cathode to anode. These
were stream of rays called cathode rays which later was electrons.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CONVERGENT LIMIT


These include the following:-

• It resulted into discover of the ionization energy. This ionization energy used in the
inorganic section.

• It resulted into formation of ion particles. The ionic particle is more reactive when take part
during chemical reaction.

• It resulted into production of rays. These rays are known as atomic spectrum.

THOMSON MODEL OF THE ATOM


After the discovery of electrons and protons, the next question was to know how these particles
are arranged in an atom. The first simple model of the atom was proposed by J.J.Thomson in
1898.The Thomson atomic model is popularly known as the Thomson's "plum-pudding"
model of the atom.
Thomson considered an atom to be a sphere (radius = 10-10 m or 10-8 cm) of uniform positive
charge into which the negatively charged electrons were embedded. This model is like plum-
pudding dotted with raisins
This model of an atom could not explain many experimental facts. So, it was abandoned.

RUTHERFORD'SORD'S SCATTERING EXPERIMENT


In 1911 Rutherford performed an experiment which is now known as Rutherford's scattering
experiment. In this experiment, he bombarded a thin sheet (0.00006 cm thickness) of gold with
alpha α particles. The α-particles
particles were obtained
obtained from a radioactive substance. The -particles are
2
doubly ionized helium atoms (He *).

The scattered α -particles


particles produced tiny flashes on striking with the zinc sulphide screen. These
tiny flashes were observed with a movable microscope. The experimental
experimental set up used in the
famous α-scattering
scattering experiment is shown in figure below. The following observations were made
from the scattering experiment.

Structure of atom
The α -scattering
scattering from metal foils. The -particles are produced by a radioactiveve source.Since lead
absorbs α -particles
particles a lead plate with a hole is used to obtain a beam of a particles.The α -
particles scattered from the metal foil strike the fluorescent (zinc sulphide) screen and produce
tiny flashes. A movable microscope is used to t view the flashes.
i. Most of the a-particles
particles passed through the metal foil without any change in their path
i.e. they remained undeflected.
ii. Some of the α -particles
particles deflected through small angles.
iii. Only
nly a few of them (1 in 10,000) were actually deflected by as much as 90°, or even
larger angles. One in 20,000 particles returned back suffering a deflection of 180°.

Explanation. The results of the scattering experiment could not be explained by the Thomson's
atomic. Calculations showed that a charge spread over a sphere of radius 10-8 cm could deflect α
-particles only through small angles. The deflections of onlyα
only -particles
particles through larger angels
as observed would be possible If the positive charge
charge in the atom is spread over a sphere of radius
of about 10-13 cm thus, the α-particles
particles scattering result could not be explained by Thomson's
atomic model.

RUTHERFORD'S NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM


On the basis of α-particle
particle scattering experiment, Rutherford put forwarded in 1912, his nuclei
model of the atom. According to this assumptions.

i. An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a system of electronics.


Electrons are moving around the nucleus. The positive charge of the nucleus is due to the
protons present in it.

ii. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by coulombic force of attraction,

iii. The effective volume of the nucleus is extremely small as compared to the effective
volume
me of the atom. From the experiments, it was found that, Approximate radius of the
nucleus of an atom 10-1414
– 10-15 m (10-12 – 10-13 cm), Approximate radius of sphere of
electrons (or the radius of an atom) 10-10 m (10-8 cm).Since, the volume varies as r3,
hence the volume occupied by the nucleus is about 1012 times the volume of the atom.

iv. Almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

v. The positive charge on n the nuclei of different elements are always integral multiples of
the electron charge, but opposite in sign. Since, each atom is electrically neutral, hence in
an atom, the number of positive charges on the nucleus of an atom is equal tto the
number of electrons in it. The Rutherford's model of an atom is shown in the figure below

Rutherford, in 1912, put forwarded an atomic model. According to this model an atom consists
of positively charged nucleus which is surrounded by a system of electrons. The electrons and I
nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces. Because of the electrostatic
electrostatic attraction between
the nucleus and the electrons, the electrons should ultimately fall into the nucleus. But, it does
not happen. In order to explain why electrons not fall into the nucleus, Rutherford postulated that
the electrons are not stationary, but are revolving about the nucleus in orbits. But, this
explanation did not solve the problem completely. The physicists had observed that a revolving
electric charge must emit radiation and thus lose energy. Thus, an electron revolving around a
nucleus in an orbit should emit radiation and lose energy
If so, the continuous loss of energy should slow down electrons. As a result, the electron will not
be able to stand the attraction of the nucleus and gradually move towards the nucleus. The
electron should, therefore, follow a spiral path and ultimately fall into the nucleus within 10-8s.
The atom should thus, collapse. But, it does not happen, as the atoms are stable. Thus, there must
be something wrong in the Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom.

RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL


(i) The atom consists of extreme denser region at center called nucleus which have
positive charged particles.
(ii) The negative particles (electron(s) of atoms revolve around the nucleus in a path
called orbit.
(iii) The large area of atom is empty space.

SHORT COMING OF RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL.


Rutherford atomic model accounted that electron revolve around the nucleus in the path called
orbit. This is an imagination because no any scientist proved occurrence but discovered that
when charged particle revolve around the opposite charge reach a point when they collapse due
to the attraction force occurs between the nuclear and electron(s) hence electron capture. But this
proved the truth of Rutherford because no any atom discovered to collapse.

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL The electrons revolve around the nucleus in a path called orbits
which have certain energy.
The electron when revolve in stationery state does not radiate energy.
The electrons emit or absorb energy when shift from one energy level to another.
The electronic motions are those which its angular momentum is integral multiple of where n =
1, 2, 3...
SHORT COMING OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
Bohr’s accounted that electrons revolve in a single plane. But discovered that movement of
electrons is not restricted in only on plane.
The Bohr’s model did not explain spectral of multi-electrons atom but accounted only spectral
line of uni-electron hydrogen atom.
The Bohr’s model did not account for electrons which were found in a chemical bond.
Bohr viewed an electron as being placed at a certain distance from the nucleus. However, it was
proved by Weaver Heisenberg’s Uncertainity Principle:–It is impossible at any
movement to predict the exact position and velocity of an electron in an atom.

MASS SPECTROMETER
Is an instrument which is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element.
Mass spectrometers have an ability to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and
formula of a compound. In a spectrographic plate.
Mass spectrograph is a plate of mass spectrometers which detect and record the relative atomic
mass of an element. The spectrographic plate is a detector or recorder. The following is a
diagram of mass spectrometer which has different part.

Vaporization. The instrument is evacuated in order to prevent the interference of air. The solid
sample must be heated until it forms gaseous atoms and vaporized before it’s introduced into the
mass spectrometer.

Ionization. The vaporized sample of element is introduced in the ionization chamber. This
region has electric filament which emits fast moving electrons. These electrons collide with atom
of an element as a result the atom split which leave only nucleus of positive charge. The nucleus
left is where mass of atom is concentrated.

Acceleration. The ion particles formed in the ionization chamber are accelerated by two plate of
negative charge toward the magnetic field. These two plates are connected to negative potential
which accelerate ions as a beam of light toward the magnetic field.

Deflection. The beam of ions deflected in the magnetic field. The extent of deflection depends
on the mass charge ratio m/e. The light particle deflected more than the heavy particles. The
deflected ions strike on the detector. The ions at the same mass charge ratio strike on the same
mass spot.

Detection. Once the ions strike the detector in the collector that converts the intensity of the ions
into electric signals which is amplified by the amplifier into large electric current.
Recording. The current is used to operate a pen that moves on a paper tracing the peak of the
isotope. The ion is recorded in terms of atomic mass and relative abundance. When they
fall on the photographic plate they produce a mass spectrum consisting of a series of line at
different point. The mass of the ions detected on the photographic plate. Relative
abundance is the percentage of an isotopic atom in the element. The ions particles when strike
the detector produce mass spectrum. The mass spectrum recorded as a peak.

The following include example of mass spectrum.

CALCULATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS


Relative atomic mass of an element is the average value of all the known isotope atomic weight
relative to the proportional abundances. Relative atomic mass is more useful in chemistry than its
simple atomic mass of element because simple atomic weight does not consider existence of
isotopic forms of elements. The relative abundance of isotopic element is applied to determine
relative atomic mass. Example isotopic element X contained Y% of zaX and W% of zbX, the
relative atomic mass of element X is determined as given below.

Since y + w = 100

The length of peaks of each isotopic atom applied to find the relative atomic mass. Each
atom have peak due to the different mass charge ratio m/e.
ATOMIC SPECTRUM
Definition: Are light waves which have definite line and colour because they have intermediate
wave length which cannot be detected by a human eye. These spectrums have no harmful affect
on human. Atomic spectrum produced once the atom gain energy which cause the electron to be
excited and jump from lowest energy level. This results into
into an atom being unstable in order to
maintain the stability these electrons return back to its group state which accompanied with
release of energy inform of radiation. These radiation have wavelength which detected by a
human eye of definite colour definite
defini wave and definite line.
Continuous Spectrum: are spectrums which contain all possible frequency over wide range of
energy. Continuous spectrums are colourless and have no definite line because they contain very
short wave lengths which are not detected by an eye. The continuous spectrum recorded in a
spectrographic plate as given below.
Line spectrum: is a spectrum which consists of scattered definite line. These spectrums
have very long wave length. The spectrographic plate of line
spectrum

Band Spectrum: Band spectrum are spectrums which consists of a group of definite line
in small bands. The spectrographic plate of band spectrum includes the
following:

BOHR-ATOMIC THEORY

(i) H - SPECTRUM

Definition:
Is a definite line and colour which resulted when electric discharge is passed through hydrogen
gas in the emission tube under very low pressure. The H – spectrum recorded in the
spectrographic plate. The following is a horizontal diagram of H-spectrum

UV Violet Infrared Red

Red
X - ray Radio electron
- ray Television

wave
UV – ray
Invisible

Note: wave length increases

The explanation of horizontal diagram in terms of atomic structure:-


First band: is a colourless band or invisible band. These are spectrum produced by electrons
which excited from the first shell. The electron from the first shell experience stronger nuclear
attractive force which use high energy in order to jump toward highest energy level. When these
electron returned back release high amount of energy which have shorter wave length. These
wave lengths are not detected by a human eye. The radiations formed are continuous spectrum
such as X – ray, sun rays etc.

Second band: is a visible band which has definite line and colour. These are line spectrum,
produced by electron which excited from the second shell. The electron in the second shell need
moderate energy in order to jump towards highest energy level when returned back release a
normal energy which its wave length detected by a human eye.

Third band: Is invisible band. These spectrums are colourless and have no definite line.The
electrons which produce these spectrum caused the scattered spectrum which appear as a
colourless band. This is due to the lowest energy and highest wave length. The following include
vertical diagram of H-spectrum.

The vertical diagram of Hydrogen Spectrum


Lyman series: is a series of spectrum which resulted by electron excited from the first shell (n
=1). These series correspond to the invisible band or colourless band.
Balmer series: is a series of spectrum which resulted by the electron which excited from the
second shell (n = 2) this corresponds with visible or violet band.
Paschen’s series: is a series of spectrum which resulted with electron excited from the third
shell (n = 3) etc.
Bracket series: is a series of spectrum which resulted with electron which excited from the forth
shell (n = 4) etc.

p-fund series: is a series of spectrum which resulted with the electron which exited from the
fifth shell (n=5).

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY


Planck put forward the Planck’s quantum theory. This theory has three main points which
include the following;-
i. Any radiation should be association with energy.
ii. The energy is released inform of radiation, occur in small packets called quanta.
iii.The energy is directly proportion to the frequency.
E f
E = hf……………………..(1)

Since h = Planck’s constant


h = 6.63 x 10 -34 JS
n= 1

Since f=

E= ………………….(2)

C = 3.0 x 108 ms-1

REYDBERG EQUATION
Reydberg put forward a principle which applied to find wave length of spectrum. The wave
length of H-spectrum determined is applied to find frequency and energy of the H- spectrum.
The wave number is inversely proportional to the square of energy level differences ( n2).

1/V = RH n2
V= RH

Since V = 1/λ

= ………………. (3)

Where λ= wave length


n1 = lowest energy level

n2 = highest energy level

RH = Reydberg constant RH is 1.09 x 107m-1


The value of n1 and n2 for H-spectrum can be obtained if given number of line and number of
series. The value n1 is equal number of series given. But the value n2 is equal to the number of
line plus the number of series. Example the value of n1 and n2 of third line of Balmer’s series
include the following:-
Number of line = Third line
Number of series = Balmer’s series
n1 = number of series = 2
n2 = number of line + Number of series
=3+2
n=5

But:

= 1.09 X 107m-1[1/22-1/52]

= 1.09 X 107m-1[1/4-1/25]

= 1.09 X 107m-1[(25-4)/100]

= 1.09 X 107m-1[(21/100]
λ = 4.45 x 10-7m of third line

E=

E=6.3 x 10-3 Js x 3.0 x 108ms-1

4.45 x 10-7m

E=4.25 x 10-19J
Also;

f=

f=

f = 6.74 x 1014s-1

f = 6.74 x 1014Hz

TRANSITION ENERGY
Is the energy which is required to shift electron from one shell to another. The energy required to
shift electrons from one shell to another should be equal to the energy difference between those
two shells. The energy difference between lowest energy level E1 and highest energy level E2 is
obtained by using the following expression;-

E = E2 – E1……………… (1)
The trend of transition of electrons include the following;
E = E2 – E1 - Transition take place from E1 – E2 exactly.
E > E2 – E1 – Transition take place from E1 toward above E2
E < E2 – E1 – Transition take place from E1 and hang between E1 and E2

But if electrons gain enough energy which is equal to the ionization energy result the
electron to jump completely from ground state to infinite. These electrons cannot return back
instead leave atom ionized positively. The energy supplied to the atom results to be excited and
electron move completely from the ground state to the infinite. The energy supplied to the
electrons is used as ionization energy and as kinetic energy. The ionization energy of electrons is
equal to the amount of energy associated by electron in the shell or quantum number where it
belongs.
The following expression is used to find the energy associated by electrons or energy of that
shell.

1/λ = RH
Let n1 = n
n2 = ∞

since 1/ =0
1/λ = ………………………..(i)
E = hc/λ
E/hc = 1/λ ……………………..(ii)
Substitute (ii) into (i)

E=

E=

Since R, h and C are constant


1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
1MeV = 106eV
1MeV = 1.6 x 10-13J

But discovered that the energy increase from the nucleus atom toward the high energy level. The
energy increases from first shell toward seventh shell. From seventh shell the energy is zero or
the energy at infinite is zero. Then the energy from infinite which is zero towards the lowest shell
decreases and results to be negative value of energy

n∞ = 0.00ev

n7 = -0.15ev

n6 = -0.21ev

n5 = -0.54ev

n4 = -0.84ev

n3 = -1.50ev

n2 = -3.40ev

n1 = -13.60ev

E = E2 – E1
= E – En

= 0 – En

=0–

E=

The negative value occurs because the energy of infinite is zero. Since energy increase from
nuclear towards highest energy level result the energy of each shell be negative value. This
formula is used to determine energy of electron at each shell.
Example
i. Find the first ionization energy of potassium.
ii. Find the wavelength, frequency and energy of third line of Balmer’s series ( RH = 1.09 x 107m-1)
iii.If the wavelength of the first number of Balmer’s series is 6563Å. Calculate Reydberg constant and
wavelength of the first member of the Lyman series.
iv.Find energy associated with electrons in the quantum number 2.

Solution:
i. E = I.E
k = 2:8:8:1

E=

E=

= -1.36 x 10-19J
E = E2 – E1
E = 0 - -1.36 x 10-19 J
E = 1.39 x 10-19J

ii. n1 = 2
n2 = 3 + 1
λ =

λ= 4.86 x 10-7m

iii. λ = 6563A

From

RH =

RH = 1.09 x 10-3 A-1


RH = 1.9 x 10 -3 x 1010m-1
RH = 1.09 x 107m-1
iv. E =?

n=2

E=

E= J

E= -5.44 x 10-19J

Example
The U.V light has a wave length 2950 Å. Calculate its frequency energy 1A = 10-10M
Given J
J
If the electron dropped from E4 to E2: Find the frequency and wave length energy release
Given line spectrum

Wave length

i. Which line has highest frequency and energy?


ii. Which line has lowest frequency and energy?
iii. Find the energy and frequency of each line in (i) and (ii) above?

E5
E4
E3
e0 E2
E1

State either or not the transition of electrons would occur if energy supplied is
i. Greater than E4 – E2
ii. Equal to E4 – E2
iii. Less than E4 – E2
iv. Greater than E3 – E2 but less than E4 – E2
v. Smaller than E4 – E2

Solution:
a) = 2950A
f=c
λ

f=

f = 1.02x10-2 S-1

E= hf
E = 6.3 x 10-34Js x 1.02 x 10-2 S-1
E = 6.426 x 10-36J

b) E4 = -1.36 x 10-19J
E2 = -15.44 x 10-19J
E = E2 – E1
E = E4 – E2
E = (-1.36 x 10-19) – (-5.44 x 10-19)
E = 4.08 x 10-1

But:

E = hf

f=

f=

f = 6.15 x 1014 S-1

Hence:

F=
λ=

λ=

λ = 4.88 x 10-7m

C. i) A line of wave length 2030A


ii) A line of wave length 8092 A
iii) f =?
E =?
Line of 2030A

Since f=

f=

f = 1.48 x 1015S-1
E = hf
E = 6.3 x 10-34Js x 1.48 x 1015

E=9.32 X 10-19 J

D) Solution

i) Greater than E4 – E2 result transition of electron from E1 and above E4

ii) Equal E4 – E2 transition take place from E2 to E4


iii) Smaller than E4 – E2 result transition of electrons from E2 but cannot reach instead hang
between E2 and E4
iv) Greater than E3 – E2 but smaller than E4 – E2 result transition of electron from E2 and
above E3 but cannot reach E4

THE QUANTUM THEORY

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY NATURE OF MATTER


States that: "Matter has particle nature as well as wave nature". This means that matter have dual
properties or two properties such as particle nature and wave nature. The wave particle duality
nature of matter was put forward by De Broglie scientist. De Broglie’s derived an expression
which applied to find the De Broglie’s wave length.
De Broglie’s wave length is in terms of mass and momentum.
Hence from Einstein equation;
E = mc2 …………………….(i)
From Planck’s equation

E= ……………… (ii)
Compare equation (i) and (ii)

mc2 =

λ =

λ =

De Broglie’s wave length in terms of energy

From:

λ= multiply by 1/c in both side

λ = [1/c]

=
=

Since E = mc2

Example
Alpha particles emitted from radium have energy of 4.4MeV. What is the de-Broglie’s wave
length?
The mass of moving particles is 9.01 x 10-19g. What is the de-Broglie’s wave length?
The momentum of particles is 2.0 x 10-10gm/s. What is the de-Broglie’s wave length?

Given that:

h = 6.63 x 10-34 JS

C = 3.0 x 108m/s

Solution
a. E = 4.4MeV
λ =?

De Broglie’s

λ=

λ = 4.52 x 10-13m

b. Solution
m = 9.01 x 10-19g
λ =?
De Broglie’s

λ=
λ=

= 2.33 x 10-24m

c. P = 2.0 x 10-10gms
λ =? De Broglie’s

λ=

λ=

λ = 3.315 x 10-24Jg-1m-1s-1

HEISENBERG UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE


Heisenberg uncertainity principle state that, “It is impossible to determine position and
momentum of electrons simultaneously with greater accuracy.” It is impossible to determined
position and momentum of electrons because;-
(i)The size of electron is very small and as such radiations of high energy extremely small wavelength
are required to detect it.
(ii) Impact of these high energy photons changes both the direction and speed of the electron.
Thus; the very act of measurement disturbs the position of electron. The uncertainties in
the determination of these two quantities vary inversely. If one is determined fairly
accurately, the other must be corresponding less accurate. The distance of electron: Is a
position of electron from the nucleus and momentum of electrons is product of mass of
electrons and velocity of the electron, Heisenberg put forward an expression which is used
to determine uncertainity position and momentum of electrons.

Where: P – uncertainity momentum


X – Uncertainity position

P=x

P= …………………. (1)
Since = proportionality constant

Also

mc = …………………. (2)

Example
The uncertainity in the momentum of particles is 3.3 x 10-16gms-1. Find accuracy with which its
position can be determined

X=

X=

= 1.59 x 10-29m

WAVE MECHANICS
Wave mechanics deal with electron occupying space. The electrons revolve the nucleus
through orbit and occur in the orbital.

Orbital:Is a region within an atomic sublevel that can be occupied by maximum two electrons
that have opposite spin. Any orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons.

The energy level of atoms is a specific region around the nucleus electrons can occupy in
atoms. A shell is defined as a complete group of orbital possessing the quantum number. The

electrons arranged in the atom starting from orbit from nucleus toward the orbit of highest
energy level. The following include position of locating electrons in the atom.

i. Principal quantum number (n)

The atom shells called principal quantum number (main energy level). The electrons filled in
atom in order of increasing the energy from the nucleus. Each shell have specific constant
number or electrons obtained taking
e = 2n2

Old name 1 2 3 4
New name K L M N

(ii)Subsidiary quantum number (L)


Subsidiary quantum number is a sub energy level. The sub energy level known as azimuthal
quantum number, sub shell or sub energy level. The shell divides to form sub shell. The total
number of sub shells in each shell is equal to the number of shell from the nucleus. This
describes shapes of orbitals (sub-energy level).Values of subsidiary quantum number start
from 0-------n-1

The names of sub shell include the following;

iii. Magnetic quantum number (m)

This is a quantum number which describes the orbital of each sub shell. This
sub shell divided and form orbital. Each sub shells have specific number of orbital.
(iv) Spin Quantum number (s)
These quantum numbers describe the spinning of electrons in the orbital. Maximum number of
electrons in the orbital in only two which spines in opposite direction. Since each orbital has two
maximum electrons result the sub shell to have constant total number of electrons which
accommodated in all shells S2, p6, d10, f14, g18, h22 and i26. In order to write elec
electrons of element
consider the knowledge of all four quantum numbers.

The following series of sub shell used to write the electrons structure.

This arrangement used to write the electronic configuration.


Arrangement used to write the electronic configuration has some irregularities or abnormality.
This irregularity occurs because there is overlapping of orbital. The orbital of low energy jump
toward highest energy level and orbital of high energy drop down towards lowest energy level.
Example 4s arranged first before 3d orbital.

RULES WHICH GOVERN ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ORBITALS

1. Aufbau’s principle – State that "in the ground state of orbital the lowest energy is filled by
electrons before filling orbital of the highest energy".
This means that electron filled in order of increasing energy level. The orbital of lowest energy
when is full of electrons then the electron filled on the next orbital of highest energy level.
Consider the following arrangement
2. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
State that, “The electrons pair in the orbital of the same sub shell is allowed if all orbital of the
same energy are occupied by electrons of maximum multiplicity. This means that the degenerate
orbital are not allowed to pair up unless each orbital is singly occupied. The incoming pairing is
done in an opposite spin. Consider a case with 5 electrons in valency shell.
3. Paul’s exclusive principle
States that, “Two electrons in an atom can never have exactly similar set of all quantum
numbers.” This means that the maximum number of electrons which is occupied in the orbital is
only two. Two electrons may occupy the same orbital only on condition that they have their spin
in the opposite direction. Two electrons may have three quantum numbers the same; n, l and ml
but the fourth, ms must be different.

Sometimes the electrons structure or electronic diagram of ions is written according to what kind
of ions given.

There are two kinds of ions which include the following;-


Cation or metallic ion is formed through losing of electrons. The electrons which are lost occur
in the orbital out the of the noble gas structure. The electron removed starting from orbital of low
energy toward the orbital of highest energy.
Anion or non-metallic ion – is formed by gaining electrons. Electrons which gain is added in the
orbital having unpaired electrons starting from orbital of lowest energy to the orbital of highest
energy level

QUANTUM NUMBER
Is a number which describe the characteristics of electrons or is a number which is used to
characterize electrons as they occupy orbitals in different energy levels. The quantum number is
a numberr which describe main energy level, orientation of orbitals and spinning of electrons.
There are four type of quantum number which includes the following:-
following:

1.Principle quantum number (n):(n): Is a number which specifies the location and the energy of
electron. This is a number which describe the main energy level of electrons. The principle
quantum number called shell orbit, main energy level and stationary state. The principle quantum
number have specific name from the nucleus. K, L, M, N etc.

2. Subsidiary
bsidiary principle quantum number (L): (L): Is a number which specifies the shape of
orbitals. Subsidiary principle quantum number is a sub energy level. The sub energy level is
known as azimuthal number sub shell or sub energy level. The shell is divided to fo form sub shell.
The total number of sub shells in each shell is equal to the number of shells from the nucleus.
The names of sub shells include the following; s, p, d, f, g, h, i. The value of sub energy level i.e.
0, 1, 2, …L = n - 1.The value of L must be smaller that n because L = n – 1

n Value of L Sub shell


1 0 1s
2 0, 1 2s2p
3 0, 1, 2 3sp3d
4 0, 1, 2, 3 4s4p4d4f
5 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 5s5p5d5f5f

3. Magnetic quantum number: Is a number which specifies the number of orbital present in a
given value of subsidiary quantum number. This is a quantum number which describes the
orientation of orbital. The magnetic quantum number is a number of orbital. When the sub shell
divides form orbital, these orbitals are called Magnetic quantum number.

1s – Orbital S = X
4. Spin quantum number (s) – This is a quantum number which describes the direction in
which the electrons spin. There are two maximum electrons, these electrons are moving in
opposite direction. They revolve clockwise + ½ and another revolve anti – clock wise – ½

APPLICATION OF QUANTUM NUMBER


Quantum number is applied to find the number of sub shell (L), number of orbital (m) and total
number of electrons (s) of the given quantum number (n). There are two methods which are
applied to find total sub shells, orbital and electrons.
Find total number of electrons in the principle quantum number 2.

(By using tree diagram)

Total shells = 2 (s, p)


Orbitals = 4 (0, 0, +1, -1)
Electrons = 8

Also: by using tabular form


(b) Find the total number of electrons in the principle quantum number 3
Soln: (by using tree diagram)

Example
(a) The modern theory of electron behavior is based on two assumptions. State them

(b) Define the following terms


i. Orbital.
ii. Energy levels of atoms.
iii A shell.
iv. Quantum.
Solution:
(a) The modern theory of electron behavior is based on two assumptions.
(i) An electron has a dual nature i.e. it behaves both as a particle and wave.
(ii) It is practically impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and momentum of an
electron with any degree of precision.

(b) (i) An Orbital is a region within an atomic sublevel that can be occupied by a maximum of
two electrons that have opposite spin. There are s,p,d, and f orbitals is a volume of space
surrounding the nucleus within which there is a more than 95% chances of finding electrons.
Any orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons.
(ii) Energy level of atoms in specific region around the nucleus that electrons can occupy in
atoms.
(iii) A shell is defined as a complete group of orbital possessing the same quantum number.
(iv) Quantum is the smallest countable, discrete packet or increment of radiant energy that can be
absorbed or emitted.

Example
Explain the meaning of the following terms:
(a) Quantization of energy and radiation.
(b) Wave particles duality of matter.
(c) Quantum number.

Solution
(a)Light and other forms of electromagnetic radiations are not emitted continuously but in discrete
“packets” called photons. Energy of an electromagnetic radiation is also not emitted
continuously but in “packets” called quanta. A photon of radiation carries a quantum of energy.
Energy and radiation are quantized in that electron shall fall from one energy level to another and
not anywhere else in between.

(b) According to de Broglie, every sub – atomic particles has both wave and particle properties.
Photons of light and other electromagnetic radiations, are regarded and wavelengths. They are
regarded as waves because they have specific frequencies. Although electrons have extremely
small mass, they have both velocity and momentum as particles.

(c) Quantum numbers are used to characterize electrons as they occupy orbitals in different energy
levels. Each electron is characterized by four quantum numbers:-

The principal quantum number, n, which specifies the location and energy of the electron.
The azimuthal, subsidiary or angular momentum quantum number, l, which specifies the shapes of
the orbitals.
The magnetic quantum number, m, which specifies the orbital orientation in space.
The spin quantum number, s, which specifies the direction in which the electron is spinning. These
quantum numbers completely describe the stationary stage of the electron.
Example
(a) Distinguish between the following terms:-
(i) An orbital and orbit.
(ii) S – Orbital and P – orbital.
(iii) A quantum of light and quantization of energy.
(iv) Quantum shell and quantum number.

(b) Explain briefly the meaning of the following quantum numbers:-


(i) n
(ii) l
(iii) m
(iv) ms

(c) In a tabular form specify all the four quantum number for each electron in an atom whose
n value is 2. Given all the orbitals are full of electrons.

(d) Given the value of the quantum numbers n, l and m for the electron with the highest
energy in sodium atom in the ground state.

(e) Write down all the quantum number of all the electrons in the ground state of nitrogen
atom.

(f) Give the values of all the four quantum number for 2p electrons in Nitrogen.

(g) Briefly explain why the following quantum numbers are not allowed.
i) n = 1, l = 1, m = 0
ii) n = 1, l = 0, m = 2
iii) n = 4, l = 3, m = 4
iv) n = 0, l = -1, m = 1
v) n = 2, l = -1, m = 1

Solution
(a) (i) An orbit is a well define circular path in which electrons were assumed to revolve around the
nucleus. Whereas an orbital is a three dimensional region of space around the nucleus whereby
there is high probability of finding an electron.

(ii) S–Orbital is spherical and hence non directional whereas p-orbital is dumbbell in shape and it is
directional.

(iii) A quantum of light is a photon of radiation emitted when an electron jumps from one energy
level to another whereas quantization of energy means energy emitted or absorbed following
electron transition between one energy level and another is not continuous rather it is in form of
small packet called quanta.
(iv) A quantum shell is the energy level of an electron in a given atom whereas quantum number
refers to specifies way of defining an electron in a given atom whereas quantum number refers to
specified way of defining an electron in a given orbital of an atom using n, l, m and ms values.

(b) (i) n – represents the principle quantum number;


It specifies the location and the energy of an electron.
It is a measure of the volume of the electrons cloud.
As the value of n increases or becomes less negative it means the energy levels of the electrons
get further away from the nucleus n can have only integers 1, 2, 3, 4 to infinite represented by
K,L,M,N etc. Also called azimuthal quantum number or subsidiary quantum number, specifies
the shapes of the orbital, when n = 1 there’s only l s orbital where n = 2, there’s 2s and 2p orbital,
thus for a given value of n, l, are all from 0, 1, 2…up to l = n - 1. Thus when n = 4 values are 0,
1, 2 and 3. Which represents 4s, 4p, 4d and 4, â„“ sub–levels m Magnetic quantum number
specifies the number of orbital present in a given value of â„“.

It specifies the orientating i.e. the direction of the orbital to magnetic field in
which it’s placed.

It accounts for the splitting of the spectral lines observed when an atom emitting
radiation is placed in a magnetic field, ms – Refers to spin quantum number.

(i) It indicates the direction in which the electron spins.

(ii) Only two values are allowed for an electrons i.e. electrons may spin
clockwise, shown as +1/2 or may spin anticlockwise as shown as ½ or

(c)
Principle (n) Azimuthal Magnetic quantum Spins ms
+1
n=1 â„“ = 0 m=0 /2 , –1/2
+1
n=2 â„“ = 0 m = 0 /2 , –1/2
+1
m = -1 /2 , –1/2
â„“ = 1
+1
m=0 /2 , –1/2
+1
m=1 /2 , –1/2

Total of 10 electrons

(d) When n = 3 in Na atom that electron is found in s – orbital thus â„“ = 0 and also ml = 0

(e) 1 electrons:
(1st) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +1/2 (2nd) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = -1/2
Electrons:
1st n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +1/2 (2nd) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = -1/2
2 Px; n = 2, l = 1, m = +1, s = +1/2 2Py; n = 2, l = -1, m = -1, s =
+
1/2
2Pz; n = 2, l = 1, m = 0, s = +1/2

(f) 2P electrons, there’s


2Px; n = 2, l = +1, m = +1, s = +1/2 2Py: n = 2 , l= -1, m = -1, s =
+
1/2
2Pz: n = 2 l = 1 m = 0, s = +1/2

(g) (i) l value must be smaller than n value since l = n-1


(ii) When l = 0 value of m is only 0
(iii) For l= 3, m can range from -3 to +3. Thus m=+4 is not allowed
(iv) n value cannot be equal to zero.
(v) l value cannot be a negative number.

Example
(a) briefly explain the meaning of the following quantum numbers:-

(i) ml

(ii) n
(iii) l
(iv) ms

(b) If n = 2, tabulate the values of 1, ml and ms.

(c) Give the possible values of 1 and m, for an electron with the principal quantum number,
n= 3

(d) Briefly explain why an electron cannot have the quantum number n = 2, l = 2 and ml = 2

Solution

(a) (i) ml – Magnetic quantum number with values from -l to +l. These are numbers showing the
number of sub – level in each energy level.
– Describes orientation

(ii) n – Principal (shell) Quantum number value of 1, 2, 3 etc theses are numbers used to
represent the main energy level in which an electrons is found.

(iii) l – Azimuthal or subsidiary or Angular or orbital Quantum number. They specify the
shape of orbitals.

(iv) ms – Magnetic spin Quantum number with values +1/2 and -1/2 shows the spinning of
electrons in orbitals (clockwise and anticlockwise direction).
(a) For n = 2, the scheme below illustrates the value of 1, ml and ms.
l=0, 1
ml=-1, 0, +1, 0
ms= ±1/2, ±1/2, ±1/2, ±1/2
Therefore the total number of electrons = 8

(b) If n = 3, possible values of 1 and m are;


l = 0, 1 and 2
m = 0 for l = 0
m = -1, 0 and +1 for l = 1
m = -2, -1, 0, +1 and 2 for l = 2
Note that: l=n-1

(c) An electrons cannot have quantum numbers, n = 2, l = 2 and m = 2. This is because when
n = 2, l can be 0 and 1; then ml can be 0, -1, 0, +1 different values which can occupy in
orbitals (i.e. they have n, l and m values the same but they must spin in opposite
directions and hence have different ms values).

RULES FOR FILLING ELECTRONS IN THE ORBITALS OF AN ATOM


The orbitals of an atom can be filled with electrons by applying the following rules.

i)Aufbau Principle

This is also known as the building up principle. According to this principle "The electrons in an
atom are so arranged that they occupy orbitals in the order of their increasing energy."
Thus, the orbital with the lowest energy will be filled first, then the next higher in energy, and so
on. Since, the energy of an orbital in the absence of any magnetic field depends upon the
principal quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l), hence the order of filling
orbitals with electrons may be obtained from the following generalizations.
a) The orbitals for which n + I is the lowest is filled first.
b) When two orbitals have the same values of n+l, the orbital having the lower value of n is filled
first.
The order of filling of various orbitals with electrons obtained by this rule is given below:
1s, 2s. 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f,5d, 6p, 7s, 5f…
To remember this sequence may be a difficult task. Given a long side is a simple way of working
out this order. In this method a series of arrows running from upper right to the lower left gives
the order of orbitals with increasing energy.
ii) Pauli’s Exclusion principle

In 1925 Wolfgang Pauli discovered what is known as the exclusion principle. This principle is
very useful in constructing the electronic configuration of atoms. According to this principle “No
two electrons in an atom can have the same values
values for all the four quantum numbers”.
For example in 1s orbital of helium atom there are two electrons. According to the concept of
quantum number and Pauli’s rule, their quantum numbers are:

The + and - sign before j refers to the clockwise and and anticlockwise spins of the electrons.
Thus, the two electrons having the same values of n, I and m could have different values
of s, i.e., their spins are in the opposite directions. This leads to a very significant observation
that
"Each orbital can accommodate
ommodate at the maximum two electrons with opposite spins."

Applications of the Pauli's exclusion principles


The Pauli's exclusion principle leads to the following conclusions:
(a) An orbital cannot have more than two electrons.
(b) In any main energy level
evel (shell), the maximum number of electrons is twice the in number of
orbitals, or is equal to 2n2, where n is the principal quantum number.

iii) Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

The rules discussed above do not give any idea for filling electrons into
into the orbitals having equal
energies (such states are called degenerate states). For example, three p-orbitals,
orbitals, i.e. px, py and
pz, have equal energy. How should electrons be filled into these orbitals? Let us take an example
in which three electrons are to be filled into three p-orbitals.
p orbitals. The three electrons can be filled into
three p orbitals in two different ways as shown below.
Now, which of the two is correct? The answer to this question is given by Hund's rule, Hund's
rule states that,
"When more than one orbitals of equal energies are available, then the electron*,] first occupy
these orbitals separately with parallel spins. The pairing of electrons will | only after all the
orbitals of a given sub-level are singly occupied."

According to the Hund's rule, the correct way of filling three electrons in three p orbitals that in
which each orbital is singly occupied, (arrangement II above).
Hund's rule is also known as the Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.

Explanation
Two electrons with parallel spins, tend to be as far apart as possible to minimize the electrostatic
repulsion. Therefore, the electrons prefer to occupy the orbitals singly
as far as possible. When all the orbitals get singly occupied, then the incoming electron has two
choices either to pair up with the other electron or to go to the next higher orbital.

When vacant orbital of suitable energy is not available, then the incoming electron will have no
choice except to pair up with another
electron.

Example
(a) State the;
(i) Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
(ii) Hund’s rule.
(iii) Paul’s Principle.
(iv) Aufbau’s Principle.

(b) Brief explain why the following sets of quantum number are NOT allowed in hydrogen
atom:
(i) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0
(ii) n = 1, 1 = 0, ml = 2
(iii) n = 4,1 = 3, ml = 4
(iv) n = 0, 1 = 0, ml = 0 and
(v) n = 2, 1 = -1, ml = 1

(c) How many orbitals are there in each of the following sublevel?
(i) 1s
(ii) 2p
(iii) 3d
(iv) 4f
(d) How many sublevels are there in each of the following shells?
(i) K
(ii) N
(iii) L

(e) Which of the following electronic configuration is correct for 14p in its ground state?

State the principle violated in each case


Solution
(a) (i) The Heisenberg’s uncertainly principle states that; “it is impossible to measure
simultaneously the exact position and exact velocity (momentum) of an electron.” Any attempt
to measure one quality will distract the measurements of the other quantity

(ii) Hund’s rule states that, “electron pairing is not allowed until all orbitals of the particular
energy sub – level are occupied by at least one electron.”

(iii) Paul’s Exclusion Principle, “states that no two electrons may have all the four quantum
number the same.” Two electrons may have three quantum numbers of the same; the paired
electrons are always in opposite direction at the same time.

(E.g. and ).

(iv)Aufbau Principle states that, “In electrons configuration, electrons are filled in order of increasing
energy levels.” Thus the lowest energy available must be filled up first. The orbi orbital energy
increase in the following order; is 2s, 2p, 3s, 4p, 5p etc.

(b) (i) n = 1, 1 = 1, ml = 0 this is not allowed because l must be smaller than n, in the case l = 1
which is not allowed.
(ii) n = 1, 1 = 0, ml = 2. This is not allowed because 1 = 0 and ml = 0
(iii) n = 4, 1 = 3, ml = 2. This is not allowed because for 1 = 3 can range from -3, +3, thus, +4
is not allowed.
(iv) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0; this is not allowed because n cannot be zero.
(v) n = 2, l = -1,, ml = 1. This is not allowed because l cannot be a negative number and n
can never be = 0
(c) (i) 1 s sub energy level has one – orbital (which is 1 s – orbital).
(ii) 2 p sub energy has three p – orbital (which is 1 s – orbital).
(iii) 3 d sub energy level has five d – orbital [which are 3 d (x2 – y2), 3dz2 3dxy, 3 and
3dyz].
(iv) 4 f sub energy level has seven f – orbital [which are 4xy, 4fyz, 4fz, 4f(x2 – y2),
4f(x2-z2) and 4f (y2 – z2)].

(d) (i) K has one sub level (which is l s2).


(ii) N has four sub levels (which are 4s2, 4p6, 4d10 and 4f14).
(iii) L has two sub levels (which are 2s2 and 2p6).

(e) Is the correct electronic configuration of 15p


This is correct since it obeys principle governing electron in an atom distribution
(i) [(Ne)]
(ii) [(Ne)] aufbau (building up) principle is violated as it states that electrons available as the case
here.
(iii) [(Ne)]
(iv) [(Ne)] Hund’s Rule of maximum that multiplicity is violated as it states electrons occupy orbital
as singly as possible

Example
(a) State the rules used in filling electrons in various orbitals of an atom.
(b) By using 3 different ways for each of the following atoms write their electron configuration
(i) C
(ii) N
(iii) Ag

(c)Write the electronic configuration of Na+ and F- then show the other element whose electronic
configuration resembles these ions. Show that electronic configurations of Cu and Cr are
unusually written. Give reasons.

Solution
(a)(i)Paul’s exclusion principle states that; “no two electrons may have all the four quantum number
the same i.e. electrons may occupy the same orbital only on conditions that they have their spins
in the opposite direction.”

(ii) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity states that, “when more than one orbital with equal
energies are available, electrons tend occupy those orbital separately first with parallel spins and
separately first with parallel spin and pairing of electrons will start only after all the orbitals of a
given sub level are singly occupied.”

(iii) Aufbau principle states that, “Electrons in an atom are so arranged that they occupy the
orbitals in the order of their increasing energy.”
(b) (i) C Atomic number 6

Using Box method:

1s2 2s2 2p2

Using noble gas structure;


[He] 2p2

(ii) N atomic number 7

Using box method

Using sub levels only;


1s2 2s2 2p3

Using noble gas structure;


[He] 2p3

(iii) Ag atomic number 47

Using box method;

Note: 4d is filled first to maintain stability of full filled d – orbital before 5s is filled.

Using sub levels only;


1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 4d10 5s1

Using noble gas structure;


[Kr] 4d10 5s1

(c)
(i) Na+ number of electrons also 10
1s2 2s2 2p6 resembles Ne

(ii) F – number of electrons also 10

1s2 2s2 2p6 resembling Ne

(d) Cu Atomic number 29


e.g. [Ar] 4s1 3d10

Cr Atomic number 24
e.g. [Ar] 4s1 3d5 full filled and half filled orbitals are very stable electronic structures.
The stability gained is the cause of 4s electrons to be unpaired and make 3d orbitals either
full filled or half filled.

Note that: In writing the electronic configuration the atoms or orbitals of the same value are
usually written together irrespective of their relation energy levels.
E.g. Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 not 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 4s1 3d10. To save time and space noble
gases are often utilized e.g. sodium [Ne] 3s1 and Iron [Ar] 3d6 4s2

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE


Definition:-chemical bond is the chemical force /force of attraction which keeps the atoms in
any molecule together.

Types of the chemical bond

i) Ionic/Electrovalent bond
ii) Covalent bond
iii) Coordinate bond
iv) Polar covalent bond
v) Non-polar covalent bond
vi) Hydrogen-bonding

i) IONIC/ ELECTROVALENT BOND.


An ionic or electrovalent bond is formed by complete transfer of one or more electrons from the
atom of the metal to that of a non-metal.
Note: - As a result of electron transfer the following changes occur in the reacting atom:-
(a) Both the atoms acquire stable noble gas configurations.
(b) The atoms that loses its electrons becomes positively charged ion called cation, the atom
which gain this electrons becomes negatively charged ions called anion.
(c) The two oppositely charged ions .i.e. the cation and the anion are then held together by the
coulombic force of attraction to form an ionic bond .
Note:- During the formation of ionic bond, a certain amount of energy is released.
e.g Na + Cl → Na+cl-
This ionic bond may be defined as the coulombic force of attraction which holds the
oppositely charged ions together.
ELECTROVALENCY
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom of any element is termed as electrovalency.
The element which gives up the electron(s) to form positive charge or ions are said to have
positive valency. While the element(s) which accepts electrons to form negative ions are said to
exhibit negatively valency.

Note:- Variable electrovalency of iron exist as Fe2+ and Fe3+ in ferrous sulphate and ferric
sulphate .when a compound is formed by the transfer of electrons, the element that loses
electron(s) is said to be oxidized and the element that gains electrons is said to be reduced.
Oxidation is a process which involves loss of electrons where as reduction is the process which
involves gaining of electrons.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC/ELECTROVALENT BOND


An ionic/Electrovalent bond has the following properties:-

(i) An ionic bond is formed due to the coulombic attraction between the positively and
negatively charged ions.

(ii) An ionic bond is non-directional, the strength of interaction between two ions depend
upon distance but not the directional.

(iii) An ionic bond gets broken when the substance is dissolved in polar solvent such as water
or when the substance is melted.

Typical examples of ionic bond:-

(a) Na + Cl → NaCl
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORMATION OF IONIC BOND
The main steps involved in the formation of an electrovalent/ ionic bond are:-
are:
(i) Removal of electrons from one atom, in this stage energy equal to the ionization energy
is absorbed.
(ii) Gaining of electrons by the other atoms .In this step energy equal to the electrons
affinity is released.

(iii) Combination of cation and anions. These ions are held together by coulombic for
force of
attraction. In this step, energy equal to the lattice energy is released.

(II) COVALENT BOND


A covalent bond is formed between two atoms (similar and dissimilar) by a mutual sharing of
electrons .the shared pairs of electrons are counted towards the stability of both
the participating atoms.

DEFINITION: - A covalent bond is defined as the force of attraction arising due to mutual
sharing of electrons between the two atoms.
When the two atoms combine by mutual sharing of electrons, then each of the atoms acquire
stable configuration of the nearest noble gas.

COVALENCY
Is the number of electrons which an atom contributes towards mutual sharing during the
formation of a chemical bond.
Example of the Covalency: - Covalency of hydrogen (H2)

CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BOND


(i) Mode of formation, covalent bond are formed due to mutual sharing of one or more pairs of
electrons.
(ii) Directional character , covalent bonds are directional in nature this is because the shared
electrons remains localized in a definite space between the nuclei of the two atoms.This gives a
directional character to the covalent bond.

SINGLE COVALENT BOND


A covalent bond formed by mutual sharing of one pair of electrons. A single covalent bond is
represented by a small line (-)) between the two atoms.
E.g
MULTIPLE COVALENT BONDS
The covalent bonds developed due to mutual sharing of more than one pairs of electrons are
termed as multiple covalent bond.
The multiple covalent bonds nds are:-
are:
(i) Double covalent bond
(ii) Triple covalent bond
Double covalent bond is the bond formed between two atoms due to the sharing of two electrons
pairs. Its simply called Double bond

E.g. O2 → O =O

CO → C= O etc.

Triple covalent bond is the bond formed due to the sharing of three electron pairs
E.g N2 → N ≡ N,
Acetylene H – C ≡ C – H.

(I) FORMATION OF MOLECULES HAVING DOUBLE BOND.


(i) Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule:-
Each oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer most shell. Thus it requires two more
electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration.
E.g

(ii) Formation of carbon dioxide(CO2) gas


The electronic configuration of carbon and oxygen are :-
:

C 1s2 2s22p2 2,4


O 1s2 2s22p4 2,6

Thus each carbon atom requires four ,and each oxygen atom requires two more electrons to
acquire noble gas configuration.This is achieved as follows
e.g
(iii) Formation of molecules having triple bond :-
:
(a) Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule.

COMPARISON BETWEEN SINGLE,DOUBLE AND TRIPLE COVALENT BONDS


Triple bond length < Double bond length < Single bond length.
Since a shorter bond means greater bond strength hence the energy required to separate the
bonded atoms( called bond energy) follows the order
Triple bond > Double bond > Single bond

FACTORS FAVOURING THE FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND


The following are the factors that favour the formation of a covalent bond:-
bond:
(i) High ionization enthalpy (energy).
The element having higher ionisation enthalpy (energy) cannot lose electrons easily
easily.

(ii) Nearly equal electron gain enthalpy or electron Affinity.


The atoms of the two elements which have equal or nearly equal electron gain enthalpies or
electrons affinities tend to complete their outer shells by mutual sharing of electrons.

(iii)
i) Nearly equal electronegativity.
Equal or nearly equal electronegativity of the two combining elements does not permit the
transfer of electron(s) from one atom to another.

(iv) High nuclear charge and small atomic size.


High nuclear charge, and
d smaller atomic size of the combining elements favour covalent bond
formation, because the transfer of electrons in such case will not be possible.

COORDINATE COVALENT BOND


Coordinate bond is formed when the shared electron pair is provided by one of the combining
atoms.The atom which provides the electron pair is termed as the donor atom ,while the other
atoms which accept is termed as the acceptor atom
The bond formed when one sided sharing of electrons take place is called a coordinate or Dative
bond.
d. A coordinate bond is presented by an arrow ( → ) pointing towards the acceptor atom.

(i) Formation of coordinate bond during the formation of a molecule or molecular ion:
ion:-
+
(a) Formation of Ammonium (NH4 ) ion.
ormation of ammonium ion ,nitrogen is the donor atom while H+ is the
During the formation
acceptor ion.
(b) Formation of coordinate bond between two molecules:-
Two or more stable molecules combine to form a molecular complex,is such a
complex molecule, the constituent molecules are held together by coordinate bond

The product above is ammonia-borontrifluoride complex

POLARITY IN COVALENT BONDS :-


Depend upon chemical nature of the combining elements, the following two types of covalent
bond are formed

(i) Non-polar covalent bond


(ii) Polar covalent bond

(i) NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND


When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of the same element, the electrons are
shared equally between the two atoms .The resulting molecule will be electrically symmetrical.

(ii) POLAR COVALENT BOND


When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of different elements, the bonding pair of
electrons does not lie exactly midway between the two atoms. It lies more towards the atom
which has more affinity for electrons.
The atom with higher affinity for electrons thus develops a slight negative charge and the atom
with lesser affinity for electrons a slight positive charge, such molecules are called polar
molecules.The covalent bond between two unlike atoms which differ in the affinities for
electrons is said to be a polar covalent bond.
Example of polar covalent bond are hydrogen chloride (H Cl) , water (H2O)

CAUSES OF POLARITY IN BONDS


The cause of polarity in bond is due to the electronegativity difference.
Example of the electronegativity difference between hydrogen and halogen atoms is as follows:-
halogen atoms: (F,Cl,Br,I)
electronegativity differences:-

H–F > H – Cl > H – Br > H – I


(4- 2.1) (3.0- 2.1) (2.8- 2.1) (2.5- 2.1)
1.9 0.9 0.7 0.4

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY.


The VSEPR theory was proposed by R.J Gillespie and R.S Nyholmn in 1957. This theory was
developed to predict the shapes of the molecule in which the atom are bonded together with
single bond only. This theory is based on the repulsions between the electron pairs in the valence
shell of the atoms in the molecule. The main postulate of the vsepr theory are:-
(i) The geometry of a molecule is determined by the total number of electron pairs (bonding
and non-bonding) around the central atom of the molecule.
The shape of the molecule depends upon the orientation of these electron pairs in the space
around the central atom.
(ii) The electron pairs (shared or lone pairs) around the central atom in a molecule tend to
stay as far away from each other as possible so as to minimize the repulsion forces
between them.
(iii) The strength of repulsion between different electron pairs follows the order.

Lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-shared pair > shared pair-shared pair
The shared pair of electrons are also called bond pair of electrons.The presence of lone pair(s) of
electrons on the central atom causes some distortions in the expected regular shape of the
molecules.

PREDICTING THE SHAPE OF MOLECULES ON THE BASIS OF VESPR THEORY

(i) Molecules with two bond pairs


In a molecule having two bonds pairs of electrons around its central atom, the bond pairs are
located in the opposite side (at an angle of 180º) of the central atom so that the repulsion between
them is minimum.
(ii) Molecules with three bond pair

In a molecule having three bond pairs of electrons around its central atom, the electron pair form
an equilateral triangular arrangement around central atom. Thus the three bond pairs at 120º with
respect of each other. Thus the molecule having three bond pairs around its central atom have
trigonal planar (triangular planar shape).

(iii) Molecules with four bond pairs


In a molecule having four bond pairs of electrons the four bond pairs are arranged tetrahedral
around the central atom. Thus the four band pairs are at an angle pf 129º 28’ with respect to each
other. Therefore the molecule having four bond pairs around its central atom has a tetrahedral
shape.

(iv) Molecules with five bond pairs


Five bond pair orient themselves around the central atom in a trigonal bipyramidal way. Three
bond pairs are in a plane called equatorial plane, and oriented at an angle of 120º with respect to
each other.
Thus a molecule having five bond pairs around its central atom has a triangular bipyramidal
shape.
Therefore the molecule of the type shape AB5 are trigonal bipyramidal in shape e.g PCl5, PF5,
SbCl5.

(v) Molecules with six bond pairs


Six bond pairs in a molecule are distributed octahedral around the central atom. Thus a
molecule having six bond pairs around its central atom has an octahedral shape. Thus the
molecules of the type AB6 are octahedral. Thus molecules SF6 has an octahedral

SHAPES OF THE
MOLECULES HAVING BOND PAIRS AND LONE PAIR ELECTRONS.
The pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom which is not involved in bonding is called
lone pair of electrons.
For example the nitrogen atom in ammonia molecules (NH3) has one lone pair of electrons, the
oxygen atom in water molecule (H2O) has two lone pairs of electrons.
(i) Molecules having three bond pairs and one lone pair.
A molecule having three bond pairs and one lone pair of electrons, thus has in all four pairs of
electrons around its central atom.
Therefore these four pairs of electrons are distributed tetrahedral around the central atom.
(ii) A molecule of AB3 type has a triangular pyramidal shape
Typical molecules of this type are NH3, NF3,PCl3 and H3O+.

(iii) Molecules with two bond pairs and two lone pairs
The four electron pairs (two bond pair + two lone pair ) are distributed tetrahedral around the
central atom

The two lone pairs are the central atom repel the bond pairs slightly inward due to greater lone
pair-bond pair repulsion. As a result the bond angle in such a molecule is less than the
tetrahedral vale of 109º 28’
The presence of only two bond pairs is the molecules gives a bent shape (inverted V V- shaped) to
the molecule. Example include H2O, H2S, F2O and SCl2.
(iv) Molecules with four band pair and two lone pairs
The four bond pair are distributed in a square planar distribution. The two lone pairs are in a
direction at right angles to this plane.
EXERCISE:-
(i) predict the shapes of the following molecules following the VSEPR theory.

(a)Ammonia (NH3) molecules


(b)beryllium chloride(BeCl3)
(c)water (H2O) molecule
(d)silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4)

HYBRIDIZATION
Definition:- Is the process of mixing of the atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbital.
Note:- All hybrid orbitals of a particular kind have equal energy, identical shape and are
symmetrically oriented in space.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYBRID ORBITALS


(i) The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of the atomic orbitals
participating in hybridization.
(ii) All hybrid orbitals are equivalent in shape and energy but different from the participating
atomic orbitals.
(iii) A hybrid orbital which takes part in the bond formation must contain only one electron in it.
(iv) A hybrid orbital, like atomic orbital cannot have more than two electrons. The two electrons
should have heir spins paired.
(v) Due to the electronic repulsions between the hybrid orbitals they tend to remain at the
maximum distance from each other.

TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
The types of hybridization shown by an atom depends upon the requirement of the reaction.
(a) SP3(ess-pee three) hybridization (or tetrahedral hybridization)
(b) sp2(ess-pee two) hybridization (or trigonal hybridization)
(c) sp (ess-pee ) hybridization (or linear hybridization)
(d) s,p & d) hybridization

(a) SP3 HYBRIDIZATION


→ S + 3-P orbitals under mixing to provide new hybrid orbitals.
e.g S + (Px+ Py+ P2) → SP3
one s- orbital three p- orbital four hybrid orbital

Each of these hybrid orbitals has 25% S-character and 75% P-character. These four sp3
hybridized orbitals are directed along the four corner of a tetrahedron and are inclined to each
other at an angle 109º 28’
Examples of sp3 hybridization is that of methane (CH4), the process of hybridization involves
the following

During exited state of carbon one electron is promoted from 2S to 2P orbitals .The process of
promotion of an electron from 2s to 2p orbital of the carbon atom and subsequent hybridization
is illustrated below.
During hybridization/ During excited state ,S is promoted to P orbitals as shown below:

Shape of S is spherical and shape of p is damp bell, then S hybridized with p shape.

Hybrid between S + P
(b) SP2 HYBRIDIZATION (trigonal hybridization)
Example of SP2 hybrid orbital are the formation of ethane molecule(C2H4)
Note:- The three SP2 hybrid orbitals are oriented in a plane along the three corners of an
equilateral triangle .i.e. they are inclined to each other at an angle
angle of 120º the third p - orbital
2
(say P ) remains unchanged each hybrid orbital has 33.3% s - character and 66.7% p - character

SP2 hybridization of Ethene (C2H4)/Ethylene


(i) Structure of ethane.

(ii) Electronic configuration of carbon.

(iii) During excitation hybridization takes place. Then;


(c) SP hybridization(or linear hybridization)

Example of SP hybridization is the formation of ethyne(acetylene) molecules(c2h2)

(i) Structure of ethyne (acetylene)molecule

E.g (i)

(ii) Electronic configuration of carbon from ground state.

(iii) During excited state , S is promoted to P - orbital to form hybrid orbital.

(a)
Hybrid shape for carbon 1

(b)

Hybrid shape for carbon 2

Then C1 combine with C2


HYDROGEN BONDING
If a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative element such as fluorine , oxygen,
nitrogen, then the shared pair of electrons lies more towards the electronegative element. This
leads to a polarity in the bond in such a way that w slight positive charge get developed on H-
atom.

The bond between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and more electronegative atom of the
same or another molecule is called hydrogen bond

CONDITION NECESSARY FOR THE FORMATION OF HYDROGEN BOND


(i) Only the molecule in which hydrogen atom is linked to an atom of highly electronegative
element are capable of forming hydrogen bond.
(ii) The atom of highly electronegative element should be small.

SOME TYPICAL COMPOUND SHOWING HYDROGEN BONDING


(i) Hydrogen fluoride( HF)
Structure of hydrogen fluoride:-
(ii) Water (H2O).
Water is a typical polar compound which exhibit hydrogen bonding as shown below:
below:-
Structure of water molecule.

Hydrogen bonding that water exist in the associated form

TYPE S OF HYDROGEN BONDING


There are two types of hydrogen bonding
(i) Intermolecular hydrogen
rogen bonding
(ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding

(i) INTERMOLECULAR HYDROGEN BONDING.


When the hydrogen bonding is between the h-atom
h atom of one molecule and an atom of the
electronegative element of another molecule.
For example , hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia etc

(ii) THE INTRAMOLECULAR HYDROGEN BONDING


Is between the hydrogen of one functional group and the electronegative atom of the adjacent
functional group in the same molecule. For example the molecule of o-nitrophenol
o nitrophenol show
intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The p-nitrophenol
p nitrophenol shows intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
EFFECT OF HYDROGEN BONDING
Hydrogen bonding affects the physical properties of the compound appreciable .
Some effect of hydrogen bonding are described below:-
below:

(i) Molecular association.


Formation of aggregates containing two or more molecules due to weak electrostatic
interactions such as hydrogen bonding for example ,water molecule undergoes molecular
association due to hydrogen bonding.

(ii) Increase in the melting and the boiling points.


The interaction which affected the melting and boiling points of NH3, H2O and HF is
identified to be hydrogen bonding.
(iii) Influence on the physical state.
Hydrogen bonding affects the physical state of a substance also for example H2O is liquid
while H2S is a gas under room temperature condition

(iv) Solubility of covalent compound in water


Covalent compounds generally do not dissolve in water. However the covalent compound
which can form hydrogen bonds with water readily dissolved in it. For example ethanol,
Ammonia, Ammine lower aldehyde and Ketones dissolve in water due to their tendency to form
hydrogen bond with water.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Question 31

(a) Using the electronic configuration and periodic table, give the name of the element and the
number of valence electrons.

(i) 1s2 2s2 2p4

(ii) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

(b) Use Hund’s rule and other information to write out electronic configuration and orbital
diagram of;-

(i) Cobalt

(ii) Nickel

(iii) Zinc

Solution
(a) (i) Oxygen: It has 6 valence electrons in the 2s and 2p sub levels.

(ii) Phosphorus: It has 5 valence electrons (in the 3s and 3p sub level)

Question 32

(a) Provide the number of orbital in each of the following shells;-


shells;

(i) 1s

(ii) 2p

(iii) 3d

(iv) 4f
(b) Howe many sub – shells are there in each of the following sub – shells? K, N and L

(c) Explain if it is possible for an electron to have the following set of quantum
numbers.

n = 3, â„“ = 3; m; m = 3 and s = +1/2

(d) An electron is in a 4f orbital. What possible value for the quantum number can it
have?

(e) What sub shell is found in the shell with n value = 4

(f) Write the possible value of the 4 quantum number for the outermost 2 electrons of
Calcium.

(g) Write all the four quantum number for an electron added to Cl atom in forming Cl

(h) Write all the four quantum numbers for the outmost 2 electrons in Na

Question 33

(a) Write the total number of electrons possible for an atom whose n = 3. Assume that all the
orbitals are full of electrons.
(b) Write electronic configuration of the following elements/ions

(i) O

(ii) K

(iii) Ni at number 28

(iv) Cu+ (at number of Cu = 29)

(v) Mo at number 42

(vi) Cl- (at number of Cl = 17

(c) What is the number of unpaired electrons present in the ground state of;-

(i) Fe+3 (At NO. of Fe = 26)


(ii) Cr3+ (At No. of Cr = 24)

(iii) Ni2+ (At No. of Ni = 28

(d) Why is the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2x 2p0y 2p0z not correct for the ground state of
nitrogen?

(e) Mention the disobeyed law from the following arrangements;-


arrangements;

Question 1

(a) State two major postulates and five short coming of Bohr’s atomic models.

(b) An electromagnetic radiation was emitted in the Balmer’s series as a result of electron.

Transitions between n= 2 and n= 5 calculate the;


(i) Energy of the radiation in kJmol-1

(ii) Frequency of the radiation in hertz

(iii) Wavelength of the radiation in metres.

(c) Calculate the wavelength of a line in the Balmer Series that is associated with energy
transition

E4 E2 (E4 = -1.362 x 10-19J; E2 = -5.448 x 10-19J; h = 6.63 x 10-34J; C = 3 x 10-8 m/s)

Question 9

(a) The atomic spectrum in the visible is given by the following relationship: = RH

(i) What do symbols λ, RH, n1 and n2 represent? Show their SI units


(ii) Calculate the frequency of the third line of the visible spectrum i.e. a transit form n = 5 to
n = 2 (RH = 1.097 X 107 M-1)

(b) By means of series of horizontal lines, draw an energy level diagram for visible atomic
spectrum of hydrogen and indicate:

(i) The value of n for each line


(ii) By means of an arrow, show the transition which corresponds to the fourth line of
emission spectrum in visible region.

(iii) By means of an arrow, indicate the transition which corresponds to the fourth ionization
energy of hydrogen atom.

(c) (i) What do you understand by the term convergence limit and what is its significance?

(ii) Why are the discrete lines observed and not a continuous spectrum in Hydrogen
spectrum?

Question 25

(a) Define the term electron configuration.

(b) Write down the electron configuration of these elements in their ground;

(i) Hydrogen 1p.

(ii) Beryllium.

(iii) Neon 10p.

(iv) Aluminium 13p.

(v) Calcium 20p.

(vi) Manganese 25p.

(vii) Cobalt 27p.

(viii) Zinc 30p.

(ix) Krypton 36p.

(x) Silicon 14p.


Question 18

Write electronic configuration diagram of the following;-

(a) S-2 (b) Na+ (c) Cr+3 (d) Cr+6 (e) Zn+2

Question 15

Write the electronic configuration of the following;

25V = [Ar] 4s2 3d3


2 4
16S = [Ar] 3s p
2 5
9F = [He] 2s p
2 10 4
34Cs = [Ar] 4s d 4p
2 8
16In = [Kr] 5s 4d
2 6
26Fe = [Ar] 4s d
2
56Ba = [Xe] 6s

Question 16

Provide electronic configuration of the following;

75Pt
80Br
68I
48Ga
92Cf
58Te
102Ra
17Cl
15P
30Zn

Question10

(a) All radiations are associated with the wave nature and differ from one another terms of their
wavelength. Frequency, velocity and energy. Give the relationship between;

(i) Frequency and wavelength.


(ii) Energy and frequency.

(iii) Energy and wavelength.

(b) Ozone (O) protects the earth’s inhabitants from the harmful effects whose wavelength is
2950A. Calculate

(i) Frequency.

(ii) Energy.
for this UV light

(c) If the wavelength of the first line of the Balmer series in a hydrogen spectrum is 6563,
calculate the wavelength of the first line of Lyman series in the same spectrum. The uncertainty
of the momentum of particle is 3.3 x 10-16gms-1. Find the accuracy in which its position can be
determined.

Question 11

a) (i) A small object of mass 10g is thrown with velocity of 200 m/s given h = 6.626 x 10-34J.S.
Calculate its wavelength.

(ii) Kinetic energy of a sub – atomic particles is 5.65 x 10-23J. Calculate the frequency of the
particle wave (h = 6.626 x 10-34)
(iii) Calculate the momentum of a particle which has a de-Broglie wavelength of 0.1nm (h =
6.6 x 10-34 JS).

(iv) Two particles A and B are in motion, if wavelength λ of A is 5 x 10-8m. Calculate the
wavelength λ of B. if its momentum is half that of A.

b) State and describe briefly Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

c) (i) Describe the concept that as the particle size gets smaller determination of its momentum
and position simultaneous becomes difficult

(ii) Use the mathematical expression of the uncertainty principle to prove the validity of part
c (i) above
d) (i) Calculate the uncertainty in position of an electron if uncertainty in velocity is 5.7 x 105
m/s

(ii) The uncertainty in position and velocity of a particle are 1010m and 5.27 x 1024ms-1
respectively. Calculate the mass of the particle.

Question 12

(a) Outline the postulates and weaknesses of Bohr’s atomic model.

(b) Calculate the mass of a photon of sodium light having wavelength of 5894A and velocity 3
x 108m/s given h = 6.6 x 10-34kgm2s-1 and 3.7 x 10-36kg.
(c) What’s the wavelength of a particle mass 1 gram moving with a velocity of 200ms-1 given
h = 6.626 x 10-34J. (Answer 3.31 x 10-29m)

(d) The mass of an oxygen molecule is 5.3 x 10-26kg. Calculate its de Broglie wavelength if it
is moving at a speed of 500m/s (Planks constant (h) = 6.626 x 10-34Js (Answer 2.5 x 10-11m)

Question 13

(a) Briefly explain the meaning of these terms, with the help of a diagram

(i) Wavelength

(ii) Frequency

(iii) Velocity

(iv) Amplitude

(v) Wave number

(b) Yellow light from sodium lamp has a wavelength of 5800Ao. Calculate the frequency and
wave number of the radiations. Determine the range of frequency of visible light. The
wavelength of radiations lying in the visible regions are between (3800 - 7600A0).
Question 14

(a) (i) What do you understand by dual nature of matter?

(ii) How does de Broglie equation consider the dual nature of matter?

(b) (i) Calculate and compare the energies of two radiations, one with wavelength 800nm and
the other with 400nm

(ii) What is the amount of radiant energy associated with atomic 6.662 x 10-34Js, velocity of
light 3 x 108m/s

(c) If the wavelength of a beam of light is 2.8 x 10-7m. Calculate it’s;-

(i) Wavelength in cm.

(ii) Frequency.

(iii) Energy of one of its photons.

(d) (i) Referring to Bohr’s atomic model, what’s ionization energy?

(ii) Calculate ionization energy of hydrogen. Reydberg’s constant RH = 1.097 x 107m-1


(e) (i) Calculate the frequency of the 3rd line of visible spectrum.

(RH=1.097 x 107m, C=3 x 108m/s)

(ii) Given that the wavelength of the 1st line of Balmer series is 6563A. Calculate the
wavelength of the 2nd line in the spectrum.

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