1.What are the requirements for entering a medical university in Ukraine? Speak on EAT.

To enter a medical university applicant should pass external admission testing and only those who get good
results are accepted.

External admission testing which has been recently introduced in Ukraine presents some benefits for
applicants. They may not only demonstrate high efficiency in some subjects but also present results of
admission tests to a couple of universities, which gives applicants a possibility to make a better choice. As
for future medical students they should have high academic achievements in such subjects as physics or
math, chemistry or biology and (of course) Ukrainian language.

2. What is the period of training at Ukrainian higher medical schools? Speak on the module system and
«Steps»

The period of training at most Ukrainian higher medical schools is 5 years to become a pharmacist or a
dentist and 6 years to become a specialist in a great variety of medical specialties.

At the end of the third and the six course medical students pass the Step 1 and Step 2.

Passing the "Step 1" examination students should demonstrate profound knowledge in the following
subjects: medical biology, anatomy (normal and pathological), histology, physiology (normal and
pathological), biochemistry, microbiology and pharmacology.

Passing the "Step 2", if we speak about medical psychology, examination students demonstrate their
professional knowledge in such clinical subjects as therapy, psychiatry and narcology, medical psychology,
General Psychology, psychology, hygiene and pediatrics

3.speak on the NMU foundation. What scientists contributed to the development of the NMU?

National Medical University was founded in 1841 as a Medical Department of Kyiv Saint Volodymyr
University. Many scientists contributed to the development of the NMU, but scientists, who made the
biggest contribution was Mykola Pyrohov, Mykola Kozlov, Volodymyr Karavayev and Oleksander
Bohomolets. Pyrohov was a founder of Medical department, Karavayev was a first dean, Kozlov founded a
Anatomy department and Bohomolets was founder of the large school of pathophysiologists

4.Speak on the faculties of our university

There are a 7 faculties at the our university now: the First, the Second and Third Medical, Pharmaceutical,
Stomatological, the Faculty for Training Military Doctors and Faculty of Training Foreign Citizens. Before in
university was more faculties, but some of them was reorganized into institutes: Medico-Psychological
Faculty was reorganized into Educational and Scientific Institute of Mental Health and The Fourth Medical
Faculty was reorganized into Educational and Scientific Institute of Public Health and Preventive Medicine.
The university also has an Institute of Postgraduate Medicine

5. When and where do medical students have practical training? What do they do during their practical
course?

After the 4th year of studying students must undertake a practical course during which they work as
doctor’s assistants in hospitals. It gives a possibility to learn the importance of good doctor-patient
relationships.

Human body
6. What are the principal parts of the human body?

The human body consist of three principal parts: the trunk the head and the upper and lower extremities.
The trunk consists of the chest, the abdomen and the back and connected with the head by the neck. The
arms are the upper extremities and the legs form the lower extremities. The organ of special senses is ears,
eyes and nose. The eye protected by eyelashes and eyebrows.The nose has two nostrics. The ear consist of
the external ear, the middle ear smd the internal ear.

7. Name three main cavities in the body. What are the principal organs in the chest and abdominal
cavity?

Humans have four body cavities: the cranial cavity is situated in the head and contains the brain; the
thoracic cavity that encloses the heart, lungs, air passages, the esophagus and some of the large blood
vessels; the abdominal cavity that encloses most of the digestive organs (the stomach, the liver, the gall
bladder, the spleen and the intestines) and kidneys; and the pelvic cavity is the lowest part of abdominal
cavity that encloses the urinary bladder, the lower part of the intestine and reproductive organs.

The thorax is separated from the abdomen by a dome-shaped sheet of muscle known as the diaphragm.

8. What are the upper and lower extremities divided into?

The upper extremity is divided into the shoulder, the upper arm, the forearm and the hand. Between the
forearm and upper arm there is the elbow. The joint between the forearm and the hand is called the wrist.
Each hand has four fingers and one thumb. At the tips of the fingers there are the fingernails. The lower
extremity divided into the thigh, the lower le and the foot. The back of the lower leg is called the calf.
Between the thigh and the lower leg there is the knee joint. The joints between the lower legs and the feet
are the ankles. The foot consist of the heel, the sole and the toes.

9.What is skeleton and how many bones does it comprise? Speak on the axial and the appendicular
skeleton?

The skeleton is the bony framework of the body supporting the soft tissues and protecting the vital organs
within the skull, rib cage and pelvis. The 206 bones that comprise the adult human skeleton are usually
divided into two parts: the central axial skeleton, consisting of the bones of the skull, rib cage and the
vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton, consisting of the bones of the shoulders, arms, hips and
legs.

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the extremities, as well as the bones of the shoulder
and hips which attach the bones of the extremities to the axial skeleton. The shoulder is composed of the
clavicle and the scapula. The clavicle, or the collarbone, is a thin bone forming the front of the shoulder.
The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a large flat bone located in the upper part of the back. The arm contains
only one large bone the humerus. The forearm is composed of two bones, the radius and the ulna. The
wrist consists of eight car- pal bones articulating with the metacarpals of the hand. The finger bones are
known as phalanges. The pelvic girdle is composed of two large hip bones forming the sides and front, and
the sacral and coccygeal vertebrae that form the back. Analogically to the arm, the thigh also contains one
bone. It is the femur, the longest and the heaviest bone of the body. The leg is composed of two bones, the
tibia and fibula. The bones of the ankle are known as the tarsals. Five smaller tarsal bones and five
metatarsals form the remainder of the foot The toes, like the fingers, are composed of 14 bones referred to
as phalanges.

What about the axial skeleton, the skull is made up of the 22 bones. The cranium containing and
protecting the brain consists of 8 bones united by immovable structures called sutures. The bones of the
face include 14 bones of which only the mandible is an independent one. The rib cage contains 12 pairs of
ribs (or 24 ribs). The first seven pairs extend from the vertebral column to the breastbone. The next 3 pairs
are attached with cartilage to the sternum and the two pairs of floating are unattached in front. The
vertebral column serving as the main supporting structure is composed of a number of separate bones, the
vertebrae. The 33 vertebrae can be divided into 5 regions according to where they are found: the 7 cervical
vertebrae located in the neck, 12 thoracic vertebrae contained at the back of the chest, 5 lumbar in the
small of the back, 5 sacral and 4 coccygeal fused together to form the sacrum and the coccyx, respectively.
The first two vertebrae are known as the atlas and the axis.
10. Speak on the main systems of the body and their functions

There are the next systems in our organism.

• The digestive system consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall
bladder, pancreas. All the organs and glands of this system involved in the ingestion and digestion of
food, from the mouth to the anus.

• Urinary/ excretory system contains kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra. This system removes
urea and other waste materials from the body in a liquid called urine.

• Respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs. This system brings oxygen
into the body and removes carbon dioxide.

• Reproductive system contains ovaries, vagina, mammary glands, testes, urethra, penis, prostate
gland. This system enables human beings to have offsprings.

• Endocrine system consists of the thyroid gland , pituitary gland, sex glands, adrenal glands,
pancreas, parathyroid glands, pineal gland, thymus gland. The ductless glands produce internal
secretions.

• Nervous system contains brain, spinal cord, nerves and collections of nerves. This is a system of
nerve cells that handle the functions of reception of and response to stimuli.

• Cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels ( arteries, veins and capillaries). This
system carries blood to various parts of the body.

• Muscular system consists of the muscles. Skeletal system contains bones and joints. These systems
protects and supports the internal organs and also helps the body move.

• Integumentary system consists of the skin and its associated structures, including hair, nails, and
sweet and sebaceous glands.

11. Name three essential parts of the circulatory system and tell about its function.

The circulatory system, the chief transport system of the body consists of three essential parts: the
blood, the heart and blood vessels. Function of the heart is to pump blood, blood feeds nutrients to
every cell and blood vessels provide blood transport. The function of circulatory system is to deliver
energy and food substances to each cell and to remove waste products of cell metabolism and carbon
dioxide.

12.What is the heart and what does it consist of?

Heart is the main organ of the cardiovascular system. Function of the heart is to pump blood

The human heart consists of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, each made of several layers of
cardiac muscle arranged in circles and spials. During the contraction phase, called the systole blood is
pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta and then the arteries which carry blood to all parts of the
body, and out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery and then the lungs. Used blood carrying
carbon dioxide is returned to the right atrium through veins to the vena cava during the diastole or
relaxation period and newly oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium. Valves control
the flow all blood from one part of the heart to another.

13.Speak on the blood: composition, types of cells and their functions.

The blood is made up of two parts, plasma and blood cells.

Plasma is composed mostly of water and waste substances.

The blood cells are corpuscles and they’re divided into red, white and colourless corpuscles.

Erythrocytes (red corpuscles): contain hemoglobin (the coloured pigment), carry the oxygen to the
organs.

Leukocytes (white corpuscles): function – to protect the organism against infections.

Thrombocytes (platelets, colourless corpuscles): provide blood clotting.

14.What are the organs of alimentary canal and their functions?

The alimentary canal begins at the mouth and ends at the rectum. It consists of:

1. oral cavity

2. esophagus

3. the stomach

4. small & large intestines

Mouth: in the oral cavity the food is chewed or crushed between the teeth, the saliva flows into the
mouth and is mixed with the food to form a bolus, which can be swallowed.

The tongue is pushing it into the upper part of the throat (pharynx) and pass it down through the
esophagus into the stomach.

Stomach: the process of digestion occurs by means of the gastric juices, which are acid and act on meats.
From the stomach the food is passed into the upper end of the small intestine.

Small intestine: food is digested in the duodenum, the first part, which receives bile from liver and gall
bladder, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Chyme is passes in peristaltic waves to the second part,
the jejunum. The jejunum connects with the third section, the ileum. Some part of the food is absorpted
into the blood with the structures on the small intestine wall.

Large intestine: Process of digestion ends with the absorption of water. The undigested parts of the food
mixed with the useless remains of the digesting fluids and eliminated from the body.

15.What are the accessory organs? Speak on digestive juices.

The accessory organs of digestive system are an organs that help with digestion but are not parts of the
digestive tract.

1. the tongue

2. hard and soft palates

3. teeth

4. salivary glands

5. pancreas

6. liver

7. gall bladder

The juices which are secreted by the various glands to help in the digestion process are called as digestive
juices.

- The saliva starts the digestion of the starchy parts to maltose.

 - The gastric juise acts on meat and digesting proteins in amino acids.

- Pancreatic juice acts on all classes of food continuing the action of saliva and gastric juice.

- Bile from the liver helps in the breaking up of fats to the lipids.

- Intestinal juices completes the digestion of meat food in the intestine.

Taking a history
16.What are the components of clinical examination? Why does history-taking come first?

A clinical examination has three components: the history, the examination, and the explanation, where the
doctor discusses the nature of the clinical findings. Taking a patient's history comes first because it may
give valuable information about the nature of the patient's problem and provide the necessary clues to
help the doctor establish a preliminary or differential diagnosis. It could be visual inspection, palpation,
percussion, and auscultation.

17.What are the components of a patient’s history?

The history-taking process is a well established and commonly used sequence:

- History of presenting complaint

- History of present illness

- Systemic enquiry

- Past medical history

- Drug history

- Family history

- Social history

There are some recommendations for the effective doctor-patient communication:

Show the patient your attention.

Start by eliciting the presenting complaint.

Let the patient tell story in their own words.

Try not to interrupt.

Use the language which the patient understands.

Summarize the story for the patient to check, correct and add more relevant details.

Obtain the patient's history also from other sources of information.

18. What body systems are reviewed during examination and what symptoms are they associated
with?

The history is taken of the main symptoms of the major bodily systems:

• General: mood, fatigue, anorexia, fever, night sweats, rashes(висипи), heat/ cold intolerance.
(непереносимість жари/холоду)

• Cardiovascular system (CVS): chest pain, palpitations.

• Respiratory system (RS): shortness wheeze, haemoptysis(кровохаркання).

• Gastrointestinal system (GS): nausea, vomiting, indigestion, abdominal pain, heartburn, change in
bowel habit(запор) , dyspepsia.

• Genitourinary system (GUS): nocturia(нічне сечовипускання), frequency,

incontinence(нетримання сечі), change in color/smell of urine, menstrual difficulties.

• Central nervous system (CNS): headaches, weakness, dizziness, fits, faints, vertigo

Surgery
19. What is surgery? What does it deal with and what methods does it use?

Surgery is a branch of medicine, which treats diseases, injuries, deformities and other pathological
conditions by methods which involve opening, manipulating and repairing a part of body. It applies
different manual interventions such amputation, excision, incision, stretching, resection and other.

20. What are the main controlling factors in surgery? Define them.

The main controlling factors in surgery are anaesthesia and asepsis.

Anaesthesia is used to avoid shock in a patient and to make him insensitive to pain. It is produced by
anaesthetic drugs.

Asepsis is a complex of measures used to prevent introduction of microorganisms into the wound.
Everything which comes into contact with the wound must be carefully germ-free.

21. What should the surgical nurse prepare? What are the methods of surgical instruments
sterilization?

Nurses should prepare surgical instruments sterilizing them in special machines: autoclaves and sterilizers.

The methods of sterilization include :

• boiling

• low or high pressure steam sterilization

• cold sterilization by strong antiseptics.

Also the surgical nurse should prepare the necessary set of surgical instruments, prepare the apparatuses
for blood transfusion, check up the presence of blood substituting solutions and preserved blood.

Surgical nurses also help surgeon during the operation.

22. What are the required procedures to prepare the patient for an operation?

• He shouldn’t eat or drink anything for twelve hours before the operation to avoid complication of
anaesthesia.

• A patient is often given an enema before the operation to empty the colon frow wastes.

• The area to be operated is thoroughly, shaved and painted with a solution of iodine.

• The patient is put on a operation table, covered with a sterilized cloth and administered narcosis.

23. What are the postoperative procedures?

After the operation the patient is under special care and attention, his wound is frequently carefully
bandaged. The surgeon prescribes the patient proper post operative treatment.

24. What instruments and equipment are used during the operation?
• high intensity lights

• anaesthesia machine

• vacuum machines to suck out the excessive blood and other fluids from the part of the body which
is operated.

The main instrument table is covered with a large collection of scalpels, forceps, suture needles, retractors,
scissors, a hammer and so on.

25.What is a medical emergency? Give examples of medical emergency cases? Define them.

A medical emergency - an injury or illness that is acute and poses an immediate risk to a person's life or
health.

One of the most serious emergencies occurs when the person has stopped breathing. This may be the
result of asphyxiation, electrocution, drowning, a heart attack or another type of accident. Artificial
respiration must be started immediately.

The second most critical emergency is severe bleeding, especially from a main artery.

A condition which accompanies many medical emergencies is circulatory shock, commonly known simply as
shock. It is a serious, life-threatening medical condition in which the victim's bodily tissues do not receive
enough oxygenated blood.

Another serious emergency situation occurs when a poisonous substance is swallowed. This usually
happens in a household where a child swallows any chemical household product (ammonia, bleach or even
shampoo), or takes an overdose of medicine.

Poisoning is a condition when a person swallows a toxic substance or takes on overdose of medicine.

26.What is the ABC of the first aid? Name its key points.

Different natural and man made disasters and such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, crowds, traffic
accidents, gas or nuclear explosions, fire, result in emergency situation and great number of victims who
urgently need first aid.

The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key "P" points: TO PRESERVE LIFE, TO PREVENT
FURTHER HARM and TO PROMOTE RECOVERY.

The ABC of the first aid refers to the assessment of person's Airways, Breathing and Circulation.

27.What is CPR? Describe its aspects.

CPR – or Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (рэсюситейшн) – is an emergency lifesaving procedure performed

when the heart stops beating.

Immediate CPR can double or triple chances of survival after cardiac arrest. The cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) of a victim in these instances involves two aspects:

1) getting oxygen into the blood by blowing air into the lungs

2) heart massage – application of chest pressure to compress the heart and squeeze blood out of it into the
circulatory system.

28.What is circulatory shock? What are its signs? What are the basic recommendations for managing it?
What can it result in?

Shock - it’s a serious, life-threatening medical condition in which the victim's bodily tissues do not receive
enough oxygenated blood.
The main types of shock include:

• Cardiogenic shock (due to heart problems)

• Hypovolemic shock (caused by too little blood volume)

• Anaphylactic shock (caused by allergic reaction)

• Septic shock (due to infections)

• Neurogenic shock (caused by damage to the nervous system)

Signs of shock:

- tachycardia/tachypnoea

- hypotension

- signs of poor organ perfusion (such as low urine output, confusion or loss of consciousness)

- nausea, vomiting or diarrhea

The victim should be put supine with feet raised. No food or drink should be given. Any bleeding should be
controlled and the victim should be kept warm and comfortable until professional assistance arrives. Shock
may lead to hypoxia (a lack of oxygen in blood) or cardiac arrest (the heart stopping).

29.What is the first aid for suspected poisoning? What is the first aid for bleeding?

Serious emergency situation occurs when a poisonous substance is swallowed. First of all it is necessary try
to find this poisonous substance and read its instruction. The antidote for each substance is different; thus,
instructions on the container should be followed strictly. In some cases, the victim should be forced to
vomit or even gastric lavage in hospital may be needed.

The second most critical emergency is severe bleeding, especially from a main artery. It can usually be
stopped with direct pressure above the place of bleeding. If a vein bleeds, the extremity must be elevated.

30. What is a first aid kit? What should it contain and what for?

A first aid kit is a collection of equipment that is used to give medical treatment.

Any first aid kit should contain:

- sterile cotton wool

- adhesive bandages and gauze pads for cleaning wounds

- saline for cleaning wounds or washing out foreign bodies from the eyes

- antiseptic wipes or sprays to reduce the risk of infection in abrasions or around the wounds. Simple
medications:

- aspirin

- painkillers

- antihistamines

- activated charcoal

- emetics to induce vomiting, - tranquilizers

- smelling salts .........

There should be some medications for topical application:

- antiseptic ointment, fluid, or spray, iodine or brilliant green solution, burn gel or spray, mild anesthetic
and others

A more elaborate kit might also contain :

- forceps

- disposable syringes

- hypodermic needles

- a stethoscope for measuring the heartbeat or listening to the lungs

- a hemomanometer

- tracheotomy

- suture kits

- supplies of dextrose, plasma and saline solutions