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 HAP

Human Cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the
smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.
The cell is one of the most basic units of life. There are millions of different types of cells. There
are cells that are organisms onto themselves, such as microscopic amoeba and bacteria cells.
And there are cells that only function when part of a larger organism, such as the cells that make
up your body. The cell is the smallest unit of life in our bodies. In the body, there are brain cells,
skin cells, liver cells, stomach cells, and the list goes on.

All of these cells have unique functions and features. And all have some recognizable similarities.
All cells have a 'skin', called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside environment.
The cell membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the
cell. Inside of the cell membrane are the working parts of the cell. At the center of the cell is the
cell nucleus. The cell nucleus contains the cell's DNA, the genetic code that coordinates protein
synthesis. In addition to the nucleus, there are many organelles inside of the cell - small
structures that help carry out the day-to-day operations of the cell.
One important cellular organelle is the ribosome. Ribosomes participate in protein synthesis.
The transcription phase of protein synthesis takes places in the cell nucleus. After this step is
complete, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the cell's ribosomes, where translation
occurs. Another important cellular organelle is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria (many
mitochondrion) are often referred to as the power plants of the cell because many of the
reactions that produce energy take place in mitochondria. Also important in the life of a cell are

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the lysosomes. Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes that aid in the digestion of
nutrient molecules and other materials. Below is a labelled diagram of a cell to help you identify
some of these structures.
Tissues
Cells group together in the body to form tissues - a collection of similar cells that group together
to perform a specialized function. There are 4 primary tissue types in the human body: epithelial
tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nerve tissue.
1. Epithelial Tissue - The cells of epithelial tissue pack tightly together and form continuous
sheets that serve as linings in different parts of the body. Epithelial tissue serve as membranes
lining organs and helping to keep the body's organs separate, in place and protected. Some
examples of epithelial tissue are the outer layer of the skin, the inside of the mouth and stomach,
and the tissue surrounding the body's organs.
2. Connective Tissue - There are many types of connective tissue in the body. Generally speaking,
connective tissue adds support and structure to the body. Most types of connective tissue
contain fibrous strands of the protein collagen that add strength to connective tissue. Some
examples of connective tissue include the inner layers of skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage,
bone and fat tissue. In addition to these more recognizable forms of connective tissue, blood is
also considered a form of connective tissue.
3. Muscle Tissue - Muscle tissue is a specialized tissue that can contract. Muscle tissue contains
the specialized proteins actin and myosin that slide past one another and allow movement.
Examples of muscle tissue are contained in the muscles throughout your body.
4. Nerve Tissue - Nerve tissue contains two types of cells: neurons and glial cells. Nerve tissue
has the ability to generate and conduct electrical signals in the body. These electrical messages
are managed by nerve tissue in the brain and transmitted down the spinal cord to the body.
Organs
Organs are the next level of organization in the body. An organ is a structure that contains at
least two different types of tissue functioning together for a common purpose. There are many
different organs in the body: the liver, kidneys, heart, even your skin is an organ. In fact, the skin
is the largest organ in the human body and provides us with an excellent example for
explanation purposes. The skin is composed of three layers: the epidermis, dermis and
subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin. It consists of epithelial tissue
in which the cells are tightly packed together providing a barrier between the inside of the body
and the outside world. Below the epidermis lies a layer of connective tissue called the dermis. In
addition to providing support for the skin, the dermis has many other purposes. The dermis
contains blood vessels that nourish skin cells. It contains nerve tissue that provides feeling in
the skin. And it contains muscle tissue that is responsible for giving you 'goosebumps' when you
get cold or frightened. The subcutaneous layer is beneath the dermis and consists mainly of a
type of connective tissue called adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is more commonly known as fat
and it helps cushion the skin and provide protection from cold temperatures.

Body systems

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An organ system is a group of organs that work together in the body to perform a complex
function, such as pumping blood or processing and utilizing nutrients. There are 12 major organ
systems in the human body.
1. Skeletal System
2. Respiratory System
3. Muscular System
4. Digestive System
5. Circulatory System
6. Excretory System
7. Nervous System
8. Endocrine System
9. Reproductive System
10. Lymphatic/Immune System
11. Integumentary system
12. Sensory system

Organ systems work together with other organ systems to keep the body in good health. For
example, the circulatory and digestive systems work together to deliver nutrients throughout
the body. With the exception of the reproductive system, each is necessary for survival.

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 1. Skeletal System
Human newborns have over 270 bones some of which fuse together into a longitudinal axis, the
axial skeleton, to which the appendicular skeleton is attached.
A. Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (26), the rib cage (12 pairs of
ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). The upright posture of
humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the
trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of
the spine are supported by many ligaments.
B. Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles (4), the upper limbs
(60), the pelvic girdle (2), and the lower limbs (60). Their functions are to make locomotion
possible and to protect the major organs of locomotion, digestion, excretion, and reproduction.

Function of Skeletal System

1. Support- The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its
shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures.
Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the heart would collapse.
2. Movement
The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than
others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at
the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at
various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for
movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

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3. Protection

 The skeleton protects many vital organs:

 The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears.
 The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
 The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the human lungs, human heart and major blood
vessels.
4. Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the
bone marrow.

5. Storage
Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can
store iron in ferrotin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made
of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of
a bone.
A) Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the 80 bones along the central axis of the human body. It is
composed of six parts; the human skull, the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone of the
throat, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. The axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton together form the complete skeleton.
Skull (22)

 Cranial Bones (8)

 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Vomer (1)
Auditory Ossicles (6)

 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2

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Vertebral Column (26)

 Cervical vertebrae (7)

 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)
Thoracic cage (27)

 Sternum (3) - Manubrium (1) Body of sternum (1) Xiphoid process (1)
 Ribs (24)

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B) Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
1) Pectoral Girdles (4 bones) - Left and right Clavicle (2) and Scapula (2).
2) Arm and Forearm (6 bones) - Left and right Humerus (2) (Arm), Ulna (2) and Radius (2)
(Fore Arm).
3) Hands (54 bones) - Left and right Carpal (16) (wrist), Metacarpal (10), Proximal
phalanges (10), Middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10).
4) Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right os coxae (2) (ilium).
5) Thigh and leg (8 bones) - Femur (2) (thigh), Tibia (2), Patella (2) (knee), and Fibula (2)
(leg).
6) Feet and ankles (52 bones) - Tarsals (14) (ankle), Metatarsals (10), Proximal phalanges
(10), middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10).

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 2. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is the biological system that introduces respiratory gases to the interior
and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the
respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen and
carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external
environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs.
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features,
and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange.
Function of the Respiratory System

 The function of the human respiratory system is to transport air into the lungs and to
facilitate the diffusion of Oxygen into the blood stream.
 Its also receives waste Carbon Dioxide from the blood and exhales it.
The respiratory system consists of the following parts, divided into the upper and lower
respiratory tracts:
 Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract
 Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter
and moisten the incoming air.

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  Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus (food
pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which prevents food
from entering the trachea.
 Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also
helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the
epiglottis.

Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract

 Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the throat
into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner
membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which catch particles of
dust which we can then remove through coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20
C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side which help protect the trachea and keep
it open. They are not complete circles due to the position of the oesophagus immediately
behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow the
expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.
 Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and
one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and more horizontal
than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the bronchi, whose walls also consist
of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the bronchi split several ways, forming tertiary
bronchi.
 Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow
tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the bronchioles
and they lead to alveolar sacs.
 Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have
very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. They are

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 surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which the inspired gases pass. There are
approximately 3 million alveoli within an average adult lung.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath the lungs,
attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the base of the
thoracic cavity.

3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It
permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some
muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous.
Muscle Types
There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal.
Visceral muscle: Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and
blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move
substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of
the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle – it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious
mind. The term “smooth muscle” is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very
smooth, uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance starkly
contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles.
Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an
involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction,
cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract. The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of
cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other cardiac muscle cells to contract. Because of its self-
stimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be autorhythmic or intrinsically controlled. The
cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striated – that is, they appear to have light and dark stripes
when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells
causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike
visceral muscles. The cells of cardiac muscle are branched X or Y shaped cells tightly connected

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together by special junctions called intercalated disks. Intercalated disks are made up of
fingerlike projections from two neighboring cells that interlock and provide a strong bond
between the cells.
Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body – it is
controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking,
walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to
move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles
are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones
closer to each other. Skeletal muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump
themselves together to form long, straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac
muscle, these skeletal muscle fibers are very strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the
fact that these muscles always connect to the skeleton in at least one place.
Function of Muscle Tissue
1) The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the
body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body.
2) The maintenance of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the body still
or in a particular position rather than to cause movement. The muscles responsible for the
body’s posture have the greatest endurance of all muscles in the body – they hold up the body
throughout the day without becoming tired.
3) Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the body. The
cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting substances like blood or
food from one part of the body to another.
4) The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of the high
metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great deal of waste heat.

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 4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down large organic
masses into smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The breakdown of the nutrients
requires the coordination of several enzymes secreted from specialized cells within the mouth,
stomach, intestines, and liver. The major organs or structures that coordinate digestion within
the human body include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and liver.

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Function of Digestive system.

 The digestive system processes, breaks down, and absorbs the nutrients from food.
 Digesting food is to break down the complex molecules of the food to simpler ones so the
body can use it in the way it wants to. The function of each organ in the digestive system
is to help convert food into simpler molecules so it can absorbed by your body and can
then be used by the cells.
A. Mouth

 In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for receiving food and
breaking up large organic masses. In the mouth, food is changed mechanically by biting
and chewing. Humans have four kinds of teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped teeth in the
front of the mouth for biting; canines are pointed teeth for tearing; and premolars and
molars are flattened, ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and crushing food.
 In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food particles together
into a soft mass. Three pairs of salivary glands—the parotid glands, the submaxillary
glands, and the sublingual glands—secrete saliva into the mouth. The saliva contains an
enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into smaller molecules of the
disaccharide maltose.
B. Esophagus

  The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe that
extends through the neck and chest to the stomach. The bolus of food moves through the
esophagus by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of muscular contractions that propels the
bolus along. The contractions are assisted by the pull of gravity.

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C. Stomach

 The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A valvelike ring of
muscle called the cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to the stomach. The sphincter
relaxes as the bolus passes through and then quickly closes.
 The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers of
stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to form a soupy
liquid called chyme.
 The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the stomach
plays a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells secrete pepsinogen.
Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining. The pepsin then
digests large proteins into smaller proteins called peptides. To protect the stomach
lining from the acid, a third type of cell secretes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An
overabundance of acid due to mucus failure may lead to an ulcer.
D. Small intestine

 The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into the
small intestine. An adult's small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divided into three
sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the duodenum; the next 10 feet form the jejunum;
and the final 12 feet form the ileum. The inner surface of the small intestine contains
numerous fingerlike projections called villi. Each villus has projections of cells called
microvilli to increase the surface area.
 Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes digest
nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are supplemented
by enzymes from the pancreas, a large, glandular organ lying near the stomach. In
addition, bile enters the small intestine from the gall bladder to assist in fat digestion.
 The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for starch),
maltase (for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose). For fats, the
principal enzyme is lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the large globules of fat must be
broken into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments, and cholesterol
that is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, a saclike structure
underneath the liver.
 Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic
enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and
peptidases reduce the enzymes to amino acids. Nucleases digest nucleic acids into
nucleotides in the small intestine also.
 Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products of digestion
enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood vessels called capillaries.
Diffusion accounts for the movement of many nutrients, but active transport is
responsible for the movement of glucose and amino acids. The products of fat digestion
pass as small droplets of fat into lacteals, which are branches of the lymphatic system.
 Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum. Substances
that have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the large intestine.

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E. Large intestine

 The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the body. The
two organs meet at a blind sac called the cecum and a small fingerlike process called the
appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe the cecum and appendix are vestiges of larger
organs that may have been functional in human ancestors.
 The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending, transverse,
and descending portions, each about one foot in length. The colon's chief functions are to
absorb water and to store, process, and eliminate the residue following digestion and
absorption. The intestinal matter remaining after water has been reclaimed is known as
feces. Feces consist of nondigested food (such as cellulose), billions of mostly harmless
bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials. The feces are stored in the rectum and
passed out through the anus to complete the digestion process.
F. Liver

 The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestion. For
example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream and convert the
glucose to a polymer called glycogen for storage.
 The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deamination, it
converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabolism. In
doing so, the liver removes the amino groups from amino acids and uses the amino
groups to produce urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine. Fats are processed
into two-carbon units that can enter the Krebs cycle for energy metabolism. The liver
also stores vitamins and minerals, forms many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol,
and produces bile for fat digestion.
Gallbladder

 The gallbladder is a pear-shaped reservoir that sits just under the liver and stores bile.
Bile is made in the liver then travels to the gallbladder through a channel called the
cystic duct. During a meal, the gallbladder contracts, sending bile to the small intestine.
 Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover liquid has passed through the
small intestine, what is left of the food you ate is handed over to the large intestine, or
colon.
H. spleen

 The spleen is Similar in structure to a large lymph node, the spleen acts primarily as a
blood filter. As such, it is a non-vital organ, with life possible after removal. The spleen
plays important roles in regard to red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) and
the immune system.
 In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red
blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock while also
recycling iron. As a part of the mononuclear phagocyte system, it metabolizes
hemoglobin removed from senescent erythrocytes. The globin portion of hemoglobin is
degraded to its constitutive amino acids, and the heme portion is metabolized to
bilirubin, which is subsequently shuttled to the liver for removal.

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 5. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The Human Circulatory System
The main organ of the circulatory system is the Human Heart. The other main parts of the
circulatory system include the Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, Veins and Blood. The
lungs also play a major part in the pulmonary circulation system.
The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood, and blood
vessels. It includes: the pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the lungs where blood is
oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest of the body to provide
oxygenated blood. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood,
accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory
system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.
Functions of the Circulatory System

 The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids,
electrolytes and lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body
to help fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis.
 The blood itself also carries numerous other substances which the body requires to
function.The main substance being Oxygen, carried by a protein called haemoglobin,
found inside red blood cells. White blood cells are also vital in their role of fighting
disease and infection.
 Blood contains platelets which are essential for clotting the blood, which occurs follwing
an injury to stop blood loss. Blood also carries waste products, such as Carbon Dioxide
away from muscles and organs in order to be dispelled by the lungs.
How the Circulatory System Works
There are three circulatory processes occurring simultaneously within the body. Firstly systemic
circulation carries blood around the body, pulmonary circulation carries blood to the lungs and
coronary circulation provides the heart with its own supply of blood.
A. Systemic Circulation

 At the start of the blood circulatory cycle the heart pumps oxygenated blood out of the
left ventricle, through the Aorta (the largest artery in the body). The aorta divides into
smaller arteries, then arterioles and finally into microscopic capillaries, found deep
within muscles and organs. Here the Oxygen (and other nutrients) passes through the
thin capillary walls, into the tissues where it can be used to produce the energy muscles
require to contract.
 A waste product of energy production (metabolism) is Carbon dioxide and in order to be
removed, it too passes across the walls of the capillaries, into the blood stream. The
blood continues back towards the heart, through venules and then veins, into the right
atrium.

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B. Pulmonary Circulation

 The pulmonary circulatory system is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which
oxygen-depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the
lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.
 Oxygen deprived blood from the vena cava, enters the right atrium of the heart and flows
through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from
which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary
artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO2 is released from the
blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood
to the heart.
C. Coronary circulation
The coronary circulatory system provides a blood supply to the heart. As it provides oxygenated
blood to the heart, it is by definition a part of the systemic circulatory system. The artery
coronary sinus opens up into the right atrium, and the back flow of blood through its opening
during atricular systole is guarded by the the basian valve.
A. The Heart

 The heart is a strong, powerful organ, consisting of cardiac muscle. The heart pumps
continuously, without resting and without becoming fatigued. Its function is to pump
blood to the lungs and around the body. The heart is one of the key organs in the
Circulatory System.
 The human heart is an organ that provides a continuous blood circulation through the
cardiac cycle and is one of the most vital organs in the human body.
 The heart is divided into four main chambers: the two upper chambers are called the left
and right atria (singular atrium) and two lower chambers are called the right and left
ventricles.

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  There is a thick wall of muscle separating the right side and the left side of the heart
called the septum. Normally with each beat the right ventricle pumps the same amount
of blood into the lungs that the left ventricle pumps out into the body. Physicians
commonly refer to the right atrium and right ventricle together as the right heart and to
the left atrium and left ventricle as the left heart.

Anatomy of the heart

 The heart consists of four chambers and is divided into left and right by a wall of muscle
called the septum. The right side of the heart consists of an atrium which recieves blood
returning from the body, and the right ventricle, which then pumps blood out to the
lungs, via the pulmonary artery.
 The left side again contains an atrium and a ventricle. The left atrium recieves the
oxygenated blood returning from the lungs and the ventricle then pumps this blood
around the body.
 Due to the distance which the blood being pumped from the left ventricle has to travel, a
more forceful contraction is required. For this reason the muscular wall of the left side is
thicker than that of the right side.
 The atria and ventricles are separated by valves known as Atrioventricular, or AV valves.
The purpose of these valves is to prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction.
Following the movement of blood from the atrium, into the ventricle, the AV valve snaps
shut which causes the first heart sound of the heart beat (often described “lub dub”, with
the closing of the AV valves being the “lub”)
 The “dub” sound is caused by the closing of two other valves, known as the Semilunar or
SL valves. These are located between each ventricle and the artery leaving the heart, and
again prevent the blood flowing backwards.

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This box diagram shows blood flow through the human heart.
B. Arteries

 Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. All of which, with the
exception of the pulmonary artery, carry oxygenated blood. The most widely known
artery within the human body is the Aorta.
 This is the largest of all blood vessels and transports blood away from the left ventricle
of the heart where it then branches into smaller arteries.
 As the arteries devide further they become smaller and smaller, until they are classed as
arterioles. Arterioles continue to branch into smaller and smaller vessels which, once
they have decreased in size below 10 micrometers in diameter are known as capillaries.
 The pulmonary artery, is classed as an artery as it carries blood away from the heart,
however it carries deoxygenated blood. The blood it carries has travelled around the
body and back to the heart where it is pumped, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs to
release waste products and pick up more oxygen.
C. Capillaries

 Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels and form the connection between veins
and arteries. As arteries branch and divide into arterioles and continue to reduce in size
as they reach the muscle they become capillaries. Here the capillaries form a capillary
bed, which is a vast expanse of very small vessels forming a network throughout the
muscle. However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting
blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
Gaseous Exchange

 The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point
dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle

20
 cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin.
The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
 The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the
lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue
(especially during high levels of metabolism) there is a surge through the capillary wall.
From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the
deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the
CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
D. Veins
Veins are blood vessels which carry deoxygenated (or very low levels of oxygen) blood back to
the heart. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary vein, which carries oxygenated blood,
from the lungs, back to the heart, ready to be pumped around the rest of the body.
At tissue level, capillaries drain blood into venules, which are very small veins, which as they
return to the heart merge into larger veins before reaching either the Superior Vena Cava (if
returning from tissues and organs above the heart) or the Inferior Vena Cava (if returning from
tissues and organs below to the heart). The Inferior Vena Cava is larger than the Superior Vena
Cava. These two large arteries merge and return blood to the right atrium of the heart.
E. Blood
Blood performs many important functions within the body including:

 Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)

 Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood
or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids).
 Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
 Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of
foreign material by antibodies.
 Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism.
 Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue
damage.
 Regulation of body pH.
 Regulation of core body temperature.
Constituents of human blood

 Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density of
approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3. The
average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters (1.3 gal), which is composed of
plasma and several kinds of cells.
 These blood cells consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood
cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45%
of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.
 Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics; its flow
properties are adapted to flow effectively through tiny capillary blood vessels with less
resistance than plasma by itself. In addition, if all human hemoglobin were free in the
plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous
for the cardiovascular system to function effectively.

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1. Cell
Erythrocytes: [4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female)] Red blood cells contain the
blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles
in mammals. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also
marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied
by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined
surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as
the body's exterior surface.
Leukocytes: [4,000–11,000] White blood cells are part of the body's immune system; they
destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents
(pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia.
Thrombocytes: [200,000–500,000] also called platelets, thrombocytes are responsible for blood
clotting (coagulation). They change fibrinogen into fibrin. This fibrin creates a mesh onto
which red blood cells collect and clot, which then stops more blood from leaving the body and
also helps to prevent bacteria from entering the body.
2. Plasma
About 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is
straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an
average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma
proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as
glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and
removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
Other important components include:

 Serum albumin
 Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)
 Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
 lipoprotein particles
 Various other proteins
 Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)
The term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of
the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.
6. Excretory System
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials
from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage
to the body. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as
other liquid and gaseous wastes, as urine and as a component of sweat and exhalation. As most
healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends
on the function of the system.
 Excretory functions
1. The excretory system removes metabolic and liquid toxic wastes as well as excess water from
the organism, in the form of urine.

22
2. The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess and unnecessary
materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and
prevent damage to the body.
3. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other
liquid and gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other
wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system; however, only the organs
specifically for the excretion process are considered a part of the excretory system.

 Organs of the Excretory System

1. Lungs - removal of excess carbon dioxide
2. Liver - produces urea and uric acid as a by-product of the breakdown of proteins
3. Skin - removal of excess water, salt, urea and uric acid
4. Urinary System - kidneys filter the blood to form urine, which is excess water, salt, urea
and uric acid.
Urinary System
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The nephron, an
evolutionary modification of the nephridium, is the kidney's functional unit. Waste is filtered
from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters, and
collects in the bladder. The bladder can distend to store urine that eventually leaves through the
urethra.

A. Kidneys

 The kidneys are organs that serve several essential regulatory roles in most animals,
including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are essential in the urinary system
and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance
of acid–base balance, and regulation of blood pressure (via maintaining salt and water
balance).

23
  They serve the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove wastes which are
diverted to the urinary bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete wastes such as
urea and ammonium, and they are also responsible for the reabsorption of water,
glucose, and amino acids. The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol,
erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin.
 Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneum, the kidneys receive
blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins. Each kidney
excretes urine into a ureter, itself a paired structure that empties into the urinary
bladder.

The Nephron
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped capsule containing capillaries and the glomerulus, and a
long renal tube. Blood flows into the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into
capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes water and solutes from the
blood to filter into the capsule. Fluid flows through the proximal tubule, which include the loop
of Henle, and then into the distal tubule. The distal tubule empties into a collecting duct. Fluids
and solutes are returned to the capillaries that surround the nephron tubule.
The nephron has three functions:

 Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.

 Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.
 Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries into the
distal tubule.

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Components of the Nephron

 Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood

 Bowman's Capsule: mechanically filters blood
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and amino
acids
 Loop of Henle: Countercurrent exchange, which maintains the concentration gradient
 Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular secretion of H ions, potassium, and certain drugs.
Urine Production

 Filtration in the glomerulus and nephron capsule.

 Reabsorption in the proximal tubule.
 Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle.
Kidney Function

 Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic functions:

 Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
 Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
 Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
 Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
B. Ureter
The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the
human adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In humans, the ureters arise
from the renal pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the
bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The ureters cross the pelvic brim near the
bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a common
site for the impaction of kidney stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters
run posteriorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis.
C. Urinary bladder

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The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by
urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor.
Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.
Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous
with the allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the
pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the
rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the
vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young
children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
D. Urethra
In anatomy, the (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the
outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both genders to pass.

7. Nervous System

 The nervous system is essentially a biological information highway, and is responsible

for controlling all the biological processes and movement in the body, and can also
receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are used in this nervous
system.
 It consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS), essentially the processing area and the
Peripheral Nervous System which detects and sends electrical impulses that are used in
the nervous system.
Functions of the nervous system There are three general functions of the nervous system
in man and animals:
1. Sensing specific information about external and internal conditions (In the example
above, this is seeing your friend).
2. Intergrating that information (This is the understanding of the information coming from
the eyes).
3. Issuing commands for a response from the muscles or glands (This is the reaction of
walking towards him).
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
The Central Nervous System is effectively the centre of the nervous system, the part of it that
processes the information received from the peripheral nervous system. The CNS consists of the
brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral
nervous system and also sends out signals to it, either consciously or unconsciously. This
information highway called the nervous system consists of many nerve cells, also known as
neurones, as seen below.
The Nerve Cell

 Each neurone consists of a nucleus situated in the cell body, where outgrowths called
processes originate from. The main one of these processes is the axon, which is
responsible for carrying outgoing messages from the cell. This axon can originate from

26
 the CNS and extend all the way to the body's extremities, effectively providing a highway
for messages to go to and from the CNS to these body extremities.
 Dendrites are smaller secondary processes that grow from the cell body and axon. On
the end of these dendrites lie the axon terminals, which 'plug' into a cell where the
electrical signal from a nerve cell to the target cell can be made. This 'plug' (the axon
terminal) connects into a receptor on the target cell and can transmit information
between cells.

Types of Neurons - the three main types of neurons are:

 Multipolar neurons are so-named because they have many (multi-) processes that
extend from the cell body: lots of dendrites plus a single axon. Functionally, these
neurons are either motor (conducting impulses that will cause activity such as the
contraction of muscles) or association (conducting impulses and permitting
'communication' between neurons within the central nervous system).
 Unipolar neurons have but one process from the cell body. However, that single, very
short, process splits into longer processes (a dendrite plus an axon). Unipolar neurons
are sensory neurons - conducting impulses into the central nervous system.
 Bipolar neurons have two processes - one axon & one dendrite. These neurons are also
sensory. For example, biopolar neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.
A) Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)contains only nerves and connects the brain and spinal
cord (CNS) to the rest of the body. The axons and dendrites are surrounded by a white myelin
sheath. Cell bodies are in the central nervous system (CNS) or ganglia. Ganglia are collections of
nerve cell bodies. Cranial nerves in the PNS take impulses to and from the brain (CNS). Spinal
nerves take impulses to and away from the spinal cord. There are two major subdivisions of the
PNS motor pathways: the somatic and the autonomic.
Two main components of the PNS:

 sensory (afferent) pathways that provide input from the body into the CNS.
 motor (efferent) pathways that carry signals to muscles and glands (effectors).
Most sensory input carried in the PNS remains below the level of conscious awareness. Input
that does reach the conscious level contributes to perception of our external environment.

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B) Somatic Nervous System
The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) includes all nerves controlling the muscular system and
external sensory receptors. External sense organs (including skin) are receptors. Muscle fibers
and gland cells are effectors. The reflex arc is an automatic, involuntary reaction to a stimulus.
When the doctor taps your knee with the rubber hammer, she/he is testing your reflex (or knee-
jerk). The reaction to the stimulus is involuntary, with the CNS being informed but not
consciously controlling the response. Examples of reflex arcs include balance, the blinking reflex,
and the stretch reflex.
Sensory input from the PNS is processed by the CNS and responses are sent by the PNS from the
CNS to the organs of the body. Motor neurons of the somatic system are distinct from those of
the autonomic system. Inhibitory signals, cannot be sent through the motor neurons of the
somatic system.
C) Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System is that part of PNS consisting of motor neurons that control
internal organs. It has two subsystems. The autonomic system controls muscles in the heart, the
smooth muscle in internal organs such as the intestine, bladder, and uterus. The Sympathetic
Nervous System is involved in the fight or flight response. The Parasympathetic Nervous System
is involved in relaxation. Each of these subsystems operates in the reverse of the other
(antagonism). Both systems innervate the same organs and act in opposition to maintain
homeostasis. For example: when you are scared the sympathetic system causes your heart to
beat faster; the parasympathetic system reverses this effect.
Motor neurons in this system do not reach their targets directly (as do those in the somatic
system) but rather connect to a secondary motor neuron which in turn innervates the target
organ.
D) Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is
surrounded by bone-skull and vertebrae. Fluid and tissue also insulate the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is composed of three parts: the cerebrum (seat of consciousness), the cerebellum, and
the medulla oblongata (these latter two are "part of the unconscious brain").
The medulla oblongata is closest to the spinal cord, and is involved with the regulation of
heartbeat, breathing, vasoconstriction (blood pressure), and reflex centers for vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and hiccuping. The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis. It has
regulatory areas for thirst, hunger, body temperature, water balance, and blood pressure, and
links the Nervous System to the Endocrine System. The midbrain and pons are also part of the
unconscious brain. The thalamus serves as a central relay point for incoming nervous messages.
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, after the cerebrum. It functions for
muscle coordination and maintains normal muscle tone and posture. The cerebellum
coordinates balance.
The conscious brain includes the cerebral hemispheres, which are are separated by the corpus
callosum. In reptiles, birds, and mammals, the cerebrum coordinates sensory data and motor
functions. The cerebrum governs intelligence and reasoning, learning and memory. While the
cause of memory is not yet definitely known, studies on slugs indicate learning is accompanied

28
by a synapse decrease. Within the cell, learning involves change in gene regulation and
increased ability to secrete transmitters.

a. Spinal cord
The spinal cord of the central nervous system is a white cord of tissue passing through the bony
tunnel made by the vertebrae. The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain to the bottom
of the backbone. Three membranes called meninges surround the spinal cord and protect it. The
outer tissue of the spinal cord is white (white matter), while the inner tissue is gray (gray
matter).
Thirty-one pairs of projections called nerve roots extend out along each side of the spinal cord.
The nerve roots are sites of axons belonging to sensory and motor neurons. A central canal in
the spinal cord carries cerebrospinal fluid, which provides for the nutrition and gaseous needs
of the cord tissue. The neurons of the spinal cord serve as a coordinating center for the reflex arc
and a connecting system between the peripheral nervous system and the brain.
b. Brain

 The brain of the central nervous system is the organizing and processing center. It is the
site of consciousness, sensation, memory, and intelligence. The brain receives impulses
from the spinal cord and from 12 pairs of cranial nerves coming from and extending to
the senses and to other organs. In addition, the brain initiates activities without
environmental stimuli.
 Two major hemispheres, the left and the right hemispheres, make up the tissue of the
brain. The outer portion of the brain consists of gray matter, while the inner portion is
white matter. Three major portions of the brain are recognized: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.

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  The hindbrain consists of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons. The medulla is the swelling
at the tip of the brain that serves as the passageway for nerves extending to and from the
brain. The cerebellum lies adjacent to the medulla and serves as a coordinating center
for motor activity; that is, it coordinates muscle contractions. The pons is the swelling
between the medulla and midbrain. The pons acts as a bridge between various portions
of the brain.
 The midbrain lies between the hindbrain and forebrain. It consists of a collection of
crossing nerve tracts and is the site of the reticular formation, a group of fibers that
arouse the forebrain when something unusual happens.
 The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the limbic
system. The cerebrum contains creases and furrows called convolutions that permit the
cerebral hemisphere to accommodate more than 10 billion cells. Each hemisphere of the
cerebrum has four lobes, and activities such as speech, vision, movement, hearing, and
smell occur in these lobes. Higher mental activities such as learning, memory, logic,
creativity, and emotion also occur in the cerebrum.
 The thalamus serves as an integration point for sensory impulses, while the
hypothalamus synthesizes hormones for storage in the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus also appears to be a control center for such visceral functions as hunger,
thirst, body temperature, and blood pressure. The limbic system is a collection of
structures that ring the edge of the brain and apparently function as centers of emotion.
8. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes different types of
hormones directly into the bloodstream some of which are transported along nerve tracts to
regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its
chemicals using ducts. The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo" meaning
inside, within, and "crinis" for secrete. The endocrine system is an information signal system like
the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine
system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up

30
to weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short
lived.
Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the
bloodstream where they travel to target tissue and generate a response. Hormones regulate
various human functions, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and
mood. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a
branch of internal medicine.
Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually
the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine
glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend
to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

A. Pituitary gland

 The pituitary gland is located at the base of the human brain. The gland consists of two
parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).
 The anterior lobe secretes at least seven hormones. One hormone, the human growth
hormone (HGH), promotes body growth by accelerating protein synthesis. This hormone
is also known as somatotropin. A deficiency of the hormone results in dwarfism; an
oversecretion results in gigantism.
 Another hormone of the anterior pituitary is prolactin, also called lactogenic hormone
(LH). This hormone promotes breast development and milk secretion in females. A third
hormone is thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The function of TSH is to control
secretions of hormones from the thyroid gland. A fourth hormone is adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH). This hormone controls the secretion of hormones from the adrenal
glands.
 There are three more hormones produced in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The
first is follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In females, FSH stimulates the development
of a follicle, which contains the egg cell; in males, the hormone stimulates sperm

31
 production. The next hormone is luteinizing hormone (LH). In females, LH completes the
maturation of the follicle and stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum, which
temporarily secretes female hormones. In males, LH is interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH), which stimulates the production of male hormones in the testes. The
final hormone is melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which stimulates production
of the pigment melanin.
 The posterior pituitary gland stores and then releases two hormones that are produced
in the hypothalamus of the brain. The first hormone is antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This
hormone stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys. It is also called vasopressin. The
second hormone is oxytocin, which stimulates contractions in the muscles of the uterus
during birth.
B. Thyroid gland

 The thyroid gland lies against the pharynx at the base of the neck. It consists of two
lateral lobes connected by an isthmus. The gland produces thyroxine, a hormone that
regulates the rate of metabolism in the body. It also produces a second hormone,
calcitonin, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood.
 Thyroxine production depends on the availability of iodine. A deficiency of iodine causes
thyroid gland enlargement, a condition called goiter. An undersecretion of thyroxine
results in a condition known as cretinism (dwarfism with abnormal body proportions
and possible mental retardation). In adults, an undersecretion results in myxedema
(physical and mental sluggishness). Thyroxine oversecretion results in a high metabolic
rate and Graves' disease.
C. Parathyroid glands

 The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland. They
are tiny masses of glandular tissue that produce parathyroid hormone, also called
parathormone. Parathyroid hormone regulates calcium metabolism in the body by
increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and by increasing the uptake of calcium
from the digestive system.
D. Adrenal glands

 The adrenal glands are two pyramid-shaped glands lying atop the kidneys. The adrenal
glands consist of an outer portion, the cortex, and an inner portion, the medulla.
 The adrenal cortex secretes a family of steroids called corticosteroids. The two main
types of steroid hormones are mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, control mineral metabolism in the body. They
accelerate mineral reabsorption in the kidney. Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated
by ACTH from the pituitary gland. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol and cortisone, control
glucose metabolism and protein synthesis in the body. Glucocorticoids are also anti-
inflammatory agents.
 The adrenal medulla produces two hormones: epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Epinephrine increases heart rate, blood pressure, and
the blood supply to skeletal muscle. Epinephrine functions in stressful situations to
promote the fight–flight response. Norepinephrine intensifies the effects of epinephrine.
Both hormones prolong and intensify the effects of the sympathetic nervous system.
E. Pancreas

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  The pancreas is located just behind the stomach. Its endocrine portion consists of cell
clusters called the islets of Langerhans.
 The pancreas produces two hormones: insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a protein that
promotes the passage of glucose molecules into the body cells and regulates glucose
metabolism. In the absence of insulin, glucose is removed from the blood and excreted in
the kidney, a condition called diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by
glucose in the urine, heavy urination, excessive thirst, and a generally sluggish body
metabolism.
 The second pancreatic hormone, glucagon, stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose in the liver. It also releases fat from the adipose tissue so the fat can be used for
the production of carbohydrates.
F. Other endocrine glands

 Among the other endocrine glands are the ovaries and testes. The ovaries secrete
estrogens, which encourage the development of secondary female characteristics. The
testes secrete androgens, which promote secondary male characteristics. Testosterone
is an important androgen.

9. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human male reproductive system (or male genital system) consists of a number of sex
organs that are a part of the human reproductive process. In this type of reproductive system,
these sex organs are located outside the body, around the pelvic region.
The main male sex organs are the penis and the testes which produce semen and sperm, which
as part of sexual intercourse fertilize an ovum in female's body and the fertilized ovum (zygote)
gradually develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child.

33
A. External genital organs
Penis
The penis is the male copulatory organ. It has a long shaft and an enlarged bulbous-shaped tip
called the glans penis, which supports the foreskin. When the male becomes sexually aroused,
the penis becomes erect and ready for sexual activity. Erection occurs because sinuses within
the erectile tissue of the penis become filled with blood. The arteries of the penis are dilated
while the veins are passively compressed so that blood flows into the erectile cartilage under
pressure.
Scrotum
The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the
testes. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures,
the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, while the Dartos
muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when the temperature increases, the Cremaster and
Dartos muscles relaxes to bring down the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles
respectively. The scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal
canal. (The spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with
connective tissue passes into the testis through inguinal canal.)
B. Internal genital organs
Epididymis
The epididymis is a whitish mass of tightly coiled tubes cupped against the testicles. It acts as a
maturation and storage place for sperm before they pass into the vas deferens, tubes that carry
sperm to the ampullary gland and prostatic ducts.
Vas deferens
The vas deferens, also known as the sperm duct, is a thin tube approximately 43.2 centimetres
long that starts from the epididymis to the pelvic cavity.
Accessory glands
Three accessory glands provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish the sperm
cells. They are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands (Cowper
glands).
Seminal vesicles
Seminal vesicles are sac-like structures attached to the vas deferens at one side of the bladder.
They produce a sticky, yellowish fluid that contains fructose. This fluid provides sperm cells
energy and aids in their motility. 70% of the semen is its secretion.
Prostate gland
The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the base of the urethra, just below the
bladder. The prostate gland is responsible for the production of semen, a liquid mixture of
sperm cells, prostate fluid and seminal fluid. This gland is also responsible for making the semen
milky by mixing calcium to the semen coming from seminal vesicle(semen coming from

34
seminal vesicle is transparent in colour),this process is called profibrinolysin .28 to 29% semen
comprises its secretion.
Bulbourethral glands
The bulbourethral glands, also called Cowper glands, are two small glands located on the sides
of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that
empties directly the urethra. It produces substances related to nourishment of spermatozoa.
Female reproductive system
The human female reproductive system (or female genital system) contains two main parts: the
uterus, which hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes
the male's sperm through to the fallopian tubes; and the ovaries, which produce the female's egg
cells. These parts are internal; the vagina meets the external organs at the vulva, which includes
the labia, clitoris and urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the
uterus is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release
an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus.

A. External Genitals
The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and ovary.

 Vagina
The vagina is a fibro muscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in
female mammals, or to the cloaca in female birds and some reptiles. Female insects and other
invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the oviduct. The vagina is the
place where semen from the male penis is deposited into the female's body at the climax of
sexual intercourse, a phenomenon commonly known as ejaculation. The vagina is a canal that
joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth
canal.

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  Cervix
The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the
vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal
wall. Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view.
The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during
delivery. The cervix is also called the neck of the uterus.

 Uterus
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ of humans. The uterus provides
mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo
(weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In addition, contractions in the
muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.The
uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and
limits its range of movement. The uterosacral ligaments, keep the body from moving inferiorly
and anteriorly. The round ligaments, restrict posterior movement of the uterus. The cardinal
ligaments, also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus.

 Fallopian tubes
The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two tubes leading from the ovaries of female mammals into
the uterus. On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum
to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by
movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is
fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it
reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy.

 Ovaries
The ovaries are small, paired organs that are located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity.
These organs are responsible for the production of the ova and the secretion of hormones.
Ovaries are the place inside the female body where ova or eggs are produced. The process by
which the ovum is released is called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts
directly to the length of a menstrual cycle. After ovulation, the ovum is captured by the oviduct,
after traveling down the oviduct to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an
incoming sperm, leading to pregnancy and the eventual birth of a new human being. The
Fallopian tubes are often called the oviducts and they have small hairs (cilia) to help the egg cell
travel.

 Reproductive tract
The reproductive tract (or genital tract) is the lumen that starts as a single pathway through the
vagina, splitting up into two lumens in the uterus, both of which continue through the Fallopian
tubes, and ending at the distal ostia that open into the abdominal cavity.In the absence of
fertilization, the ovum will eventually traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian
tube until exiting the vagina through menstruation.
B. External Genitals
The external components include the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora,
Bartholin's glands, and clitoris.

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 10. IMMUNE SYSTEM
Introduction
The human body is often described as being 'at war'. By this, it is meant that the body is
constantly under attack from things that are trying to do it harm. These include toxins, bacteria,
fungi, parasites and viruses. All of these can, under the right conditions, cause damage and
destruction to parts of the body and if these were left unchecked, the human body would not be
able to function. It is the purpose of the immune system to act as the body's own army, in
defence against this constant stream of possible infections and toxins.
The human immune system is divided into two broad groups called the Acquired Immune
System and the Innate Immune System. The details about these two systems and how they work
is dealt with more under their specific pages. This page will deal more with the structures of the
immune system, detailing the parts of the body that play a role in immunity.
These include:
1. The lymphatics
2. Lymph nodes
3. Thymus
4. Spleen
Different types of immunity
The immune system is divided into two parts, called the Acquired Immune System and the
Innate Immune System. While each of these plays a role in defending the body, there are major
differences between the two.

 The innate immune system is always working to protect the body and does not require
any special preparation to stop infection.
 The acquired immune system needs to be 'primed' before it can work to its full
effectiveness though, and is only really effective after it has seen a possible infective
agent before.

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Structure and organs of the immune system
The lymphatic system

 The lymphatic system is almost equivalent to the blood vessels, only instead of carrying
blood through the body, the lymphatic system carries a substance called 'lymph'. Lymph
is excess tissue fluid that has been drained from the body compartments. Lymphatic
fluid is usually clear, watery, and has the same constitution as the blood, but without any
cells. The lymphatic system is a complex network of lymphatic vessels (that carry the
lymph), along which there are occasional lymph nodes. After the lymphatic system has
collected all the lymph, this passes through the lymph nodes before being put back into
the blood via a large vein just below the neck. In the lymphatic system there are lots of
cells called lymphocytes (the T and B cells) that circulate around and are part of the
acquired immune system.
Lymphoid tissue

 Lymphoid tissue is scattered throughout the body and is home to the lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are packed into clusters in the walls of parts of the body that are often
exposed to foreign substances. These sites include the gastrointestinal system as well as
the tonsils which play a role in protecting the body from any air-borne infections.
Lymph nodes

 Lymph nodes are small, oval structures that can be anywhere from 1mm to 25mm big.
Blood vessels and nerves attach to the lymph nodes, as well as two sets of lymphatic
vessels - those that enter the lymph node and those that leave it.
 The lymph enters from one side and slowly moves past all the cells of the lymph node
before leaving through the other lymphatic vessel. This allows the lymph time to access
as many of the lymphatic cells as possible. In the lymph node there is a dense packaging
of immune cells such as macrophages. These are the 'big eaters' and will engulf and
destroy anything dangerous that they can. They also play a role in showing these
substances to the T and B cells (which is described in more detail under the Acquired
Immune System).
 The lymph nodes are there as a filter for the lymph before it re-enters the venous
system. 99% of all the foreign substances that arrive at the lymph node are removed.
Thymus

 The thymus is a lymphoid organ located in the lower part of the neck and the front of the
chest. With age, the thymus becomes smaller and loses most of its active immune cells.
The outside of the thymus contains lymphoid stem cells (which are immature cells, still
capable of growing) that divide rapidly, producing cells that mature into T cells. These T
cells then migrate to the middle of the thymus. Detail of their growth is discussed under
the Acquired Immune System. There are also cells in the thymus that release hormones
(signalling chemicals) that cause T cells to grow.

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Spleen

 The spleen is the largest of the lymphoid organs. It is usually purple in colour, and
located in the upper-left of the abdomen (the belly). The spleen is located behind the
stomach, in front of the diaphragm (the muscle used for breathing), and next to the left
kidney. The spleen can vary in size and shape dramatically; however, it is usually about
12cm long and 7cm wide (about the size of a clenched fist). The spleen contains large
amounts of blood that is periodically pushes into the circulation by contraction of some
tiny muscles that surround it.
 There are two different 'parts' to the spleen, each with a different function. The 'red
pulp' is named because of its colour and its role is to filter the blood. It does this by
having tiny holes in its blood vessels that only allow some types of blood cells through.
The blood cells that are a little older or in any way defective are not flexible enough to
squeeze through these holes and so gets stuck. These stuck cells are then eaten by the
macrophages.
 The 'white pulp' is basically areas of lymphoid tissue in the middle of the spleen. There
are areas filled with T cells and B cells. These make up about 5-20% of the spleen. There
are lots more of the B cells in younger people than there are in older people, and their
numbers in the spleen decrease with age.
Bone Marrow

 Every cell involved in a person's immune system is initially derived from bone marrow.
These cells form through a process referred to as, 'Hematopoiesis.' During hematopoiesis
bone marrow derived stem cells differentiate into one of two things; either mature cells
of the immune system, or precursors of cells which then migrate out of the person's
bone marrow, continuing their maturation elsewhere in the body. Bone marrow
produces, 'B,' cells, killer cells, immature thymocytes, and granulocytes, as well as
platelets and red blood cells.

11. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Introduction

 The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, the subcutaneous tissue below
the skin, and assorted glands. The most obvious function of the integumentary system is
the protection that the skin gives to underlying tissues. The skin not only keeps most
harmful substances out, but also prevents the loss of fluids.
 A major function of the subcutaneous tissue is to connect the skin to underlying tissues
such as muscles. Hair on the scalp provides insulation from cold for the head. The hair of
eyelashes and eyebrows helps keep dust and perspiration out of the eyes, and the hair in
our nostrils helps keep dust out of the nasal cavities. Any other hair on our bodies no
longer serves a function, but is an evolutionary remnant. Nails protect the tips of fingers
and toes from mechanical injury. Fingernails give the fingers greater ability to pick up
small objects.
 There are four types of glands in the integumentary system: Sudoriferous glands,
Sebaceous glands, Ceruminous glands, and Mammary glands. Sudoriferous glands are

39
 sweat producing glands. These are important to help maintain body temperature.
Sebaceous glands are oil producing glands which help inhibit bacteria, keep us
waterproof and prevent our hair and skin from drying out. Ceruminous glands produce
earwax which keeps the outer surface of the eardrum pliable and prevents drying.
Mammary glands produce milk.
Functions of the Integumentary System
The integumentary system has many functions, most of which are involved in protecting you and
regulating your body’s internal functions in a variety of ways:
1. Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs
2. Protects against invasion by infectious organisms
3. Protects the body from dehydration
4. Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature
5. Helps dispose of waste materials
6. Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold
7. Stores water and fat
8. Generate vitamin D through exposure to ultraviolet light
Skin
The integumentary system is the largest of the body's organ systems. In humans, this system
accounts for about 12 to 15 percent of total body weight and covers 1.5-2m2 of surface area. It
distinguishes, separates, and protects the organism from its surroundings. Small-bodied
invertebrates of aquatic or continually moist habitats respire using the outer layer (integument).
This gas exchange system, where gases simply diffuse into and out of the interstitial fluid, is
called integumentary exchange.
The human skin (integument) is composed of a minimum of 3 major layers of tissue: the
epidermis; dermis; and hypodermis. The epidermis forms the outermost layer, providing the
initial barrier to the external environment. Beneath this, the dermis comprises two sections, the
papillary and reticular layers, and contains connective tissues, vessels, glands, follicles, hair
roots, sensory nerve endings, and muscular tissue. The deepest layer is the hypodermis, which is
primarily made up of adipose tissue. Substantial collagen bundles anchor the dermis to the
hypodermis in a way that permits most areas of the skin to move freely over the deeper tissue
layers.

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A. Epidermis
This is the top layer of skin made up of epithelial cells. It does not contain blood vessels. Its main
function is protection, absorption of nutrients, and homeostasis. In structure, it consists of a
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium comprising four types of cells: keratinocytes,
melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans' cells. The major cell of the epidermis is the
keratinocyte, which produces keratin. Keratin is a fibrous protein that aids in protection. Keratin
is also a water-proofing protein. Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off daily. The majority of the
skin on the body is keratinized, meaning waterproofed. The only skin on the body that is non-
keratinized is the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth. Non-keratinized cells allow water to
"stay" atop the structure.
The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from thin area
called the nail matrix; growth of nails is 1 mm per week on average. The lunula is the crescent-
shape area at the base of the nail, this is a lighter color as it mixes with the matrix cells.
B. Dermis
The dermis is the middle layer of skin, composed of dense irregular connective tissue and
areolar connective tissue such as collagen with elastin arranged in a diffusely bundled and
woven pattern. The dermis has two layers. The Papillary layer which is the superficial layer and
consists of the areolar connective tissue and the Reticular layer which is the deep layer of the
dermis and consists of the dense irregular connective tissue. These layers serve to give elasticity
to the integument, allowing stretching and conferring flexibility, while also resisting distortions,
wrinkling, and sagging. The dermal layer provides a site for the endings of blood vessels and
nerves. Many chromatophores are also stored in this layer, as are the bases of integumental
structures such as hair, feathers, and glands.
C. Hypodermis
Also called the hypoderm, subcutaneous tissue, or superficial fascia and the bottom layer of the
integumentary system in vertebrates (hypoderm and subcutaneous are from Greek and Latin
words, respectively, for "beneath the skin"). Types of cells that are found in the hypodermis are
fibroblasts, adipose cells, and macrophages. It is derived from the mesoderm, but unlike the

41
dermis, it is not derived from the dermatome region of the mesoderm. In arthropods, the
hypodermis is an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the chitinous cuticle.
Nails
A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the dorsal aspect of the terminal phalanges of fingers and
toes in humans, most non-human primates, and a few other mammals. Nails are similar to claws,
which are found on numerous other animals. In common usage, the word nail often refers to the
nail plate only. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protein called keratin, as are
animals' hooves and horns. Along with hair they are an appendage of the skin.
12. Sensory system
The sensory system is the part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory
information from the environment. It includes the five main senses: sight (vision), hearing
(audition), taste (gustation), smell (olfaction), and touch (somatosensation). Each sense has
specialized receptors that detect specific stimuli and transmit signals to the brain for
interpretation. These sensory signals play a crucial role in allowing organisms to perceive and
interact with their surroundings, helping them to navigate, communicate, and respond to stimuli
effectively.
Sign and symptoms
CONSTITUTIONAL: These are patient’s answers about general constitutional signs or
symptoms. Some examples may be fatigue, exercise intolerance, fever, weakness, and impaired
ability to carry out functions of daily living.
EYES: These are the patient’s answers about signs or symptoms that may include the use of
glasses, eye discharge, eyes itching, tearing or pain, spots or floaters, blurred or doubled vision,
twitching, light sensitivity, swelling around the eyes or lids, and visual disturbances.
EARS, NOSE, and THROAT: These are the patient’s answers about signs or symptoms including
sensitivity to noise, ear pain, ringing in the ears, vertigo, feeling of fullness in the ears, ear wax,
and abnormalities. It could include nose bleed, postnasal drip, frequent sneezing, frequent nasal
drainage, impaired ability to smell, sinus pain, difficulty breathing, history of sinus infection and
treatment. For the throat and mouth, sore throat, current or recurrent mouth lesions, teeth
sensitivity, bleeding gums, history of hoarseness, change in voice quality, difficulty in swallowing
or inability to taste.
CARDIOVASCULAR: These are answers by the patient regarding signs and symptoms which
may include chest pain, tightness, numbness, palpitations, heart murmurs, irregular pulse, color
changes in the fingers or toes, edema, leg pain when walking.
RESPIRATORY: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the respiratory system.
Some examples may be cough, phlegm, chest pain on deep inhalation, wheezing, shortness of
breath, difficulty breathing.
GASTROINTESTINAL: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the GI system
and include such things as indigestion or pain associated with eating, burning sensation in the
esophagus, frequent nausea and/or vomiting, abdominal swelling, changes in bowel habits or
stool characteristics such as diarrhea or constipation.

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GENITOURINARY: These are the patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the
genitourinary system. Some examples include painful urination, urine characteristics, urinary
patterns, hesitance, flank pain, decreased or increased output, dribbling, incontinence,
frequency at night, genital sores, erectile dysfunction, irregular menses, toilet training, or bed
wetting.
MUSCULOSKELETAL: Examples include muscle cramps, twitching or pain, limitations on
walking, running, or participation in sports, joint swelling, redness or pain, joint deformities,
stiffness, and noise with joint movement.
INTEGUMENTARY: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the skin. Some
examples may be itching, rash, skin reactions to hot and cold, changes of scars, moles, sores,
lesion, nail color or texture, breast pain, tenderness or swelling, breast lumps, history of nipple
discharge or changes.
NEUROLOGICAL: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the neurologic
system. Examples include numbness, tingling, dizziness, fainting or unconsciousness, seizures or
convulsions, memory loss, attention difficulties, hallucinations, disorientation, speech or
language dysfunction, inability to concentrate, sensory disturbances, motor disturbances
including the gait, balance, and coordination, tremor or paralysis.
PSYCHIATRIC: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the psychiatric system.
Some examples include depression, excessive worrying, stress, suicidal thoughts, persistent
sadness, anxiety, loss of pleasure from usual activities, loss of energy, physical problems that do
not respond to treatment, restlessness, irritability, excessive mood swings.
ENDOCRINE: These are patient’s answers about signs or symptoms of the endocrine system.
Some examples maybe blood sugar readings at home, sudden changes in height and/or weight,
increased appetite or thirst, intolerance to heat or cold, changes in hair distribution or skin
pigment.
HEMATOLOGIC/LYMPHATIC: Examples include easy bruising, fevers which come and go,
swollen glands, night sweats, unusual bleeding.
ALLERGIC/IMMUNOLOGIC: Examples include answers about allergies to medication, foods or
other substances, hives and/or itching, frequent sneezing, chronic or clear postnasal drip,
conjunctivitis, history of chronic infection, etc.

Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics -is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to describing how the body affects a
specific substance after administration. The substances of interest include any chemical
xenobiotic such as pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, food additives, cosmetics, etc. It attempts to
analyze chemical metabolism and to discover the fate of a chemical from the moment that it is
administered up to the point at which it is completely eliminated from the body.
Pharmacokinetics is based on mathematical modeling that places great emphasis on the
relationship between drug plasma concentration and the time elapsed since the drug’s
administration. It is the study of how an organism affects the drug, whereas pharmacodynamics
(PD) is the study of how the drug affects the organism1. Both together influence dosing, benefit,
and adverse effects.

43
Pharmacokinetics generally examines these four main parameters: absorption, distribution,
metabolism, and excretion (ADME):
Absorption: The process that brings a drug from the administration, e.g., tablet or capsule, into
the systemic circulation. Absorption affects the speed and concentration at which a drug may
arrive at its desired location of effect, e.g., plasma.
Distribution: The dispersion or dissemination of substances throughout the fluids and tissues of
the body.
Metabolism (or biotransformation, or inactivation): The chemical reactions of the drug and
irreversible breakdown into metabolites (e.g., by metabolic enzymes such as cytochrome P450
or glucuronosyltransferase enzymes).
Excretion: The removal of the substance or metabolites from the body. In rare cases, some drugs
irreversibly accumulate in body tissue.
Understanding these processes allows practitioners the flexibility to prescribe and administer
medications that will provide the greatest benefit at the lowest risk and allow them to make
adjustments as necessary, given the varied physiology and lifestyles of patients.
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamics is the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs,
especially pharmaceutical drugs. It is derived from the Greek words “pharmakon,” meaning
“drug,” and “dynamikos,” meaning "power". The effects can include those manifested within
animals (including humans), microorganisms, or combinations of organisms (for example,
infection).
Pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is
the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence dosing, benefit, and
adverse effects. Pharmacodynamics places particular emphasis on dose–response relationships,
that is, the relationships between drug concentration and effect1. One dominant example is
drug-receptor interactions as modeled by where L, R, and LR represent ligand (drug), receptor,
and ligand-receptor complex concentrations, respectively1.

There are four principal protein targets with which drugs can interact:
Enzymes: Drugs can interact with enzymes in several ways, such as inhibitors, inducers, and
activators.
Membrane carriers: Drugs can interact with membrane carriers, affecting processes like
reuptake and efflux.
Ion channels: Drugs can interact with ion channels, either blocking or opening them1.
Receptors: Drugs can interact with receptors in several ways, acting as agonists, antagonists, or
allosteric modulators.
Understanding these interactions allows healthcare practitioners to prescribe and administer
medications that will provide the greatest benefit at the lowest risk.

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 Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases that affect how the body uses blood sugar (glucose).
Glucose is an important source of energy for the cells that make up the muscles and tissues.
Pharmacology
Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin, or the cells of the body
becoming unresponsive to the hormone’s effects. Insulin is a hormone secreted by beta cells,
which are located within clusters of cells in the pancreas called the islets of Langerhans.
Insulin’s role in the body is to trigger cells to take up glucose so that the cells can use this
energy-yielding sugar. There are currently eight different classes of non-insulin glucose lowering
medication, each with their own mechanism of action and side effects. An understanding of the
pharmacology is essential to facilitate safe perioperative manipulation and to promote optimal
perioperative outcomes.

Classification of Drugs
The classification of drugs used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus includes:
Insulin: The most common type of medication used in type 1 diabetes treatment. There are
more than 20 types sold in the United States.
Biguanides: Example - Metformin.
Sulfonylureas: Examples include glipizide (Glucotrol), glimepiride (Amaryl), or glyburide
(Diabeta).
Meglitinides: Example - Repaglinide.
Thiazolidinediones: Examples include pioglitazone (Actos) or rosiglitazone.
DPP-4 inhibitors: Examples include sitagliptan (Januvia) or saxagliptan (Onglyza).
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors.
Bile acid sequestrants (BASs).
Dopamine-2 agonists.
Types
Type 1 Diabetes: This is an autoimmune condition where the body attacks the pancreas with
antibodies, resulting in an absolute lack of insulin.
Type 2 Diabetes: This is characterized by insulin resistance and a relative deficiency of insulin
secretion.
Prediabetes: This is when your blood sugar is higher than it should be but not high enough for
your doctor to diagnose diabetes.
Gestational Diabetes: This occurs during pregnancy and typically goes away after delivery.

45
Monogenic Diabetes: This results from mutations in a single gene.
Each type requires specific management and treatment approaches.
Treatment
The treatment of diabetes mellitus depends on the type of diabetes.
Type 1 Diabetes: Patients always need insulin.
Type 2 Diabetes: Patients usually need treatment with oral medicines for several or even many
years, but may eventually need insulin to maintain glucose control.
Prediabetes: Lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise are usually recommended.
Gestational Diabetes: Treatment typically includes diet control and, if necessary, insulin.
Monogenic Diabetes: Treatment varies depending on the specific genetic mutation.
It’s important to note that all patients with diabetes should be under the care of a healthcare
provider and have regular checkups to manage their condition effectively.

Hypertension
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a condition where the force of the blood
against the artery walls is too high. It’s a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke.
Pharmacology
Hypertension occurs when there’s a high amount of pressure on the walls of the arteries. This
can happen due to various reasons, including increased resistance in the arteries, higher than
normal volume of blood, or the heart beating faster or more forcefully than it should.
Classification of Drugs
The classification of drugs used in the treatment of hypertension includes:
Diuretics: These help the kidneys get rid of excess water and salt, reducing the volume of blood
that needs to pass through the blood vessels. Examples include chlorthalidone, Microzide, Diuril.
Beta blockers: These reduce the heart rate, thus decreasing the blood pressure. Examples
include Acebutolol, Atenolol, Betaxolol.
ACE inhibitors: These widen the blood vessels, aiding in easy blood flow and reducing the blood
pressure. Examples include Captopril, Fosinopril, Lisinopril, Ramipril.
Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs): These help relax the blood vessels to lower the
pressure. Examples include Losartan, Telmisartan.
Calcium channel blockers: These reduce the amount of calcium entering heart muscles, thereby
reducing the heart rate and controlling blood pressure. Examples include Amlodipine,
Felodipine, Isradipine.
Alpha blockers: These relax the muscles of arteries and veins, thus reducing the blood pressure.
Examples include Doxazosin, Prazosin, Terazosin.

46
Renin inhibitors: These inhibit the enzyme that favors the production of angiotensin, a peptide
hormone which aids in regulation of blood pressure and constricts blood vessels. Example
includes Aliskiren.
Types
Hypertension can be categorized into two types:
Primary Hypertension: This type of blood pressure usually takes many years to develop and is a
result of lifestyle, environment, and age.
Secondary Hypertension: High blood pressure caused due to health problem or certain
medications.
Treatment
The treatment of hypertension involves a combination of medication and lifestyle changes to
help manage the condition and prevent or delay related health problems. The goal is to get the
blood pressure below the high range2. Lifestyle changes include eating a healthy diet, staying
physically active, maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, quitting
smoking, managing stress, eating less salt, and monitoring blood pressure at home2. If lifestyle
changes are not enough, medication may be needed.

Cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal
cells. It is one of the leading causes of death in the world.
Cancer Pharmacology
Cancer pharmacology involves the study of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of cancer
cells and the identification of novel therapeutic targets and treatment strategies. It covers
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics aspects of anticancer drugs.
Classification of Cancer Drugs with Examples
Cancer drugs can be classified into several categories:
Alkylating Agents: These drugs attach to DNA or RNA, leading to interruption in the synthesis of
DNA, RNA, or proteins. Examples include cyclophosphamide and cisplatin.
Antimetabolites: These drugs interfere with DNA and RNA by acting as a substitute for the
normal building blocks of RNA and DNA. Examples include fluorouracil and methotrexate.
Anti-tumor Antibiotics: These drugs cause linkage of double strands of DNA and prevent
replication. Examples include doxorubicin and bleomycin.
Mitotic Inhibitors: These drugs inhibit cell mitosis by interfering with microtubule formation or
function. Examples include paclitaxel and vinblastine.
Hormonal Therapies: These drugs are used to treat cancers that rely on hormones to grow.
Examples include tamoxifen and fulvestrant.

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Types of Cancer
Cancers are named for the area in which they begin and the type of cell they are made of, even if
they spread to other parts of the body. There are six major types of cancer based on cell type:
Carcinomas: Cancer that starts in the skin or the tissues that line other organs.
Sarcomas: Cancer of connective tissues such as bones, muscles, cartilage, and blood vessels.
Myelomas: Cancer that starts in the plasma cells of bone marrow.
Leukemias: Cancer of the bone marrow that creates blood cells.
Lymphomas: Cancer that begins in the lymphatic system.
Mixed types (including blastomas): Cancer that has characteristics of more than one type of
cancer.
Cancer Treatment
Cancer treatment involves the use of surgery, radiation, medications, and other therapies to cure
a cancer, shrink a cancer, or stop the progression of a cancer. The types of treatment that you
receive will depend on the type of cancer you have and how advanced it is. Some people with
cancer will have only one treatment, but most people have a combination of treatments, such as
surgery with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. Other treatments may include
immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or hormone therapy.

Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the
lungs, but it can also affect other organs such as the kidneys, spine, brain, and other parts of the
body.

Pharmacology of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis drugs target various aspects of Mycobacterium tuberculosis biology, including
inhibition of cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, or nucleic acid synthesis. For some drugs, the
mechanisms of action have not been fully identified.
Classification of Tuberculosis Drugs with Examples
Tuberculosis drugs can be classified into several categories:
First-line oral antitubercular drugs: These are the most efficacious drugs with a low side-effect
profile. Examples include Isoniazid, Rifampin, Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol.
Injectable drugs: These include Streptomycin, Kanamycin, and Amikacin.
Fluoroquinolones: Examples include Ofloxacin, Levofloxacin, Moxifloxacin, and Ciprofloxacin.

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Second-line oral antitubercular drugs: These include Ethionamide, Prothionamide, Cycloserine,
Terizidone, Para-aminosalicylic acid, and Rifabutin.
Drugs with unclear efficacy: These include Bedaquiline, Clarithromycin, Clofazimine, Linezolid,
Co-amoxiclav, and Imipenem.

Types of Tuberculosis
There are two main types of tuberculosis infections:
Latent TB: In this type, the individual carries the bacteria but does not exhibit any symptoms.
This is because the immune system fights the infection and is able to suppress it to an extent.
Active TB: In this type, the individual who is carrying the organism has active symptoms and can
transmit the infection to other people.

Treatment of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis treatment involves taking antibiotics for at least 6 months5. The types of treatment
that you receive will depend on the type of tuberculosis you have and how advanced it is. Some
people with tuberculosis will have only one treatment, but most people have a combination of
treatments, such as surgery with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. Other treatments may
include immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or hormone therapy.

Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, characterized by bronchial
hyperresponsiveness and variable airway obstruction. It’s an inappropriate immune response,
much like an environmental allergy, to a triggering factor that induces bronchial hyperreactivity
constriction with the remodeling of smooth muscle and increased mucus secretion into the
airways.
Pharmacology of Asthma
The pharmacotherapy of asthma is based on a stepwise approach, depending on disease
severity. The aim is to reduce the symptoms that result from airway obstruction and
inflammation, to prevent exacerbations, and to maintain normal lung function. β2-Adrenoceptor
agonists and glucocorticoids are the most effective drugs for the treatment of airway obstruction
and inflammation, with theophylline, leukotriene receptor antagonists, and anticholinergics as
second- or third-line therapy.
Classification of Asthma Drugs with Examples
Bronchodilators: These include beta-2 agonists (e.g., Albuterol, Terbutaline) and
anticholinergics.
Corticosteroids: These include inhaled corticosteroids like Fluticasone, Budesonide, and oral
corticosteroids like Prednisone, Beclomethasone dipropionate.

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Leukotriene modifiers: Examples include Zafirlukast, Zileuton.
Mast cell stabilizers: Cromolyn is an example.
Methylxanthines: Theophylline is an example.
Immunomodulators: These include newer class monoclonal antibody immune-modulating
drugs.
Types of Asthma
Allergic Asthma: Symptoms are triggered by certain allergens, such as pet dander or dust mites.
Non-allergic Asthma: Symptoms may be triggered by extreme weather, viral infections, or stress.
Aspirin-induced Asthma: Symptoms of asthma start after taking non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen.
Exercise-induced Asthma: Narrowed by activity.
Eosinophilic Asthma: High eosinophil levels.
Cough-variant Asthma: Only dry cough.
Nocturnal Asthma: Worsens at night.
Treatment of Asthma
Treatment usually involves learning to recognize your triggers, taking steps to avoid triggers,
and tracking your breathing to make sure your medications are keeping symptoms under
control. In case of an asthma flare-up, you may need to use a quick-relief inhaler. The
medications are administered through inhalers or nebulizers. The medication through tablets
helps manage the condition. In severe cases, a procedure called Bronchial thermoplasty may be
performed, which reduces the bulk of smooth muscles and thereby dilates the airways.

Malaria
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by a parasite and transmitted to humans through the
bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. It is most common in tropical countries with warm
temperatures and high humidity. There are five species of Plasmodium parasites that can infect
humans:
Plasmodium falciparum: The deadliest and most prevalent in Africa.
Plasmodium vivax: Dominant outside of sub-Saharan Africa.
Plasmodium ovale: Causes less severe illness but can remain dormant in the liver.
Plasmodium malariae: Causes chronic infection.
Plasmodium knowlesi: A simian malaria that spills over into humans.
Pharmacology of Antimalarial Drugs

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The interactions of drugs with people who take them—how the compounds are absorbed,
metabolized, distributed, and excreted—is referred to as pharmacokinetics. Antimalarial drugs
differ considerably in their pharmacokinetics, which affect how well they work, how they are
dosed, and how long they must be taken.

Classification of Antimalarial Drugs

Antimalarial drugs can be classified into four broad categories according to their chemical
structures and modes of action:
Arylamino alcohol compounds: Includes quinine, quinidine, chloroquine, amodiaquine,
mefloquine, halofantrine, piperaquine, and lumefantrine.
8-Aminoquinoline: Includes primaquine and tafenoquine.
Antifolate compounds: Includes sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, proguanil, chlorproguanil, and
trimethoprim.
Artemisinin compounds: Includes artemisinin, artesunate, artemether, β-arteether, and
dihydroartemisinin.
Others: Includes atovaquone and antibacterial drugs (tetracycline, doxycycline, and
clindamycin).
Treatment of Malaria
Malaria is treated with prescription drugs to kill the parasite. The types of drugs and the length
of treatment will vary, depending on which type of malaria parasite you have, the severity of
your symptoms, your age, and whether you’re pregnant. The most common antimalarial drugs
include Chloroquine phosphate, Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), Atovaquone-
proguanil (Malarone), Quinine sulfate (Qualaquin) with doxycycline, and Primaquine phosphate.
The best available treatment, particularly for P. falciparum malaria, are the artemisinin-based
combination therapies (ACTs).
PATHOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

SIGNS SYMPTOMS
Anorexia Lack of appetite
Ascites Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the
abdomen.
Borborygmi Rumbling or gurgling noises produced by the
movement of gas, fluid, or both in the
gastrointestinal tract.
Constipation Difficulty in passing stools (feces)
Diarrhea Frequent passage of loose, watery stools.
Dysphagia Difficulty in swallowing.
Eructation Gas expelled from the stomach through the
mouth.
Flatus Gas expelled through the anus.
Hematochezia Passage of fresh, bright red blood from the
rectum.
Jaundice Yellow-orange coloration of the skin and

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 whites of the eyes caused by high levels of
bilirubin in the blood (Hyperbilirubinemia)
Melena Black, tarry stools: fees containing digested
blood.
Nausea Unpleasant sensation in the stomach with a
tendency to vomit.
Steatorrhea Fat in the Feces.

Pathologic Conditions

ORAL CAVITY AND TEETH

herpetic stomatitis Inflammation of the mouth with small,
painful ulcers.
Dental caries Tooth decay.
Herpetic stomatitis Inflammation of the mouth caused by
infection with the herpes virus.
Oral leukoplakia White plaques or patches on the mucosa of
the Mouth.
Periodontal disease Inflammation and degeneration of gums,
teeth, and surrounding bone.
UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Achalasia Failure of the lower oesophagus sphincter
(LES) Muscle to relax.
esophageal cancer Malignant tumor of the Esohagus
Esophageal varices Swollen, varicose veins at the lower end of
the Esohagus.
Gastric cancer Malignant tumor of the stomach.
Gastrersophageal reflux Disease (GERD) Solids and fluids return to the mouth from
the stomach.
Hernia Protrusion of an organ or part through the
tissues and muscles normally containing it.
Peptic Open sore in the lining of the stomach or
duodenum.
LOWER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (SMALL AND LARGE INTESTINES)
Anal fistula abnormal tube-like passageway near the
anus.
Colonic polyps polyps (benign growths) protrude from the
mucous membrane of the colon.
Colorectal cancer Aden carcinoma of the colon or rectum, or
both.

Crohn disease (“Crohn’s) Chronic inflammation of the intestinal tract.

Diverticulosis Abnormal outpouchings (diverticula) in the
intestinal wall of the colon.
Dysentery Painful inflammation of the intestines
commonly caused by bacterial infection.
Hemorrhoids Swollen, twisted, varicose veins in the rectal
region.
Ileus Loss of peristalsis with resulting obstruction
of the Intestines.

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 Inflammatory bowel disease Inflammation of the colon small intestine. See
crohn disease and ulcerative colitis
Intussusception Telescoping of the intestines
Irriatable bowel syndrome Group of GI symptoms (abdominal pain,
bloating, Diarrhea, constipation), but without
defined abnormalities in the intestines.
Ulcerative colitis chronic inflammation of the colon with
presence of Ulcers.
Volvulus Twisting of the intestine on itself.

LIVER, GALLBLADDER, AND PANCREAS

Cholelithiasis Gallstone in the gallbladder.
Cirrhosis Chronic degenerative disease of the liver.
Hepatocellular carcinoma Liver cancer.
Pancreatic cancer malignant tumor of the pancreas.
Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas.
Viral hepatitis Inflammation of the liver caused by a virus.

General Tearms
Allergic reactions can vary widely in their severity and symptoms. Common symptoms
include:
Sneezing
Runny or stuffy nose
Itchy or watery eyes
Coughing
Wheezing or shortness of breath
Skin rashes or hives
Swelling of the face, lips, or tongue
Endoscopy: is a medical procedure that involves the use of an endoscope, a flexible tube with a
light and camera attached to its end, to visualize and examine the inside of the body. Endoscopy
allows doctors to view the internal organs, tissues, and cavities without the need for invasive
surgeries. It is commonly used for diagnostic purposes, as well as for certain therapeutic
interventions.
Colonoscopy: In this procedure, the endoscope is inserted through the anus to visualize the
colon (large intestine). Colonoscopy is a common screening tool for colorectal cancer and is
used to diagnose conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and polyps.
Bronchoscopy: This involves passing the endoscope through the mouth or nose into the
airways and lungs. Bronchoscopy helps diagnose lung conditions, infections, tumors, and lung
diseases like bronchitis and asthma.

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 Capsule Endoscopy: In this procedure, a tiny camera capsule is swallowed by the patient. As it
passes through the digestive tract, it captures images, allowing doctors to examine the small
intestine for abnormalities.
Cystoscopy: Cystoscopy involves inserting an endoscope through the urethra to visualize the
inside of the urinary bladder. It's used to diagnose and treat conditions like urinary tract
infections, bladder tumors, and urinary obstruction.
Laparoscopy: While not always classified as an endoscopy, laparoscopy is a minimally invasive
surgical procedure that uses a small camera inserted through small incisions in the abdominal
wall to visualize and perform surgery within the abdominal cavity.
Dialysis: is a medical procedure that is used to artificially remove waste products, excess fluids,
and toxins from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to perform this function
adequately. It's a life-saving treatment for individuals with end-stage kidney disease or severe
kidney dysfunction.
Dialysis helps maintain the balance of electrolytes, fluids, and waste products in the body when
the kidneys are not functioning properly. While dialysis is a crucial treatment, it is not a cure for
kidney disease.

There are two main types of dialysis:

 Hemodialysis: In hemodialysis, blood is circulated outside the body through a machine

called a dialyzer or hemodialyzer. The dialyzer acts as an artificial kidney, filtering the
blood and removing waste products and excess fluids. The cleaned blood is then
returned to the body. Hemodialysis is usually performed at a dialysis center several
times a week.
 Peritoneal Dialysis: Peritoneal dialysis is a method that uses the body's own peritoneal
membrane, a thin lining that covers the abdominal organs, as a filter. A special dialysis
fluid is introduced into the abdominal cavity through a catheter. Waste products and
excess fluids pass from the blood vessels in the peritoneal membrane into the dialysis
fluid.

Metabolism of Nutrients:
The liver processes nutrients from the food we eat, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
It converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage and releases glucose when needed to
maintain blood sugar levels.
Bile Production: The liver produces bile, a greenish fluid that helps emulsify fats in the digestive
process. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine when needed to
aid in fat digestion and absorption.
Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances, including drugs, alcohol, and metabolic
waste products.
The stomach: is a muscular organ located in the upper abdomen and is a key component of the
digestive system. It performs several important functions in the process of breaking down food

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and preparing it for further digestion and absorption. Here are the primary functions of the
stomach:
Storage of Food: The stomach serves as a temporary storage reservoir for food that has been
ingested. It receives food from the esophagus and holds it until it's ready to be processed and
moved into the small intestine.
Mechanical Digestion: The stomach uses its muscular walls to mix and churn the food with
gastric juices, creating a semi-liquid mixture called chyme. This mechanical action helps break
down large food particles into smaller particles.
Chemical Digestion: Lifestyle diseases, also known as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are
health conditions that primarily result from unhealthy lifestyle choices and behaviors. These
diseases are often preventable and are strongly associated with factors such as diet, physical
activity, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and stress. Lifestyle diseases are a significant global
health concern and contribute to a substantial portion of the overall disease burden.
Common examples of lifestyle diseases include:
Lifestyle diseases, also known as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are health conditions
that primarily result from unhealthy lifestyle choices and behaviors. These diseases are often
preventable and are strongly associated with factors such as diet, physical activity, tobacco use,
alcohol consumption, and stress. Lifestyle diseases are a significant global health concern and
contribute to a substantial portion of the overall disease burden.
Common examples of lifestyle diseases include:
Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs): Conditions that affect the heart and blood vessels, including
heart disease, stroke, and hypertension (high blood pressure).
Risk factors: Unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, tobacco use, excessive alcohol
consumption, and obesity. from mild flu-like illness to severe and potentially life-threatening
complications. It is transmitted primarily by the Aedes mosquito, particularly Aedes aegypti.
Dengue is a significant global health concern, especially in tropical and subtropical regions
where the mosquito vectors are prevalent.
Key points about dengue fever:
Symptoms: Symptoms usually appear 4 to 10 days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.
Mild dengue fever: Symptoms include high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, rash,
and mild bleeding (e.g., nosebleeds). Severe dengue (Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue
Shock Syndrome): In some cases, the disease can progress to a severe form, characterized by
bleeding, low platelet count, organ damage, and a drop in blood press.
A heart attack, also known as a myocardial infarction (MI), occurs when blood flow to a part of
the heart muscle is significantly reduced or blocked, leading to damage or death of heart muscle
cells due to inadequate oxygen supply. It is a serious and life-threatening medical emergency
that requires immediate medical attention. Here are the key points about heart attacks:
Diuretics: Diuretics, often called "water pills," help the kidneys eliminate excess sodium and
water from the body, which can lower blood pressure. Examples include thiazide diuretics (e.g.,
hydrochlorothiazide) and loop diuretics (e.g., furosemide). Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme

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(ACE) Inhibitors: ACE inhibitors block the formation of a hormone called angiotensin II, which
narrows blood vessels and raises blood pressure. Examples include enalapril, lisinopril, and
ramipril. Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs): ARBs block the action of angiotensin II,
leading to relaxation of blood vessels and lowered blood pressure. Examples include losartan,
valsartan, and olmesartan. Calcium Channel Blockers: Calcium channel blockers relax and widen
blood vessels.
A stroke, also known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), occurs when there is a sudden
disruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to damage to brain cells due to the lack of oxygen
and nutrients. Strokes are medical emergencies that can have serious and lasting effects on a
person's health and well-being. There are two main types of strokes:
1. Ischemic Stroke:
Ischemic strokes are the most common type, accounting for about 85% of all strokes. They occur
when a blood clot or atherosclerotic plaque blocks a blood vessel supplying the brain, reducing
blood flow to a specific area. Subtypes of ischemic stroke include thrombotic strokes (clot forms
in a brain artery) and embolic strokes (clot travels from another part of the body to the brain).
Hemorrhagic- Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and
spread of abnormal cells within the body. These cells can form tumors or invade nearby tissues
and organs, disrupting their normal functions. Cancer can occur in virtually any part of the body
and can vary in terms of its type, severity, and treatment options. It's a complex disease that
requires a multidisciplinary approach for diagnosis, treatment, and management.
Prefix - Meaning
1. Adeno - Glandular
2. An - Not
3. Anti - Against
4. Aorto - Aorta
5. Artho - joint
6. Bleph - Eyelid
7. Broncho - Bronchi
8. Cardio - Heart
9. Cephal - Head
10. Cerebro - Brain
11. Cervico - Cervix
12. Cholecysto - Gall Bladder
13. Coli - Bowel
14. Colpo - Vagina
15. Entero - Intestine
16. Gastro - Stomach
17. Glosso - Tongue
18. Haema - Blood
19. Hepa - Liver
20. Hystero - Uterus
21. Laryngo - Larynx
22. Leuco - White
23. Metro - Uterus

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 24. Myelo - Spinal cord
25. Myo - Muscle
26. Nephro - Kidney
27. Neuro - Nerve
28. Odonto - Tooth
29. Orchido - Testis
30. Osteo - Bone
31. Oto - Ear
32. Pharyngo - Pharynx
33. Pio - Pus
34. Pneumo - Lung
35. Ren - Kidney
36. Rhin - Nose
37. Spleno - Spleen
38. Thyro - Thyroid Gland
39. Urethro - Urethra
40. Vesico – Bladder

Here are the suffixes used in Medical terminology. Check out Suffix - Meaning
1. -aemia : Blood
2. -algia : Pain
3. -derm : skin
4. -dynia : pain
5. -ectomy : removal
6. -Itis : inflammation
7. -lithiasis : Presence of Stone
8. -malacia : softening
9. -oma : tumour
10. -opia : eye
11. -osis : Condition,excess
12. -otomy : incision of
13. -phobia : fear
14. -plasty : surgery
15. -plegia : peralysis
16. -ptosis : falling
17. -rhoea : excessive discharge
18. -rhage : to burst forth
19. -rhythmia : rhythm.
20. -stasis : stoppage of movement
21. -sthenia : weakness
22. -stomy : outlet
23. -tomy : removal
24. -trophy : nourishment

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 25. -uria : urine
Compounded Words - Meaning
1. Anaemia - Deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood
2. Analgesic - Medicine which alleviates pain
3. Arthralgia - Pain in a joint
4. Cephalalgia - Headache
5. Nephralgia - Pain in the kidney
6. Neuralgia - Nerve pain
7. Myalgia - Muscle pain
8. Otalgia - Ear ache
9. Gastralgia - Pain in the stomach
10. Pyoderma - Skin infection with pus formation
11. Leucoderma - Defective skin pigmentaion
12. Hysterodynia - Pain in the uterus
13. Hysterectomy - Excision of the uterus
14. Nephrectomy - Excision of a kidney
15. Adenectomy - Excision of a gland
16. Cholecystectomy - Excision of gall bladder
17. Thyroidectomy - Excision of thyroid gland
18. Arthritis - Inflammation of a joint
19. Bronchitis - Inflammation of the bronchi
20. Carditis - Inflammation of the heart
21. Cervicitis - Inflammation of the cervix
22. Colitis - Inflammation of the colon
23. Colpitis - Inflammation of the vagina
24. Cystitis - Inflammation of the urinary bladder
25. Enteritis - Inflammation of the intestines
26. Gastritis - Inflammation of the stomach
27. Glossitis - Inflammation of the tongue
28. Hepatitis - Inflammation of the liver
29. Laryngitis - Inflammation of the larynx
30. Metritis - Inflammation of the uterus
31. Myelitis - Inflammation of the spinal cord
32. Nephritis - Inflammation of the kidney
33. Pharyngitis - Inflammation of the pharynx
34. Blepharitis - Inflammation of the eyelids
35. Cholelithiasis - Stone in the gall bladder
36. Nephrolithiasis - Stone in the kidney
37. Osteomalacia - Softening of bones through deficiency of calcium or D vitamin
38. Adenoma -Benign tumour of glandular tissue
39. Myoma - Tumour of muscle
40. Diplopia - Double vision
41. Thrombosis - Formation of a blood clot
42. Pyloromyotomy - Incision of pyloric sphincter muscle
43. Hedrophobia - Fear of water(Rabies in humans)
44. Neuroplasty - Surgical repair of nerves
45. Pyloraplasty - Incision of plastic pylorus to widen passage

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 46. Hemiplegia - Paralysis of one side of the body
47. Nephroptosis - Downward displacement of the kidney
48. Amenorrhoea - Absence of menstrual discharge
49. Dysmenorrhoea - Painful menstruation
50. Leucorrhoea - Whitish vaginal discharge
51. Menorrhoea - Menstrual bleeding
52. Haemorrhage - Escape of blood from a vessel
53. Arrhythmia - Any deviation

Reference-
1. www.wikipedia.org
2. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
3. pharmacologyeducation.org

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