GENERAL CHEMISTRY - 3RD QUARTER

Gr. 11 - St. Dominic De Guzman

Ayonnah Reese De Vera| 3rd Quarter | STEM
S.Y. 2023 – 2024

NATURE & STATES OF MATTER ● No definite shape and no definite volume

● Often observed in: ionized gasses, aurora borealis,
PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER lightning, and comet trails
● Anaximenes (c. 545 BCE)
o Claimed it was air BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE
● Heraclitus (c. 540-480 BCE) ● Produced when a cloud of bosons is cooled to
o Believed it was fire temperatures very close to 0
● Thales of Miletus (c. 6th century BCE) ● Examples are superfluids such as cold liquid helium, and
o Thought it was water superconductors like the nucleons in the neutron star
● Empedocles (c. 490-430)
o Proposed that matter is made up of 4 elements PHASE CHANGES
in varying proportions: earth, air, water, and fire Caused by absorbing or releasing an amount of energy (heat) into or
● Leucippus (c. 5th century BCE) & Democritus (c. out of matter.
460-370 BCE) ● Solid → Gas: Sublimation (remove heat)
o Wondered what would happen to a piece of gold ● Gas → Solid: Deposition (applied heat)
if it is cut indefinitely. They called this unit ● Liquid → Solid: Freezing (remove heat)
atomos, meaning uncuttable. ● Solid → Liquid: Melting (applied heat)
o All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny ● Gas → Liquid: Condensation (remove heat)
to be seen by the naked eye. They cannot be ● Liquid → Gas: Evaporation (applied heat)
broken down into smaller segments, and all
forms of matter result from the coming together PROPERTIES OF MATTER
and breaking apart of atoms. Extensive
o Atoms are in constant motion around an empty ● Mass
space called void. ● Length
o Atoms are completely solid ● Size
o Atoms are in uniform, with no internal structure ● Volume
o Atoms come in different shapes and sizes Intensive
● Epicurus of Samos (c. 341-270 BCE) ● Density
o Popularized atomism — philosophy that matter ● Color
consists of atoms ● Physical state
● Aristotle ● Melting
o Agreed with Empedocles ● Boiling point
o Added a fifth element “Aether”; a made up ● Freezing Point
matter outside of the earth and moon. ● Thermal Conductivity
STATES OF MATTER CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER
Matter can be anything that has mass and volume. It can be Matter can either be classified as a pure substance or a mixture.
described through its 3 main states. However, some studies Pure substances are characterized by elements or compounds. On
revealed the existence of 4th and 5th states referred to as Plasma the other hand, mixtures can either be homogenous or
and Bose-Einstein condensate. heterogenous.
SOLID ELEMENTS
● Has definite shape and volume Composed of only 1 kind of atom
● Particles are tightly packed together, but incompressible
● Particles are vibrate in a fixed position, therefore cannot COMPOUNDS
move around or slide past each other
Composed of 2 or more elements combined chemically in definite
● Has high densities and expands when heated
proportions
LIQUID
HOMOGENEOUS & HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
● Has no definite shape but has definite volume
Mixtures can be separated through simple physical means, while
● Particles are not arranged in a rigid manner; making them
solutions are composed of 2 parts: The solute —- the substance
able to take the shape of its container & slide past each
that gets dissolved; and the solvent that does the dissolving.
other
● Almost incompressible
Homogenous mixtures exist in a single phase. The appearance,
● Tend to expand when heated
properties, and composition appear uniform.
● Have medium densities
Heterogenous mixtures have components that are not evenly
GAS
distributed and thus can be physically identified.
● Takes the shape of its container
● No definite volume PHYSICAL METHODS OF SEPERATING MIXTURE
● Easily compressible into smaller volume when pressure 1. Magnets
is increased 2. Decantation of sand-water by letting the sand settle at the
● Greatly expands when heated bottom before pouring the water out
● Have low densities 3. Evaporation
4. Sublimation through the separation of volatile substances
PLASMA from non volatile substances
● Formed by heating and ionizing a gas 5. Filtration
● Made up of groups of negatively and positively charged 6. Distillation through the separation of liquids with different
particles boiling points

GENERAL CHEMISTRY - 11 1
LECTURE 1 & 2 | MATTER & SIZE AND SCALE

7. Chromatography - a method used to separate Rule # 3:

components of different degrees of solubility using a Zeros in between nonzero digits are significant
moving and a stationary fluid. This method works in
separating the color pigments of inks. Rule # 4:
Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit and to the right of the decimal
APPLICATIONS point are significant
Household cleaning materials
● Bleach Rule # 5:
o Helps clean and whitens surfaces by generally Zeros at the rightmost end of a measurement that lie to the left of
lowering the stability of the chemical bonds in an “understood decimal point” are not significant if they serve as
stain molecules; thus decolorizing these placeholders.
molecules by reducing their absorbance of
radiation in the visible region SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS
● Soaps & Detergents Addition & Subtraction: Its answer should not have decimal places
● Makeup — foundation, lipstick, etc. than the least accurate measurement.
● Lotions
● Toothpastes Multiplication & Division: The answer should not have more
significant digits than the measurement having the fewest significant
SIZE AND SCALE digits.

ACCURACY & PRECISION UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Accuracy - Indicates how close a measurement is to the true or International & English System
accepted value The International System of Units (SI units) evolved from a metric
system that provides additional and accurate units of measurements
Precision - Closeness of measurements within a set of data which includes decimalization and use of prefixes.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION MEASUREMENTS & SOURCES OF ERRORS

● A simple way to write and keep track of very large or very ● Mass: amount of matter in an object. It is fixed quantity
small numbers without having to deal with lots of zeros. that is independent of the object’s location
● For numbers larger than 10, the decimal point in the ● Weight: pull of gravity on an object and depends on the
original number is moved to the left, and the exponent to object’s location
be used is a positive number.
● For numbers smaller than 1, the decimal point must be VOLUME
moved to the right, and the exponent to be used is a
● Amount of space occupied by an object
negative number.
● V=lxwxh
MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL
DENSITY
NUMBERS
● A property of matter that explains why some objects
1. For addition or subtraction, it is first expressed in
float, while others not.
scientific notation such that the exponent of 10 on both 3
numbers are the same. The numbers are then added or ● For solids and liquids: g/mL, g/𝑐𝑚
subtracted, and the exponent is retained. ● For gasses: g/L
2. In multiplication, the numerical parts are simply ● ῥ = m/V
multiplied and the exponents are added. In division, the
numerical parts are divided and the exponents are SPECIFIC GRAVITY
subtracted algebraically. ● It is a ratio of the density of a solid or liquid to that of
water at 4°C
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION PT. 2 ● Density is equal to specific gravity if expressed as g/𝑐𝑚
3

In raising a number written in exponential form to a power, such as ● sp gr = density of solid or liquid / density of water
the second power or the third power, the exponent is multiplied by
the power. TEMPERATURE
● It is the measure of the hotness or coldness of matter.
As a general rule, the exponent must be divisible by that root. This ● Heat is the total energy that results from the molecular
means that in taking the square root of a number, the exponent must motion inside an object
be divisible by 2; in taking the fourth root, the exponent must be ● Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the
divisible by 4; and so on. particles of an object.
● F to C = (Tf - 32)/1.8
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS ● C to F = (Tc x 1.8) + 32
● Counted items - expressed as exact whole numbers ● C to K = Tc + 273.15
● Defined relations - exact numbers but are not always
whole numbers
● Measured numbers - those that are obtained from
reading measurement devices; these numbers are never
exact

DETERMINING SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS

Rule # 1:
Every non zero digit in a reported measurement is significant

Rule # 2:
Leftmost zeros before the first nonzero digits are not significant;
they only act as placeholders to show the position of the decimal
point

GENERAL CHEMISTRY - 11 2