Assignment no 2

Course code : 8604

Program: B.ed 1.5

Question no 1 : A good research contains both tools,

qualitative as well as quantitative for data collection. Write
detailed description of one qualitative and one quantitative
tool along with their comparative strength and weaknesses.
Answer: Strengths Of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is often used to ask questions that can be answered with digital data. Contains a
number of strengths:

Standardized data collection

the unified data collection means that the same tools are used with all study participants, and the data
is collected in a uniform manner. This makes it easy to compare results with groups of participants or to
test hypotheses more broadly.

Objectively

The objectivity of both data collection and analysis can make the results of studies more objective than
those that have qualitative research methods. The use of fixed statistics and numbers can also give your
results when you publish them online or in a printed magazine. This objectivity makes it easier for
researchers to explain the reason for the reliability and validity of their findings.

Difficult data collection

for quantitative studies can provide researchers with data on phenomena that are difficult or impossible
to directly measure, such as attitudes, beliefs and values.

Efficiency

Quantum research allows for more efficient sample sizes, which increases the reliability of your results.
It also moves quickly and can produce results that are easier to share with others, because it is often
presented as percentages.

Generalizability
 The ability to generalize you may find that what you learn is not only for the research participants but
also for the people who are not included in your studies. For example, if you ask 1,000 people what is
important to them in their jobs, you might discover some things about how the work affects the
happiness that can be right for others as well.

Evidence collection

The collection of guides The design of a quantitative study allows the researcher to collect digital data
that can be analyzed using statistical tests. This provides an opportunity for the researcher to support or
refute the theories by collecting statistically significant evidence.

Weaknesses Of Quantitative Research

Quantum research is a useful tool to measure and describe the world as it exists, but it has its
weaknesses as well.

Quantitative data are often criticized for being too separate from real-life situations; This criticism usually
stems from the fact that the collected data tend to be organized and limited in nature. Some have
argued that quantitative analysis does not provide people with a complete picture of complex issues or
human behavior because it is concerned with measuring and calculating the specific variables.

Quantum researchers are interested in how many and how many, but their methods do not allow them
to understand why something is happening. They can find associations between factors, but not
necessarily reasons.

For example, they might discover that people who drink more coffee have higher rates of cardiovascular
disease than people who drink less coffee, but cannot conclude that drinking coffee causes heart
problems. Quantum research does not always take into account a human element. People make
decisions based on more than just mathematical calculations, and this is an important part of the human
experience. It is also difficult to calculate the subjective nature of human experience in quantitative
methods such as surveys and questionnaires.

Quantitative research tends to reduce the researcher's role in the search process, thus reducing the
amount of information that can be obtained about contextual factors. Quantitative research tends not to
generate new ideas or shed light on unexplored areas because it focuses on testing hypotheses derived
from existing theories and concepts.

Strengths in qualitative research

methods tend to collect very rich data in an efficient manner: rather than limiting the respondents to a
set of predetermined questions, it is possible to explore interesting concepts that can lead to a new
theory through full analysis of participants interview/story/ Interact

. 1. Qualitative methods can generate a new theory of unexpected results that conflict with the
"traditional" public health understanding

2. When combined with quantitative methods, qualitative research can provide a more complete image.
For example, a well-designed operation evaluation of the experiment may provide important insights
about participants' attitudes, beliefs and thoughts about intervention and acceptance, which may not be
clear from the quantitative results evaluation

. . Weak qualitative research

1. It is important for qualitative researchers to adhere to a strong methodology in order to ensure high-
quality research. Poor quality work can lead to misleading results.

2. Qualitative research alone is often insufficient to make summaries at the population level. The
research is not designed for this purpose, as the goal is not to create generalized summaries for the
wider population.

3. Policymakers may not understand or appreciate the explanatory position, and therefore may not
understand the importance of qualitative research.

4. Qualitative research can be time-intensive and labor-intensive. It can be difficult to arrange multiple
interviews and focus groups logistically and take a long time. Furthermore, data analysis and data
analysis (comparing, coding and input) require intense focus and complete indulgence in the data - a
process that can take much longer than descriptive statistical analysis.

Question no 2 : Differentiate between

probability and non- probability sampling.
Explain all kinds of probability sampling with
examples.
Answer: The difference between a probability sample and a non-
probability sample is that the probability sample refers to the sampling
method. The probability sample sees a random selection process for
potential participants. Each subject has the same possibility of being
selected to participate in the study. The main objective of using
probabilistic sampling is to receive a sample that represents a broader
representation of the population so that the results of the study can be
generalized to some extent. A non-probability sample is not a random
selection process. Instead, it is a process that chooses subjects to
participate in a study based on some common characteristics or because
all of these people belong to a particular group. The aim of a non-
probability sample is to draw general conclusions from the study on a
specific group or topics of similar reality.

Probability Sample Non-probability Sample Probability Sample Refers to A

Sampling Method Sampled. A non-probability Sample is a sample in
which each selected as a sample for the study. A probability Sample is
random in its selection of subjects. A non-probability Sample is not
Random in its Selection of Subjects, because it selected on common
characters, or because The subjects all belong to a specific group. The
Main Objective of using Probability is to receive a sample Generalized to a
degree. The goal of a non-probability sample is to draw General
Conclusions from the study Factors. Probability Sampling is often used in
quantitative research because of its statistical accuracy. Non-probability
Sampling is often used in quality research because it can be used to get
feedback from subjects Ideas. Probability Sampling SEES Researchers
Testing A Predetermined Hypothesis. Non-probability Sampling sees
researchers develop a hypothesis after they collect the information from
the subjects of the study.

Types of probability Sampling

there are sevens of products that fall under the umbrella of probability
sampling. These Methods Not Only Vary Based On The Type Of Research
You're Doing And The Type Of Data You Want To Yield, But Also The
Amount Of Time You have to conduct your research and the tools you
have at your disposal. Here are the four main types of probability
Sampling approaches that researchers Use:

Simple Random Sampling

in Simple Random Sampling, All Members Of the population have an

equal chance of being selected and the selection is done randomly. To
Achieve This, Researchers May Use Tools Like A Random Number
Generator However, while simple random sampling is, as the name
Indicates, the simplest sampling strategy, it is also prone to bias. For
example, the smaller your sample size is completed to your overall
population, the Less likely you are to draw a relaxes totally At Random.
Can help you tap into a true representative sample with Demographic
Balancing and Flexible targeting

. Stratified Random Sampling

Many Populations Can Be Divided Into Smaller Groups Based on Specific

Characteristics That Don't Overlap But Represent The Entire Population
When Put Together. With Stratified Random Sampling, you would draw a
sample from each of these groups (or Strata) separately. This allows you
to make sure that every subgroup is properly represented, which leads to
more accurate results than simple random sampling. It's common to
Stratify by characterristics like sex, age, income bracket, or ethnicity. The
Strata Must be specific and entirely exclusive, meaning every individual in
the population should only be assigned to one group. Once You've Split
Your Population Into Strata, You Would To the total population. Those
Individuals would then be combined into a single sample.

Cluster Sampling Like Stratified Sampling, Cluster Sampling Also

Involves Separating The Population Into Subgroups, or Clusters. But
that's where the two probability sampling methods diverge. With Cluster
Sampling, each Cluster should have similar characters to the population.
Instead of selecting Individuals from each and every Cluster, you would
begin by Randomly selecting Entire Clusters. If possible, you might
include every individual from each selected Cluster in your final sample. If
the Clusters are too large, you would need to need to randomly select
Individuals from each Cluster. Researchers Often Use Pre-Established and
Easy Available Groups as Clusters. This is typically based on geographic
boundaries, like cities or countries, but it can also be schools or office
locations. Cluster Sampling is most often used to save costs when
surveying populations that are very large or spread out Geographically.
However, there is more risk of sampling error with Cluster Sampling. Each
Cluster is supported to represent the total population, but this can be
difficult to guarantee.

Systematic sampling
Regular sampling is like regular sampling, similar to simple random sampling, although it is usually a little
easier to do. A number is assigned to each individual of the population, then it is selected at regular
intervals to form a sample. (Systematic sampling is also known as comma sampling.) Or in other words,
each individual "NTH" is chosen to be part of the sample. For example, in a population of 1,000 people,
you may choose each person nine for your eye. This could be more obvious than other sampling
methods, as there is a clear and methodological approach to selecting individuals who do not include a
random number generator. On the other side, the resulting selection may not be random as if the
generator was used. In addition, it is important to ensure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that
may affect the random selection. If there is a risk of data manipulation, the sample will deviate and you
may end up with more or less representation within the sample.
 Question no : 3 Develop a research proposal on following
topic: “Comparison of 8th grade students’ achievements in
mathematics at elementary level in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad”.
Answer: Research proposal

Title:

Comparison of eighth grade students’ achievement in mathematics at primary level in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad

introduction:

Education systems in different regions play a vital role in shaping the academic achievements of students.
This proposed research aims to compare and analyze the achievements of eighth grade students in
mathematics in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, two important cities in Pakistan. The study aims to explore
potential differences in learning outcomes, teaching methodologies, and instructional practices that may
influence students' mathematical achievements.

Goals:

1. Evaluating and comparing the achievement levels of eighth grade students in mathematics in
Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

2. Identify the factors affecting differences in mathematics achievement between the two cities.

3. Explore teaching methodologies and instructional practices that contribute to students’ mathematical
achievements.

Research questions:

1. What are the differences in mathematics achievement levels between eighth grade students in
Rawalpindi and Islamabad?

2. What factors can explain the differences in mathematics achievement between students in these two
cities?

3. How do teaching methodologies and instructional practices differ between Rawalpindi and Islamabad in
influencing students’ mathematical achievements?

methodology:

1. Sample selection:

1. Random selection of eighth grade students from five primary schools in Rawalpindi and five in
Islamabad.

2. Total sample size: about 500 students (250 from each city).
 2. Data collection methods:

1. Standardized tests and assessments in mathematics that are compatible with the curriculum of both
cities.

2. Questionnaires for teachers and school administrators to collect insights on teaching methodologies
and educational practices.

Data analysis:

1. Statistical analysis using t-tests and ANOVA to compare the average scores of students’ achievements in
mathematics.

2. Qualitative analysis of questionnaire responses to identify differences in teaching methodologies and

educational practices.

expected outcomes:

1. To identify the differences in the achievements of eighth grade students in mathematics between
Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

2. Factors contributing to differences in students’ mathematical achievement.

3. Insight into teaching methodologies and instructional practices that influence students’ mathematical
learning outcomes.

indication:

The results of this research will provide valuable insights into the educational systems in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad, helping policymakers, educators and stakeholders understand the factors that influence
students’ mathematics achievements. The study findings can guide efforts to enhance teaching
methodologies and instructional practices to improve student learning outcomes in mathematics.

timetable:

1. Proposal preparation and approval: one month

2. Sample selection and data collection: two months

3. Data analysis and interpretation: 1.5 months

4. Writing and presenting reports: 1.5 months

Conclusion:

The proposed research aims to contribute to the understanding of educational practices that influence
students’ achievement in mathematics in Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The findings will serve as a basis
for educational reforms and interventions to enhance students' mathematical learning experiences.
Question no 4 : Write the characteristics of a research report
and explain different parts of research report. Read APA
manual 6th edition and enlist the rules of references for
research report.
Answer: The following paragraphs explain the characteristics of a good research report.

1) Accuracy The information provided in reports must be accurate, because inaccuracy can often lead
to problems for managers. The report should present the information as accurately as possible.

2) Simplicity A good report communicates its message clearly and unambiguously through its
language. It is a document of practical interest; Hence it should be grammatically accurate, concise and
clear.

3) Clarity and completeness The report must be comprehensive in all aspects. There should be no
room for ambiguity. Clarity depends on the effective organization of facts. Report writers must work
methodically. They should explain their purpose, identify their sources, state their findings, and finally
make the necessary recommendations. They should divide their report into short paragraphs with
headings, and include other appropriate tags to make the report clear.

4) Brevity Executives often lack the time to read lengthy reports. Hence, reports should concisely
convey the main points. Brevity should not come at the expense of clarity. You should also not
compromise on completeness. Sometimes, it's important to have a detailed conversation about the
facts. We need to address this discussion head on.

5) Appearance The arrangement, organization, format, layout, and presentation of the report should be
visually attractive and attention-grabbing whenever possible.

6) Comprehension and ease of reading Reports should be clear and straightforward for easy
understanding. They should minimize the use of technical language. The writer must present the facts
in elegant and grammatically correct English.

7) Reliability Reports must be reliable and not leave a wrong impression on the minds of readers,
whether due to oversight or negligence. The facts presented in the report must be relevant to the topic.
It is important that every fact in the report aligns with the central purpose, but it is also important to
ensure that all relevant information is present. Irrelevant facts make the report confusing; Exclusion of
relevant facts makes it incomplete and potentially misleading.
 8) Economy Writing the report should not incur unnecessary expenses. Use cost-effective methods
and maintain a consistent level of quality when delivering content.

9) Timetables Reports can be valuable and effective when they reach readers at the right time. Any
delay in submitting reports makes the preparation of reports a futile and sometimes even outdated
process.

10) Logical content The report should present its content logically. Present the facts impartially.
Highlights should have clear, self-explanatory headings and subheadings. Scientific accuracy of the facts
is absolutely essential to the report. Since reporting always leads to decision making, inaccurate facts
may lead to unsuccessful decisions.

APA Sixth Edition References:

Formatting

Follow these guidelines to format your APA Sixth Edition bibliography page:

Place the "References" section label in bold and centered at the top of the page.

Sort references by author title. If you use multiple sources by the same author, arrange them
by year of publication.

Double space between references.

Apply a 0.5 inch hanging indent.

For page ranges, use dashes instead of hyphens: 21–27. There should be no spaces between
page numbers and dashes.

Remove underscores from URLs to reveal any underscores (_).

For publishers in the United States, include the full city name and state abbreviation, for
example, New York, New York.

For publishers outside the United States, list the city and country in full, for example, London,
England.
Question no:5 Discuss test as a research tool, its
types, development and strength as well as well as
weakness.
Answer: A test is an instrument designed, produced and implemented to obtain information about an
individual respondent regarding his or her knowledge, attitudes, skills, assumed values and preferences.
In the humanities (which includes the arts, education, social sciences and law – sometimes the social
sciences are made stand-alone), testing is used to evaluate teaching and learning, and to obtain data for
research.

Testing is typically administered before, during, and after teaching in the humanities. The teacher may
want to determine what prior knowledge his group of learners has before receiving his or her instruction.
As teaching progresses, he or she may test to see whether learners have shared additional experiences. At
the end of the lesson, the teacher will conduct a test to find out the general intellectual situation of the
learners based on the instructions he has just given.

Types of tests: Diagnostic test

With this quiz, you can test how much your students already know about a particular topic
or topic. You can use the results of this test to schedule your class. What topics need more
attention? For the student, this gives them some ideas about which part of the class needs
some extra study hours.

Placement test

This type of test can be used to place a student in the appropriate class or level. For
example, for language classes, this is often used before the class starts.

Progress or achievement tests

These tests are used to measure progress in a particular topic. This will often follow a
diagnostic test or can be at regular intervals. If you measure regularly, you'll get a better
picture of your students' progress.

Internal testing

These are internal exams offered by the institution in which the student is pursuing classes.

Objective tests
 An objective test has clear right or wrong answers. All multiple choice tests fall into this
group. Students are given a pre-defined set of answers from which to choose the correct
answer.

Self tests

With this type of test, the test maker has to make a judgment on the student's answers.
Mostly this is in the form of free text questions or articles.

Strengths of tests (especially standardized tests)

• It can provide measures of many characteristics of people.

• Often standardized (i.e. the same incentive is provided to all participants).

• Allows comparison of common measures between research groups.

• Strong psychometric properties (high measurement validity).

• Availability of reference group data.

• Multiple tests can be performed for groups, which saves time.

• Can provide “hard” quantitative data.

• Tests have usually already been developed.

• A wide range of tests available (most content can be exploited).

• High response rate for group tests.

• Ease of data analysis due to the quantitative nature of the data.

Weaknesses in tests (especially standardized tests)

• Can be expensive if it is necessary to purchase a test for each research participant.

• Interactive effects such as social desirability can occur.

• The test may not be appropriate for a local or unique population.

• Open questions and tests are not available.

• Tests are sometimes biased against certain groups of people.

• Failure to respond to selected items in the test.

• Some tests lack psychometric data