Topic 1: Climatology of the Ocean

The general distribution of Temperature over the ocean

The temperature of ocean water is highest at the equator (where it is warm by the sun) and
coldest toward the poles. Compared to air, water has an extremely high heat capacity, so it takes
more sunlight to warm it up. Warm seawater is usually lighter than cool seawater, so the warm
water usually stays on top.

There are three temperature zones in the ocean (although they can vary from season to season).
They are; the Surface zone, the Thermocline, and the Deep zone.

The Surface zone: which begins at the earth’s surface and goes down, it’s the top layer of warm
oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with temperature ranging between 20◦ and 25◦c. this
layer within the tropical region is present throughout the year but in mid-latitudes it develops
only during summer.

The Thermocline: the thermocline lies below the surface layer, and it is characterized by rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 – 1000m thick.

The profile below shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the
deeper layers. The boundary usually begins around 100 – 400m below the sea surface and
extends several hundreds of meters downward, the boundary region from where the rapid
decrease of temperature which is called the thermocline, where about 90% of total volume of
water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone the temperature approaches
0◦c.
The Deep zone: this layer is very cold and it extends just below the thermocline up to the deep
ocean floor. The temperature in the deep zone becomes almost stagnant (just above the freezing
point of water 0 – 4 degrees Celsius). Differences in temperature along with wind, salinity, the
topography of the ocean floor and the rotation of the earth are what cause the circulation of water
in the ocean.

The study of the temperature of the ocean is important for determining the following;

I. Movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents).

II. Types and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of the ocean.
III. Climate of the coastal lands.

The following factors affect temperature distribution of the ocean

I. Insolation: the average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.

II. Heat loss: the loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
III. Albedo: the albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
Areas and season which high increase sea fog can be expected

At sea advection fog, termed sea fog, occurs at certain times of the year, in northern latitudes, the
grand banks of Newfoundland and the North Pacific zones are notorious particularly in July,
when warm air from the south-west and south pass over the cold water Labrador, and the Oya
Shio or Aleutian currents respectively. Sea fog in these areas can persist for extended period and
will only disperse when either the wind speed increases, or its direction changes. Sea fog also
occurs in lower latitudes during the summer in the region of cold California, Canary, Peru and
Benguela Currents. Sea fog not only develops where cold currents exist, but also where there are
favorable conditions of wind speed, air and sea surface temperatures. Examples are the spring
and early summer fogs of the Western Approaches to the Isles, where the south-westerly warm
air stream from the Azores moves over the sea which, at this time of the year, is at its lowest
temperature. In the North Sea, sea fog develops during the summer when warm north-east, east
and sometimes south-easterly winds from Europe pass over the colder sea surface. Along the
coast of the British Isles this sea fog is called haar or sea fret.
Pattern of Rainfall over the Ocean

Ocean temperatures influence rainfall patterns throughout the world, so when ocean temperatures
change, rainfall patterns tend to change as well. Scientists monitor changes in ocean
temperatures, looking for warmer or cooler than average waters, to predict floods or droughts.
Cloud pattern over the ocean

In a process called upwelling, cooler water from deep in the ocean rises to replace the surface
water. As this moist, marine air cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets, and
low clouds form. These lumpy, sheet-like clouds are called marine stratocumulus, the most
common cloud type in the world by area. Stratocumulus clouds typically cover about one fifth of
Earth’s surface. In some of the less cloudy parts of the world, the influence of other physical
processes is visible. For instance, the shape of the landscape can influence where clouds form.

Marine stratocumulus clouds and an atmospheric eddy could be seen over the southern Indian
Ocean in early March 2013
 Major Climatic Regions of the world
The major climatic regions of the world are discussed below:

1. Equatorial Climatic Region (50 N to 100 S)

It is found between 5° and 10° north and south of the equator. This region gets heavy
precipitation which is between 1500 mm/year. Due to the great heat, the mornings are bright and
sunny and evening receive convectional rainfall. Thunder lightning often accompanies the
torrential showers. This region is well known for natural rubber called hevea
brasiliensis. Amazon basin (South America), Zaire Basin (Africa) especially in western part,
and South East Asia (mainly islands) are three well defined regions of this category.

2. The Savana or Sudan Climate (100 to 200 N and S)

It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests and the trade wind hot
deserts. It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and
wet seasons are most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate. This climate is characterized
by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.

The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal
districts. Savanna is grasslands of tropical zone. They are known as natural Zoo of the World.
Llanos and Campos in South America; Kano and Salisbury region in Africa; Northern and
Central part of Australia are the important region of this category.

3. The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (200 to 300 N and S)

The aridity of hot desert is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade winds; hence they are also
called trade wind deserts. Sahara (Africa) is the biggest desert and the next biggest is Great
Australian desert. It is found between 200 to 300 N and S. Hot deserts: Sahara, Australia,
Arabian, Iranian, Thar, Kalahari, Namib, Nubian, Mohave (USA), Atacama etc. Cold
Desert: Patagonia, Turkestan, Gobi etc.

4. The Warm Temperate Western Margin or Mediterranean Climate (300 to 400 N and S)

It is a climate that has dry summers that are hot or warm as well as winters that are cool or mild
with moderate or high rainfall. It includes the climate of much of the land near the Mediterranean
Sea. Outside the Mediterranean, one can find this climate only in rather small areas. It is found in
many places that are roughly between latitudes 30° to 40° north and south of the equator.

Important Regions are: Coastal region of Mediterranean Sea; Southern Tips of South-west Africa
near Cape Town; Southern Australian (in southern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the
St. Vincent and Spencer Gulfs); South West Australia (Swanland); California around San
Francisco; Central Chile in South America.
This region is famous for orchard farming e.g. Citrus and fibrous fruits.
 5. Temperate Grasslands or Steppe Climate (400 to 550 N and S)

It is dry lands due to their position in land masses away from oceanic influences. It is
characterized by meagre and unreliable precipitation. The annual range of temperature and
rainfall is 13°C and 300 mm. The sub-regions of this climatic region are known by different
names in different regions: Steppes (Eurasia); Pustaz (Hungary); Prairies (USA); Pampas (South
America- Argentina and Uruguay); Velds (South Africa); Downs (Australia-Murray-Darling
basin of southern Australia); Canterbury (New Zealand).

6. Cool Temperate Continental or Taiga or Siberian Climate (550 to 700 N and S)

It is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration and a cool brief summer. The
average rainfall is 35-60 cm which is quite well distributed through one year with maximum
rainfall in summer. This type of climate is experienced in northern hemisphere only because
there is no land mass in southern hemisphere.

Important regions: Alaska across Canada into Labrador and high Rocky Mountains; Moscow and
adjoining belt in Siberia; Central Europe.

7. The Arctic or Polar or Tundra Climate (700 to 900 N and S)

It is among Earth's coldest, harshest biomes. The ecosystems of this climatic region are treeless
regions found in the Arctic and on the tops of mountains, where the climate is cold and windy
and rainfall is scant. The lands of this region are snow-covered for much of the year, until
summer brings a burst of wildflowers.

8. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical marine Climate (10° to 20° N and S)

It is also known as a tropical wet climate or trade-wind littoral climate. It is a tropical climate
that is primarily influenced by the ocean. It is usually experienced by islands and coastal areas
10° to 20° north and south of the equator. There are two main seasons in a tropical marine
climate: the wet season and the dry season. The annual rainfall is 1000 to over 1500 mm (39 to
59 inches). The temperature ranges from 20 °C to 35 °C (68 ° to 95 °F). The trade winds blow all
year round and are moist, as they pass over warm seas. These climatic conditions are found, for
example, across the Caribbean; the eastern coasts of Brazil, Madagascar and Queensland; and
many islands in tropical waters.
 Topic 2: Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

The term Tropical cyclone, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization, is an area of
low pressure where the associated maximum wind speed is at least Beaufort force 12 (32.7 ms -1),
and thunderstorms, producing strong wind and flooding rain. Alternative terms used are tropical
revolving storm (a maritime term), typhoon (Western North Pacific), hurricane (North Atlantic,
Eastern North Pacific), and cyclone (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South Indian and South Pacific
Oceans).

Tropical revolving storm forms over warm waters from pre-existing disturbances. These
disturbances typically emerge every three or four days from the coast of Africa as tropical waves
that consist of areas of unsettled weather. Tropical revolving storm can also form from the
trailing ends of cold fronts and from upper-level lows.

Other areas of low pressure in the tropical and subtropical circulation are classified as follows:

a. Tropical depression – Wind speed not exceeding Beaufort force 7.

b. Moderate tropical storm – Wind speed Beaufort force 8and 9.
c. Severe tropical storm – Wind speed Beaufort force 10 and 11.

On surface synoptic charts the tropical cyclone is delineated by a number of closed and almost
perfectly circular isobars with an associated steep pressure gradient.

The development of a tropical revolving storm can usually be traced through the stages of a
tropical depression and storm.

Pattern and characteristics of TRS

A tropical revolving storm has an average diameter of 400n.mile and an average pressure value 960
hPa at mean sea level, with very steep pressure gradients, however, during its life span both diameter
and pressure values vary. The system has a distinctive eye, or vortex, of some 30n.mile in diameter
occupying its central area. In this area calm conditions or light airs exist at the surface but,
immediately outside, winds are Beaufort force 12 or greater. The eye is generally free from cloud
since within the air subsides and warm adiabatically. The eye is surrounded by the eye wall, which is
a ring of cumulonimbus clouds formed by the ascending air.
 Conditions necessary for TRS to form

The more frequent formation of tropical revolving storm during summer and autumn in particular
areas suggests that certain conditions are necessary;

Tropical revolving storm is a tropical disturbance that occurs or originates within the tropical latitude
greater than 5◦ North or 5◦ south from the equator and they reach their highest intensity while they are
located over warm tropical waters. The following conditions are necessary for the formation of
tropical revolving storm;

a. Sufficient warm temperature at least 26.5◦c or greater.

b. Potentially unstable atmosphere.
c. High relative humidity at least 50 to 60 percent.
d. Adequate value of Coriolis Effect at least minimum distance of 500km from the equator is
needed for TRS to form.
e. Pressure must be relatively low at about 960 – 900 hPa.
f. Limited vertical wind shear
 Weather signs of the approach of a TRS

Tropical revolving storm warning signs are not apparent until a storm has gotten close to making
landfall. A few signs, such as an increase in ocean swell, wave frequency and driving rain, can
be seen 36 to 72 hours before a tropical revolving storm strikes. Rip tides pushing away from the
shoreline can appear as the storm nears.

Increased Ocean Swell

Around 72 hours before a storm makes landfall, ocean swell increases to about 2 meters (6 feet)
in height. Waves hit the shore about every nine seconds. This is one of the earliest signs of an
approaching TRS. As tropical revolving storm gets closer to land, waves will hit the shore with
greater rapidity and increase to close to 5 meters (16 feet) in height.

Barometric Pressure Drop

The barometer begins to drop roughly 36 hours before tropical revolving storm makes landfall,
slightly when the storm is still 30 hours away and steadily plunging as the storm nears. The most
reliable way to detect a drop in barometric pressure is by checking a barometer.

Wind Speed

Wind speed increases as tropical revolving storm gets closer to land, from around 18 kilometers
per hour (11 miles per hour) 36 hours before landfall to as high as 167 kilometers per hour (104
miles per hour) one hour before landfall. It’s gusty and grows steadily stronger, blowing
unsecured items about and removing tree branches.

Heavier Rainfall

Rain moves in around 18 hours before the tropical revolving storm. It’s a driving rain that comes
through intermittently; worsening the closer the storm gets to land, until it becomes a continual
downpour around six hours before tropical revolving storm hits. This may lead to flooding in
low-lying areas.
 Areas and Times Where Tropical Storm Frequently Occurs

Tropical revolving storm develop in eight clearly defined areas during specific seasons with the
average number per annum varying from one area to another. However, it should be noted that
there has been a paucity of data in the past for certain areas, and recent observations suggest that
the frequency of tropical revolving storm may be greater, particularly in the southern
hemisphere.
Area Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Northern
hemisphere
N Atlantic HURRICANES (8)
Ocean
Eastern N HURRICANES
Pacific Ocean (7-8)
Western N TYPHOONS
Pacific Ocean (22)
Arabian Sea CYCLONES CYC LON ES
(1-2) (1-2)
Bay of CYCLONES
Bengal (5-6)
Southern
hemisphere
Western S CYCLONES
Indian Ocean (6)
Eastern S CYCLONES
Indian Ocean (1)
S Pacific CYCLONES
Ocean (2-3)

Note: Figures in brackets show the average number per annum.

 The behavior of tropical revolving storm in northern and southern hemisphere

The initial track of a tropical revolving storm in lower latitudes is generally from east to west as it is
steered by the easterly tropospheric air flow in which it is embedded. As a pole-ward component is
also present, its track may be close to WNW in the northern hemisphere and WSW in the southern
hemisphere, along the equator-ward margin of the subtropical anticyclone. A tropical revolving storm
recurves between 20◦ and 30◦N or S when it reaches the western edge of the anticyclone. Its track is
then north (N hemisphere) or south (S hemisphere), its speed of advance decreases, and it may
become stationary for a period. It then tracks north-easterly (N hemisphere), and speed of advance
increases to 20knots or greater. The system has now left the tropical circulation and is being steered
by the general westerly tropospheric airflow of the mid-latitudes.

On occasions a tropical revolving storm may not recurve but follows the alternative path, in most
cases this is directly related to the position and movement of the subtropical anticyclone which blocks
the path of recurvature. At a later stage, however the system may recurve unless it moves onshore and
decays rapidly. Variations occur, and no two tropical revolving storms have exactly the same track.

Northern Hemisphere;
Southern Hemisphere;

Each of the three circles represents a decrease in pressure below mean pressure value. Surface
wind direction is shown and angle of in draught decreases progressively from the periphery of
the system to zero at the outskirts of the eye. The other terms are explained in the table below
which, although originally devised in the days of sail, is still very relevant to the handling of
power-driven vessels.

Eye or Vortex Central area of calm, surrounded by winds of force 12 or greater.

Track The track over which a tropical revolving storm has already passed.
Path Anticipated movement of the tropical revolving storm.
Trough The line of lowest barometric pressure to a stationary observer.
Bar (Eye wall) The mass of clouds surrounding the eye.
Dangerous semicircle Wherein a vessel should not run before the wind.
Dangerous quadrant The advance quadrant of the dangerous semicircle wherein the tropical
revolving storm may recurve over a vessel.
Navigable semicircle Wherein a vessel may run before the wind.
Point of recurvature The point on the track of a tropical revolving storm where the
(Vertex or Cod) recurvature is greatest.
Early detection of TRS

Early detection of TRS is very important so as to avoid sailing across the path, track or route of
the TRS. Tropical revolving storm can be detected by the following means;

I. Vividly coloring of the cloud

II. Change or difference of the diurnal pressure difference by 3hPa is a warning that TRS in
view.
III. Sudden decrease of barometric reading, a difference of 5hPa indicates TRS is within
100NM of the vicinity.
IV. Increase in wind speed.
V. Satellite information are better ways of detecting TRS, and vessel receives the
meteorological warning via satellite receiver onboard like the INMARSAT C which
receives all maritime safety information.
VI. Radar can also be used to detect TRS and information sent to ship via NAVTEX for
shore-based radar.
VII. Extra outlook (constant watch keeping) on dedicated radio channels and frequencies is
another way of being informed of the presence of TRS.

Action taken to avoid the storm center

The first thing is to establish the position of the vessel and in doing this, observation of both the
wind speed and direction over a period of time are the most significant indicators of the vessel’s
position, it is recommended that the vessel heaves to for a time to observe the wind. The changes
which would indicate the vessel’s position are as follows:
 Vessel’s Position

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere

Wind

Dangerous semicircle Navigable semicircle

Veering

Backing Navigable semicircle Dangerous semicircle

No change in Vessel is in the path

direction but
increase in
speed

While hove to, the bearing of the center of the storm can be determined by applying Buys
Ballot’s law.

Once the vessel’s position in the tropical revolving storm is established, evasive action as
indicated below in the tables for both hemisphere and using best speed can be taken. This action
increases the distance between the vessel and the center of the storm as rapidly as possible.
Semicircle Action
Dangerous Place wind 1-4 points on 1
starboard bow altering course
to starboard as the wind veers.
Navigable or path of the storm Place wind on starboard 2
quarter altering course to port
as wind backs.
Semicircle Action
Dangerous Place wind 1-4 points on port 1
bow altering course to port as
wind backs.
Navigable or path of storm Place wind on port quarter 2
altering course to starboard as
wind veers.

While the evasive action is being taken, the seafarer must continue to monitor the conditions, and
these will indicate when the vessel is clear of the storm and the original course and speed can be
resumed.
Information required by the ship’s master for TRS report

SOLAS chapter 5 reg. 31 mandates the master of every vessel to promulgate any suspicion of
TRS or detected TRS. This report must be sent to the nearest coastal station or an administration
who in turn sends it to all ships.

Information contained in the report sent includes the following:

a. Vessel name and identity

b. Vessel course and speed
c. Date and time in GMT
d. Vessel’s position
e. Temperature and Pressure
f. Bearing and distance of the vessel from the TRS
g. Port of departure
h. Destination port
Topic 3: Properties and behavior of ocean current

Ocean current and Global wind system

Ocean currents are predominantly horizontal movement of water in the sea including the
general ocean circulation, periodic flows and sporadic displacements of water masses. Ocean
currents are generated by wind, and density differences in water masses caused by temperature
and salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes. These currents move water
masses through the deep ocean—taking nutrients, oxygen, and heat with them. Surface currents
are generated largely by wind. Their patterns are determined by wind direction, Coriolis forces
from the Earth’s rotation, and the position of landforms that interact with the currents. Surface
wind-driven currents generate upwelling currents in conjunction with landforms, creating deep
water currents.

Ocean currents flow for great distances, and together, create the global conveyor belt which
plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of the Earth’s regions. More
specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they travel.
For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of
the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them.

Ocean currents are influence by two types of forces namely: Primary and Secondary forces

Primary force:- This initiate the movement of water, the forces are;

Heating:- Heating by solar energy cause water to expand, that is why near the equator the ocean
water is about 8cm higher in level than in the Mid-latitudes.

Wind:- Wind blowing on the surface of ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between wind
and water surface affects the movement of water-body in its course.

Gravity:- Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile and create gradient variation.

Coriolis force:- Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to right in northern
hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere.
Secondary force:- These force influence the currents to flow;

Temperature difference:- The difference in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean
currents.

Salinity difference:- Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the
same way cold water is denser than warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while relatively
lighter water tends to rise.

Types of Ocean currents:

Based on Depth: Surface currents and Deep water currents

Surface currents:- These constitute about 10% of all the water in the ocean, these water are the
upper 400m of the ocean.

Deep water currents:- These makeup the other 90% of the ocean water. These water moves
around the ocean basins due to variation in the density and gravity, deep water sink into the deep
ocean basins at high latitudes where the temperature are cold enough to cause the density to
increase.

Based on Temperature:- Cold and Warm currents

Cold currents:- Cold currents brings cold water into warm water areas (from high latitudes to
low latitudes), these current are usually found on the West coast of the continents.

Warm currents:- Warm currents brings warm water into cold water areas (low to high latitudes)
and are usually observed on the East coast of the continents.
Major Ocean Currents of the world

 California Current – cold

 North pacific Current – warm
 Labrador Current – cold
 Oyashio Current – cold
 Peruvian Current – cold
 North equatorial Current - warm
 South equatorial Current - warm
 Gulfstream Current – warm
 East Greenland Current – cold
 Equatorial counter Current – warm
 Canary Current - cold
 Brazilian Current – warm
 Benguella Current - cold
 Kuroshio Current - warm
 East Australia Current - warm
 North Atlantic Current – warm
 Aguihas current – warm
 Somali current – warm
 Leeuwin current – warm
 West Australian current – cold
 Norwegian current - warm
 General Characteristics of Ocean Currents

 The general movement of currents in the northern hemisphere is clockwise and in

southern hemisphere is anticlockwise, due to Coriolis force. (It is well pronounced in the
Indian Ocean where the current movement changes its direction in response to the
seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds.
 The warm currents move towards the cold seas and the cold currents move towards the
warm seas.
 There is convergence along where the warm and cold currents meet, and divergence from
where they move out in different directions.

All the warm current in the Northern and Southern hemisphere are called the Western
boundary currents while all cold currents in the Northern and Southern hemisphere are called
the Eastern boundary currents.

Characteristics of Western boundary currents:

 They are swift, narrow and deep flows

 They have well defined boundary
 They are strong currents
 Kuroshio Current carries warm current into North America while gulfstream current
carries warm current into Europe.

Characteristics of Eastern boundary currents:

 They have direction of flow

 They have poorly defined boundary
 They are weak, shallow and broad flows
 They are slow
 They are not as strong as the Western boundary currents

Equatorial currents:- there are three types, they are;

 North equatorial current:- it is in the Northern hemisphere

 South equatorial current:- it is in the Southern hemisphere
 Equatorial counter current:- it is found or located at the equator between north equatorial
current in the northern hemisphere and south equatorial current in the southern
hemisphere.
Indian Current:- these are monsoon wind of the northeast and southeast trade wind. They are
responsible for North and South Equatorial currents. They are anticyclonic in nature in both
North and South hemisphere.

Ocean Gyres:- ocean gyres are currents or circulation which are anticyclonic in nature. They are
formed as a result of air settled over an area for a long period. The anticyclone in the northern
hemisphere is clockwise while in the southern hemisphere it is anticlockwise. Example of places
where ocean gyre are found are: North Pacific, North equatorial current, kuroshio current, canary
current, north Atlantic current, all in the northern hemisphere. While in the southern hemisphere:
south equatorial current, Brazilian current, East Australian current.

Global wind system

The global wind system is also known as the general circulation and the surface winds of each
hemisphere are divided into four wind belts:

Polar Easterlies: from 60-90 degrees latitude both in northern and southern hemispheres.

Prevailing Westerlies: from 30-60 degrees latitude, also called Westerlies.

Tropical Easterlies: from 0-30 degrees latitude, also called Trade winds

Intertropical Convergence Zone ITCZ: near the equator 0◦.

Polar Easterlies: can be found at the north and south poles and they are cold and dry because of
where it is located, which is at high latitude. This type of system forms when cool air, at the
poles, and then transfers to the equator.

Prevailing Westerlies: are located in the 30-60 degrees latitude in the northern and southern
hemispheres. They blow from west to east and occur in the clement part of the earth.

Tropical Easterlies: it takes direction in an east to west flow because of the rotation of the earth.
As air from the equator rises, it gets warmer and when it cools down, it comes back down to the
equator. Tropical easterlies are located 0-30 degrees latitude in both hemispheres.
Intertropical Convergence Zone ITCZ: the ITCZ is also known as Equatorial Convergence
zone or the Intertropical fronts. It forms when southeast and northeast trade winds converge in a
low pressure zone, near the equator. It usually appears as a band of clouds and comes with
thunderstorms, which are short but produce extreme amounts of rain. It is characterized by
convective activity which generates often vigorous thunderstorms over large areas. It is most
active over continental land masses by day and relatively less active over the oceans. The ITCZ
moves north and south seasonally.

The position of the ITCZ varies with the seasons, and lags behind the sun's relative position
above the Earth's surface by about 1 to 2 months, and correlates generally to the thermal equator.
In July and August, over the Atlantic and Pacific, the ITCZ is between 5 and 15 degrees north of
the Equator, but further north over the land masses of Africa and Asia. In January, over the
Atlantic, the ITCZ generally sits no further south than the Equator, but extends much further
south over South America, Southern Africa, and Australia. Over land, the ITCZ tends to follow
the sun's zenith point. The latitude varies between 17◦S and 08◦N in January and between 2◦N
and 27◦N in July. The ITCZ is greatest over land.
The other wind belts

There are three other wind belts namely: Horse Latitudes Trade winds, and Doldrums.

Horse Latitudes: Horse latitudes, also known as the subtropical high, are about 30-35 degrees
north and south of the equator. Horse latitude is a region where there is a weak wind because of
high pressure and decreasing dry air. The origin of the name Horse latitudes is uncertain but it is
said that ships that needed wind power couldn't move on the water and the sailors threw the
horses and cattle over the ship to save on provisions.

Trade Winds: Trade winds blow from the horse latitudes to the low pressure of the ITCZ. Trade
winds get its name from its capability of blowing trade ships across the ocean, very quickly. In
the northern hemisphere, the winds blow from the northeast, which is called the Northeast Trade
winds? In the Southern hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the southeast, and surprisingly,
they're called the Southeast Trade Winds. The trade winds and associated ocean currents helped
early sailing ships from European and African ports make their journeys to the Americas.
Likewise, the trade winds also drive sailing vessels from the Americas toward Asia. Even now,
commercial ships use "the trades" and the currents the winds produce to hasten their oceanic
voyages.
DOLDRUMS: As the wind blows to about five degrees north and south of the equator, both air
and ocean currents come to a halt in a band of hot, dry air. This 10-degree belt around Earth's
midsection is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, more commonly known as the
doldrums. Intense solar heat in the doldrums warms and moistens the trade winds, thrusting air
upwards into the atmosphere like a hot air balloon. As the air rises, it cools, causing persistent
bands of showers and storms in the tropics and rainforests. The rising air masses move toward
the poles, then sink back toward Earth's surface near the horse latitudes. The sinking air triggers
the calm trade winds and little precipitation, completing the cycle.

Current Systems of North Atlantic Ocean and North Indian Ocean

North Atlantic Ocean

The North Atlantic current, also called the North Atlantic Drift, part of a clockwise-setting ocean
current system in the North Atlantic Ocean extending from southeast of the Grand Bank, off
Newfoundland, Canada, to the Norwegian sea, off northwestern Europe. It constitutes the
northeastward extension of the Gulf Stream, the latter issues from the Gulf of Mexico and
gradually emerges as the North Atlantic current in mid-ocean. It is composed of several broad
currents with speeds of about 0.2 knots, as compared with the Gulf Stream’s rather concentrated
flow at 1 to 6 knots. It’s characterized by warm temperature and high salinity, the North Atlantic
current is sometimes concealed at the surface by shallow and variable wind-drift movements.
The current often mixes with northern cold polar water to produce excellent fishing grounds near
islands and along the coast of northwestern Europe.

North Indian Ocean

The currents in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean change their direction from season to
season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. The effect of winds is comparatively
more pronounced in the Indian Ocean;
Winter circulation: under the influence of prevailing trade winds (easterly trade winds), the
north equatorial current and south equatorial current start from the south of Indonesian islands,
moving from east to west. This raises the level of western Indian (south-east of horn of Africa)
ocean by few centimeters, and this creates the counter-equatorial current which flows between
the north and south equatorial current in west-east direction. The north-east monsoons drive the
water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to circulate in an anticlockwise direction, similarly the
water along the coast of Arabian Sea also circulates in an anticlockwise direction.

Summer circulation: in summer, due to the effects of the strong south-west monsoon and the
absence of the north-east trades, a strong current flows from west to east which completely
obliterates the north equatorial current. Hence, there is no counter-equatorial current as well.

Thus, the circulation of water in the northern part of the ocean is clockwise during this season.

The interrelationship between global wind system and current system

Global wind patterns and Ocean currents determine the climate and weather of the world.
Convection, which is the transfer of heat between liquids and gases, occurs between the ocean
water and the air, giving the air varying degrees of temperature and influencing the local and
global climate.

Difference between Tidal current and Ocean current.

Tidal currents can be defined as the periodic movement of water driven principally, though not
necessarily exclusively, by a head difference created by out-of-phase ocean tides at each end of
restriction while Ocean currents are predominantly horizontal movement of water in the sea
including the general ocean circulation, periodic flows and sporadic displacements of water
masses.
Topic 4: Properties and Behavior of Waves

Waves are disturbance over ocean deforming the ocean surface. Waves on the ocean are result of
winds, Tides, Surges and Earthquakes. Ocean waves are primarily caused by the interaction
between wind force, Coriolis force, gravity force as determined by the combined forces of sun
and moon.

Formation of Waves

There is turbulence in flow of air, even in the gentlest flow. Fluctuations of surface pressure
associated with this turbulence are sufficiently large to disturb the surface water. Air moving
over the surface of water exerts drag upon it, air movement is turbulent and drag upon the water
surface fluctuates. The slightest and most capricious movements of air cause patches of ripples to
form on water surface which is otherwise smooth. The ripples grow in size and extent, the air
motion close to the water surface becomes organized while turbulence is superimposed. Waves
form in water surface that reacts with the airflow.

Wave characteristics:

Wave parameters are the group of characteristics that identify a wave. They include: wavelength
(L), wave height, wave period (T), wave speed or phase speed ( c ), wave direction, wave
frequency (f), wave number (k), angular frequency (w), fetch, steepness of a wave (H/L).

Wavelength (L):- this is the horizontal distance between two successive crests or troughs. It is
expressed in meters.
Wave height (H):- this is the difference in surface elevation between the wave crest and the
successive wave trough. It is expressed in meters; it is twice the amplitude of a vertical
oscillatory motion of the surface above or below the mean water level.

Wave period (T):- the period of a wave is the time interval between the passages of two
successive crests past a fixed point. It is expressed in seconds.

Wave speed or phase speed (C):- this is rate of propagation. It is the speed at which the wave
profile travels; i.e the speed at which the crest and the trough advance. It is expressed in meter
per second m/s.

Wave direction:- the direction from which the waves come.

Wave frequency (f):- sometimes the term frequency is used instead of period, and is measured
in Hertz (HZ). The relation between frequency is used and period is f = 1/T.

Fetch:- is defined as the downwind length of the sea area over which the wind blows. That is, it
is the distance a wind has been blowing on a wave.

Some definitions

Ocean wave:- This is a disturbance in the ocean that transmits energy from one place to another.
Ocean wave are usually generated by wind on the ocean’s surface.

Sea wave:- Sea wave also known as wind waves are raised by the wind blowing over a stretch of
water, that is the waves raised locally by the wind.

Swells:- Swells refer to waves at point of observation, which have travelled a distance from the
area where they were generated at sea. They are waves generated by distant wind from different
direction.
Beaufort descriptive terms used for sea state in relation to wave height

Number Description of sea state wave height

0 Calm 0

1 Rippled 0 – 0.1

2 Smooth 0.1 – 0.5

3 Slight 0.5 – 1.25

4 Moderate 1.25 – 2.5

5 Rough 2.5 – 4

6 Very rough 4–6

7 High 6–9

8 Very high 9 – 14

9 Phenomenal >14
Topic 5: Effect of Sea Ice on Navigation

Sea ice is a thin fragile, solid layer of frozen ocean water that forms in the Arctic and Antarctic
oceans, it is different from icebergs which are made of fresh water from compacted snow. Salty
sea ice is perhaps the most dangerous symptom of the earth’s rising temperature.

Formation: Sea ice forms on the ocean’s surface in chilly temperature starting as a thin slate of
crystals that grow outward into a sheet of salty ice, then it grow downward and thicken.
Convection of the surface layer involves the top 100 – 150m down to the pycnocline of increased
density.

In calm water, the first sea ice to form on the surface is a skim of separate crystals which initially
are in the form of tiny discs, floating on the surface and of diameter less than 0.3cm (0.12 in).
Each disc has its c-axis vertical and grows downwards laterally.
In rough water, fresh sea ice is formed by the cooling of the ocean as heat is lost into the
atmosphere. The uppermost layer of the ocean is supercooled to slightly below the freezing
point, at which time tiny ice platelets (frazil ice) form.

Types of Sea ice

There are various types of sea ice, according to its stage of development, within each stage
various sub types also exist depending on the internal structure of the ice.

 New ice:- it’s a general term for recently formed ice which include frazil ice, grease ice,
slush and shuga, these types of ice are composed of ice crystals which are only weakly
frozen together (if at all) and have a definite form only while they are afloat.
 Nilas:- it is a thin elastic crust of ice, easily bending on waves and swell and under
pressure growing in a pattern of inter-locking ‘finger’ (finger rafting). Nilas has a matte
surface and is up to 10cm in thickness and may be sub-divided into dark nilas and light
nilas.
 Young ice:- this is an ice in the transition stage between Nilas and first-year ice, 10 –
30cm in thickness and it may also be subdivided into grey ice and grey-white ice.
 First-year ice:- this is a sea ice of not more than one winter growth, developing from
young ice, 30cm or greater in thickness it may be subdivided into thin fist-year ice and
thick first-year ice.
 Old ice:- this is a sea ice which has survived at least one summer’s melt. Topographic
features generally are smoother than first-year ice. It may be subdivide into second-year
and multiyear ice.
 Fast ice: this is ice that is attached to the shoreline or between shoals or to ground
 Drift ice: this occurs further offshore in very wide areas, and encompasses ice that is free
to move with currents and winds. The drift zone maybe further divided into a shear zone,
a marginal ice zone and central pack. Drift ice consists of floes.
 Pack ice: this term is used either as synonym to drift ice, or to designate drift ice zone in
which the floes are densely packed.
 Iceberg: this is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf
and is floating freely in open water.
Ice Accretion: is the process by which a layer of ice builds up on solid objects that are exposed
to freezing precipitation or to supercooled fog or cloud droplets.

Formation of Ice Accretion

This involves the build-up of frozen sea water on ship. As soon as the sea surface temperature
drops below +4◦c, spray and waves can form ice on the deck and superstructures. The ice that
forms can increase the weight of a ship by hundreds of tons. As the ice grows, the ship’s center
of gravity maybe raised, making it catastrophically unstable, as well as affecting the ship’s
weight.

EFFECTS OF ICING ON SEA GOING SHIP

 It causes radio and radar failure due to the icing of aerials.

 It affects the visibility from the bridge.
 It may also cause difficulty in unloading cargo at the port of destination when containers
and their lashings are frozen solidly to the deck.
 As the ice grows, the ship’s center of gravity is raised and making it catastrophically
unstable.
 It affects the ship’s weight (making the ship to be difficult to steer).
 It can cause the propeller to vibrate or damage it.

Important Features of Sea Ice which affect Navigation

 Thickness:- The stage of development (i.e new ice, young ice, first-year ice or old and
their subdivision).
 Amount:- Concentration (estimated according to the tenths of sea surface covered by
ice).
 The form of ice, whether it is fast or drift ice and the size or constituent floes.
 Movement:- Particularly with regards to its effect on deformation

BASIC PRECAUTIONS IN ICE NAVIGATION

 Obtain the latest ice information by all available means.

 Mark ice limit on appropriate charts.
 Plot all floating – icebergs position and their direction of drifting and speed.
 Follow the route recommended by the ice superintendent via the marine communications
and traffic services center (MCTs). This route is based on the latest available information
and masters are advised to adjust their course accordingly if change is recommended
during the passage.
 Extra lookouts must be posted and the bridge watch may be increased, depending on the
visibility.
 Reduce speed to a minimum to receive the initial impact of the ice.
 The vessel should be at right angle to the edge of the pack ice at the entry to avoid
glancing blows.
 The point of entering the ice must be chosen carefully, preferably in an area of lower ice
concentration.
 Change over to diesel oil prior entering the ice.
 Correct approach to ice field: Reduced speed and perpendicular to edge.
 Once the ice is entered, the speed of the vessel should be increased slowly according to
the prevailing ice conditions and the vulnerability of the ship.
Topic 6: Concept of Air mass and Its Effect on Weather

The term Air mass is usually given to a large body of air flowing as a recognizable entity over
the earth’s surface and possessing relatively homogeneous temperature and humidity
characteristics both in a horizontal direction and different levels. It can have a horizontal
extension of thousands square miles and adopts the characteristics of the surface below it.

Its significance

Its significance arises from its effects on changes in climate including the exchanges of energy
and moisture between the high and low latitudes. Precipitation over a region is also generally
derived mainly from moisture transported by air masses from relatively large water bodies while
the transfer of temperature characteristics from one area to another also largely depend on their
movements. In other words, air masses are largely responsible for our weather situations and
most major weather changes consist of advances and interactions of air masses.

Formation
Air masses form over large surfaces with uniform temperatures and humidity, called the source
regions. For an air mass to acquire approximately the same moisture and temperature
characteristics, it must have existed for some time over a region whose physical surface
characteristics are homogeneous and extensive. Secondly, there must be sufficient stagnation of
the atmospheric circulation so that there is enough time for it to acquire the temperature and
moisture properties of the underlying surface through radiation, conduction, convection,
evaporation and condensation.

Classification of Air Masses

Primary (Main) Types
The convectional classification of air masses is based first upon their source region, whether
Polar (P) or Tropical (T). Sometimes, differentiation is made between the Arctic (A) and the
Polar (P), the former indicating the air mass that originates in polar areas proper while the latter
designates the air mass which originates over the cold lands of North America and Eurasia.
Similarly, distinction is sometimes made between the Equatorial air mass (E) and the Tropical
air mass (T), the former originating in the inner tropics and is more unstable and with a higher
humidity than the latter.
Primary subdivisions: Continental and Maritime Influences

Both the polar and tropical air masses are generally sub-divided into Maritime (M) or
Continental (c). This results in four major types of air masses, namely:
Maritime polar (mP), Continental polar (cP), Maritime tropical (mT) and Continental tropical
(cT). The tropical equatorial (E) air mass may also be classified as continental (cE) or maritime
(mE).
Air Mass Classification and Characteristics at Source

Major Group Subgroup Source Regions Property at Source

Polar (P) (a) Maritime Polar Ocean Poleward of Cool, rather damp,
(mP) about 50◦. unstable.
(b) Continental Continents in the Cool and dry, very
Polar (cP) vicinity of Arctic stable.
Circle.
(c) Arctic (A) or Polar regions. Cold, dry and stable.
Antarctic (AA)
Tropical (T) (a) Maritime Trade wind belts and Moist and warm;
Tropical (mT) subtropical ocean. stability variable;
stable on east side of
ocean rather unstable
on west.
(b) Continental Low latitude deserts, Hot and very dry,
Tropical (cT) chiefly sahara and unstable.
Australian deserts.

(c) Maritime
Equatorial oceans. Warm, moist,
equatorial
generally slightly
(mE)
stable.
Modification of Air masses

As the air masses moves away from it source region, it is significantly been modify. Two types
of modification process happen to air masses. The first type is the Thermodynamics Process,
this occur when the air rises and heat is transferred between the lower part of air and the surface
over which it moves and when the temperature is different from that of the source region. The
letter W (warm) and K (kalt or cold) are conventionally used to differentiate: W indicates that
the air is warmer than the underlying surface over which it passes, while K means that the air is
colder underlying surface. When an air mass passes over a moist surface a further
thermodynamics modification results from the addition of moisture to it by evaporation.

The Second type of modification is the Mechanical. There are several varieties of this
modification, heat transfer, Turbulent mixing may result from the frictional effects of the earth’s
surface. Air descending from high to low elevation is also generally made stable.

SURFACE DISCONTINUITY OR FRONTS

A front is defined as the transition zone between two air masses of different density. Fronts
extend not only in the horizontal direction, but in the vertical as well. Therefore, when referring
to the frontal surface (or frontal zone), we referring to both the horizontal and vertical
components of the front.

Types of Fronts

THE WARM FRONT

A warm front is defined as the transition zone where a warm air mass is replacing a cold air
mass. Warm fronts generally move from southwest to northeast and the air behind a warm front
is warmer and moister than the air ahead of it. When a warm front passes through, the air
becomes noticeably warmer and more humid than it was before.
Warm fronts usually move at relatively slow speeds and therefore affect a vast area for a
considerable length of time.

THE COLD FRONT

A cold front is defined as the transition zone where a cold air mass is replacing a warmer air
mass. Cold fronts generally move from northwest to southeast. The air behind a cold front is
noticeably colder and drier than the air ahead of it. When a cold front passes through,
temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.

When a mass of cold air overtakes a mass of warm air, the cold air being denser, stays on the
surface and undercuts the warm air violently. Surface friction tends to slowdown the surface air
while a sharp fall in temperature, a rise in pressure and rapid clearing usually occur with the
passage of the cold front.
Below is chart and diagram describing the weather experiences during the passages of a
warm front.
Below is chart and diagram describing the weather experiences during the passages of a
cold front.
Topic 7: Process of Weather Forecasting

Interpretation of symbols and isobaric patterns on weather charts:

With an understanding of how the air moves and how clouds and rain form, much prediction can
be made by simply observing the sky overhead, observing wind direction and noting the
temperature and humidity of the air. But to be able to predict and forecast weather it is necessary
to understand the isobaric patterns associated with fronts and depressions, anticyclones and high
pressure ridges. Meteorologists plot isobaric patterns on synoptic charts.

Plotting weather observations

The first stage in preparing a synoptic chart is to chart the position of each meteorological
station. These are marked by a small circle. The weather report for each station is then plotted in
and around the circle. Elements like temperature and pressure are entered as plain figures.
Others, like the occurrence of rain, snow, cloud and fog are plotted as internationally agreed
symbols. (For example cloud cover at a particular time is indicated by filling in certain portions
of the circle. The greater the fill, the more the cloud cover, measured in eighths or oktas. Wind
direction is represented by an arrow pointing in the direction from where the wind is coming.
The wind is from the northeast. The wind speed is denoted by "feathers" on the wind arrow, a
short feather indicating 5 knots, a larger one 10 knots, a long and short one 15 knots and so on.
Meteorological symbols:
THE SHIPS SYNOPTIC CODE FM13-X

Code FM-13-X-SHIP, the ships synoptic code, is comprised of 23 groups of symbolic letters
representing meteorological and oceanographic elements, report identification and ship location
data:
BBXX D.....D YYGGiw 99LaLaLa QcLoLoLoLo iRixhVV Nddff 00fff 1snTTT 2snTdTdTd
4PPPP 5appp 7wwW1W2 8NhCLCMCH 222Dsvs 0ssTwTwTw 2PwPwHwHw
3dw1dw1dw2dw2 4Pw1Pw1Hw1Hw1 5Pw2Pw2Hw2Hw2 6IsEsEsRs 8swTbTbTb ICE c

iSibiDizi (or plain language). For detailed explanation refer to ship code card for selected ship.

Ship code can also come as a station plot:

A ship report inform of station circle plot

Example of a standard ship station circle plot.
Weather forecast using synoptic chart

These charts show the surface pressure pattern using isobars (lines of equal pressure) and
indicate areas of high (H) and low pressure (L) along with their central pressure value. Isobars
are represented by solid lines. High pressure is usually associated with settled weather while low
pressure is normally associated with unsettled weather. Fronts are also displayed. An analysis
chart, which shows the observed state of the weather, is issued along with forecast charts up to
five days ahead. These are updated every 12 hours around 0730 UTC and 1930 UTC, with the
exception of charts for days four and five which are only issued once per day at 1930 UTC. The
reason that these two charts are only issued once a day is because that far ahead the forecast
surface pressure pattern will change more significantly, due to uncertainty at this longer time
period, and there is limited value in updating it every 12 hours.