python

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 INDEX
1) Language Fundamentals ……………………………………….........… 1

2) Operators …………………………………………………………….....…… 32

3) Flow Control …………………………………………………………………. 56

4) String Data Type …………………………………………………….…….. 72

5) List Data Structure …………………………………………….………….. 98

6) Tuple Data Structure ………………………………….……………….. 116

7) Set Data Structure ………………………………………………………. 124

8) Dictionary Data Structure ……………………………….…………… 131

9) Functions ……………………………………………………………………. 142

10) Modules ………………………………………………………..………… 162

11) Packages ……………………………………………………………..….. 173

12) 100 Pattern Programs ……………………………………………… 177

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DETAILED INDEX
1) LANGUAGE FUNDAMENTALS …………………………………………………… 1

 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 2
 Features of Python …………………………………………………………………. 4
1) Simple and Easy to Learn
2) Freeware and Open Source
3) High Level Programming Language
4) Platform Independent
5) Portability
6) Dynamically Typed
7) Both Procedure Oriented and Object Oriented
8) Interpreted
9) Extensible
10) Embedded
11) Extensive Library

 Limitations of Python ……………………………………………………………………. 5

 Flavors of Python …………………………………………………………………………… 6

1) CPython
2) Jython OR JPython
3) IronPython
4) PyPy
5) RubyPython
6) AnacondaPython

 Python Versions …………………………………………………………………………….. 6

 Identifiers ………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

 Reserved Words ……………………………………………………………………………… 9

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  DATA TYPES ……………………………………………………………………………………. 10
1) int Data Type
 Decimal Form
 Binary Form
 Octal Form
 Hexa Decimal Form

2) Float Data Type

3) Complex Data Type
4) bool Data Type
5) str Data Type
6) bytes Data Type
7) bytearray Data Type
8) List Data Type
9) Tuple Data Type
10) Range Data Type
11) Set Data Type
12) frozenset Data Type
13) dict Data Type
14) None Data Type

 Base Conversions ……………………………………………………………………………. 12

 Slicing of Strings ……………………………………………………………………………... 16

 TYPE CASTING …………………………………………………………………………………. 18

 int()
 float()
 complex()
 bool()
 str()

 Fundamental Data Types vs Immutability ……………………………………… 21

 Escape Characters ……………………………………………………………………….… 31
 Constants ……………………………………………………………………………………... 31

2) OPERATORS ……………………………………………………………………….… 32

1) Arithmetic Operators ……………………………………………………………… 33

2) Relational Operators OR Comparison Operators …………………….. 35
3) Equality Operators …………………………………………………………………. 36
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 4) Logical Operators ……………………………………………………………………. 37

5) Bitwise Oeprators …………………………………………………………………… 38

 Bitwise Complement Operator (~)

6) Shift Operators ……………………………………………………………………….. 39

 << Left Shift Operator
 >> Right Shift Operator

7) Assignment operators …………………………………………………………………………. 40

8) Ternary Operator OR Conditional Operator …………………………………………. 41

9) Special operators …………………………………………………………………………………. 42

 Identity Operators
 Membership operators

֍ Operator Precedence ……………………………………………………………………..… 44

֍ Mathematical Functions (math Module) …………………………………………… 45
֍ Command Line Arguments ………………………………………………………………… 50
֍ Output Statements ………………………………………………………………………….… 52

3) FLOW CONTROL ………………………………………………………………….… 56

֍ Conditional Statements ………………………………………………………………… 57

 if
 if-elif
 if-elif-else

֍ Iterative Statements ………………………………………………………………………. 62

 for
 while

֍ Transfer Statements ………………………………………………………………………. 66

 break
 continue
 pass

֍ Loops with else Block ………………………………………………………………………. 68

֍ del Statement ………………………………………………………………………………….. 70

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 ֍ Difference between del and None ……………………………………………………. 71

4) STRING DATA TYPE ………………………………………………………….…… 72

⚽ What is String? …………………………………………………………………………….73

⚽ How to define multi-line String Literals? ……………………………………… 73

⚽ How to Access Characters of a String? …………………………………………. 74

 Accessing Characters By using Index
 Accessing Characters by using Slice Operator

⚽ Behaviour of Slice Operator …………………………………………………….…. 75

⚽ Slice Operator Case Study …………………………………………………………… 76
⚽ Mathematical Operators for String …………………………………………….. 76
⚽ len() in-built Function …………………………………………………………………. 77
⚽ Checking Membership ………………………………………………………………… 78
⚽ Comparison of Strings ………………………………………………………………… 78

⚽ Removing Spaces from the String ……………………………………………….. 79

 rstrip()
 lstrip()
 strip()

⚽ Finding Substrings ……………………………………………………………………….. 79

⚽ Counting substring in the given String ………………………………………….. 81
⚽ Replacing a String with another String ………………………………………….. 82
⚽ Splitting of Strings ………………………………………………………………………… 83
⚽ Joining of Strings ………………………………………………………………………….. 83
⚽ Changing Case of a String ……………………………………………………………… 84

⚽ Checking Starting and Ending Part of the String ……………………………. 84

 s.startswith(substring)
 s.endswith(substring)

⚽ To Check Type of Characters Present in a String ………………………………… 85

⚽ Formatting the Strings ………………………………………………………………………. 86

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 ⚽ Important Programs regarding String Concept …………………………………… 87
1) Program to Reverse the given String
2) Program to Reverse Order of Words
3) Program to Reverse Internal Content of each Word
4) Program to Print Characters at Odd Position and Even Position
for the given String
5) Program to Merge Characters of 2 Strings into a Single String by
taking Characters alternatively
6) Program to Sort the Characters of the String and First Alphabet
Symbols followed by Numeric Values
7) Program for the following Requirement (Input: a4b3c2, Output:
aaaabbbcc)
8) Program to perform the following Activity (Input: a4k3b2,
Outpt: aeknbd)
9) Program to Remove Duplicate Characters from the given Input
String
10) Program to find the Number of Occurrences of each Character
present in the given String
11) Program to perform the following Task
 Input: 'one two three four five six seven'
 Output: 'one owt three ruof five xis seven'

⚽ Formatting the Strings …………………………………………………. 92

5) LIST DATA STRUCTURE …………………………………………………….…… 98

⚽ Creation of List Objects ……………………………………………………………… 99

⚽ Accessing Elements of List …………………………………………………………. 100

 By using Index
 By using Slice Operator

⚽ List vs Mutability ……………………………………………………………………… 102

⚽ Traversing the Elements of List ………………………………………………… 102

 By using while Loop
 By using for Loop
 To display only Even Numbers
 To display Elements by Index wise

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 ⚽ Important Functions of List ………………………………………………………. 104
☕ To get Information about List
 len()
 count()
 index()

☕ Manipulating Elements of List

 append()
 insert()
 extend()
 remove()
 pop()

☕ Ordering Elements of List

 reverse()
 sort()

⚽ Using Mathematical Operators for List Objects …………………………………….. 111

 Concatenation Operator (+)
 Repetition Operator (*)

⚽ Comparing List Objects ………………………………………………………………… 111

⚽ Membership Operators …………………………………………………………………. 112

 in Operator
 not in Operator

⚽ clear() Function ………………………………………………………………... 112

⚽ Nested Lists …………………………………………………………………….… 113
⚽ Nested List as Matrix ………………………………………………………… 113
⚽ List Comprehensions ………………………………………………………… 114

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6) TUPLE DATA STRUCTURE ………………………………………………….… 116

⚽ Tuple Creation ………………………………………………………………………… 118

⚽ Accessing Elements of Tuple

 By using Index
 By using Slice Operator

⚽ Tuple vs Immutability ……………………………………………………………… 119

⚽ Mathematical Operators for Tuple ………………………………………….. 119

 Concatenation Operator (+)
 Multiplication Operator OR Repetition Operator (*)

⚽ Important Functions of Tuple ………………………………………………….. 120

 len()
 count()
 index()
 sorted()
 min() And max()
 cmp()

⚽ Tuple Packing and Unpacking …………………………………………………… 121

⚽ Tuple Comprehension ………………………………………………………………. 122
⚽ Differences between List and Tuple ………………………………………….. 123

7) SET DATA STRUCTURE ………………………………………………………… 124

⚽ Creation of Set Objects ……………………………………………………………… 125

⚽ Important Functions of Set ………………………………………………………… 126

 add(x)
 update(x,y,z)
 copy()
 pop()
 remove(x)
 discard(x)
 clear()

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 ⚽ Mathematical Operations on the Set …………………………………………… 128
 union()
 intersection()
 difference()
 symmetric_difference()

⚽ Membership Operators: (in, not in) ……………………………………………… 129

⚽ Set Comprehension ………………………………………………………………………. 129

8) DICTIONARY DATA STRUCTURE …………………………………………… 131

⚽ How to Create Dictionary? …………………………………………………………. 132

⚽ How to Access Data from the Dictionary? …………………………………... 132
⚽ How to Update Dictionaries? ……………………………………………………… 134

⚽ How to Delete Elements from Dictionary? ………………………………….. 134

 del d[key]
 d.clear()
 del d

⚽ Important Functions of Dictionary …………………………………………………. 135

 dict()
 len()
 clear()
 get()
 pop()
 popitem()
 keys()
 values()
 items()
 copy()
 setdefault()
 update()

⚽ Dictionary Comprehension ………………………………………………………… 141

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9) FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………………… 142

⚽ Built in Functions ……………………………………………………………………… 143

⚽ User Defined Functions ……………………………………………………………. 143
⚽ Parameters 144
⚽ Return Statement 144
⚽ Returning Multiple Values from a Function 146

⚽ Types of Arguments 147

 Positional Arguments
 Keyword Arguments
 Default Arguments
 Variable Length Arguments

⚽ Case Study 151

⚽ Types of Variables 152

 Global Variables
 Local Variables

⚽ global Keyword 153

⚽ Recursive Functions 154
⚽ Anonymous Functions 155
⚽ Normal Function 155
⚽ Lambda Function 155
⚽ filter() Function 156
⚽ map() Function 156
⚽ reduce() Function 158

⚽ Everything is an Object 159

⚽ Function Aliasing 159
⚽ Nested Functions 160

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10) MODULES ……………………………………………………………………..… 162

⚽ Renaming a Module at the time of import (Module Aliasing) 164

⚽ from ... import 164
⚽ Various Possibilties of import 164
⚽ Member Aliasing 165
⚽ Reloading a Module 165
⚽ Finding Members of Module by using dir() Function 166
⚽ The Special Variable __name__ 168
⚽ Working with math Module 169
⚽ Working with random Module 169
 random() Function
 randint() Function
 uniform() Function
 randrange ([start], stop, [step])
 choice() Function

11) PACKAGES ……………………………………………………………………… 173

12) 100 PATTERN PROGRAMS …………………………………………..…… 177

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LANGUAGE
FUNDAMENTALS

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Introduction
 Python is a general purpose high level programming language.

 Python was developed by Guido Van Rossam in 1989 while working at National
Research Institute at Netherlands.

 But officially Python was made available to public in 1991. The official Date of Birth for
Python is : Feb 20th 1991.

 Python is recommended as first programming language for beginners.

Eg1: To print Helloworld

Java:

1) public class HelloWorld

2) {
3) p s v main(String[] args)
4) {
5) SOP("Hello world");
6) }
7) }

C:

1) #include<stdio.h>
2) void main()
3) {
4) print("Hello world");
5) }

Python:
print("Hello World")

Eg2: To print the sum of 2 numbers

Java:

1) public class Add

2) {
3) public static void main(String[] args)
4) {
5) int a,b;
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 6) a =10;
7) b=20;
8) System.out.println("The Sum:"+(a+b));
9) }
10) }

C:

1) #include <stdio.h>
2)
3) void main()
4) {
5) int a,b;
6) a =10;
7) b=20;
8) printf("The Sum:%d",(a+b));
9) }

Python:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) print("The Sum:",(a+b))

The name Python was selected from the TV Show

"The Complete Monty Python's Circus", which was broadcasted in BBC from 1969 to 1974.

Guido developed Python language by taking almost all programming features from
different languages

1. Functional Programming Features from C

2. Object Oriented Programming Features from C++
3. Scripting Language Features from Perl and Shell Script
4. Modular Programming Features from Modula-3

Most of syntax in Python Derived from C and ABC languages.

Where we can use Python:

We can use everywhere. The most common important application areas are

1) For developing Desktop Applications

2) For developing web Applications
3) For developing database Applications
4) For Network Programming
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5) For developing games
6) For Data Analysis Applications
7) For Machine Learning
8) For developing Artificial Intelligence Applications
9) For IoT
...
Note:
 Internally Google and Youtube use Python coding.
 NASA and Nework Stock Exchange Applications developed by Python.
 Top Software companies like Google, Microsoft, IBM, Yahoo using Python.

Features of Python:

1) Simple and easy to learn:

 Python is a simple programming language. When we read Python program,we can feel
like reading english statements.
 The syntaxes are very simple and only 30+ kerywords are available.
 When compared with other languages, we can write programs with very less number
of lines. Hence more readability and simplicity.
 We can reduce development and cost of the project.

2) Freeware and Open Source:

 We can use Python software without any licence and it is freeware.
 Its source code is open,so that we can we can customize based on our requirement.
 Eg: Jython is customized version of Python to work with Java Applications.

3) High Level Programming language:

 Python is high level programming language and hence it is programmer friendly
language.
 Being a programmer we are not required to concentrate low level activities like
memory management and security etc.

4) Platform Independent:
 Once we write a Python program,it can run on any platform without rewriting once
again.
 Internally PVM is responsible to convert into machine understandable form.

5) Portability:
Python programs are portable. ie we can migrate from one platform to another
platform very easily. Python programs will provide same results on any paltform.

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6) Dynamically Typed:
 In Python we are not required to declare type for variables. Whenever we are
assigning the value, based on value, type will be allocated automatically.Hence Python
is considered as dynamically typed language.
 But Java, C etc are Statically Typed Languages b'z we have to provide type at the
beginning only.
 This dynamic typing nature will provide more flexibility to the programmer.

7) Both Procedure Oriented and Object Oriented:

Python language supports both Procedure oriented (like C, pascal etc) and object
oriented (like C++, Java) features. Hence we can get benefits of both like security and
reusability etc

8) Interpreted:
 We are not required to compile Python programs explcitly. Internally Python
interpreter will take care that compilation.
 If compilation fails interpreter raised syntax errors. Once compilation success then
PVM (Python Virtual Machine) is responsible to execute.

9) Extensible:
 We can use other language programs in Python.
 The main advantages of this approach are:
 We can use already existing legacy non-Python code
 We can improve performance of the application

10) Embedded:
We can use Python programs in any other language programs.
i.e we can embedd Python programs anywhere.

11) Extensive Library:

 Python has a rich inbuilt library.
 Being a programmer we can use this library directly and we are not responsible to
implement the functionality. Etc.

Limitations of Python:
1) Performance wise not up to the mark because it is interpreted language.
2) Not using for mobile Applications.

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Flavors of Python:

1) CPython:
It is the standard flavor of Python. It can be used to work with C lanugage Applications.

2) Jython OR JPython:
It is for Java Applications. It can run on JVM

3) IronPython:
It is for C#.Net platform

4) PyPy:
The main advantage of PyPy is performance will be improved because JIT compiler is
available inside PVM.

5) RubyPython
For Ruby Platforms

6) AnacondaPython
It is specially designed for handling large volume of data processing.

Python Versions:
 Python 1.0V introduced in Jan 1994
 Python 2.0V introduced in October 2000
 Python 3.0V introduced in December 2008

Note: Python 3 won't provide backward compatibility to Python2 i.e there is no

guarantee that Python2 programs will run in Python3.

Current versions
Python 3.6.1 Python 2.7.13

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 IDENTIFIERS
 A Name in Python Program is called Identifier.
 It can be Class Name OR Function Name OR Module Name OR Variable Name.

 a = 10

Rules to define Identifiers in Python:

1. The only allowed characters in Python are

 alphabet symbols(either lower case or upper case)

 digits(0 to 9)
 underscore symbol(_)

By mistake if we are using any other symbol like $ then we will get syntax error.

 cash = 10 √
 ca$h =20 

2. Identifier should not starts with digit

 123total 
 total123 √

3. Identifiers are case sensitive. Of course Python language is case sensitive language.

 total=10
 TOTAL=999
 print(total) #10
 print(TOTAL) #999

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Identifier:
1) Alphabet Symbols (Either Upper case OR Lower case)

2) If Identifier is start with Underscore (_) then it indicates it is private.

3) Identifier should not start with Digits.

4) Identifiers are case sensitive.

5) We cannot use reserved words as identifiers

Eg: def = 10 

6) There is no length limit for Python identifiers. But not recommended to use too
lengthy identifiers.

7) Dollor ($) Symbol is not allowed in Python.

Q) Which of the following are valid Python identifiers?

1) 123total 
2) total123 √
3) java2share √
4) ca$h 
5) _abc_abc_ √
6) def 
7) if 

Note:

1) If identifier starts with _ symbol then it indicates that it is private

2) If identifier starts with __(Two Under Score Symbols) indicating that strongly private
identifier.
3) If the identifier starts and ends with two underscore symbols then the identifier is
language defined special name, which is also known as magic methods.

4) Eg: __add__

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 RESERVED WORDS
In Python some words are reserved to represent some meaning or functionality.
Such types of words are called reserved words.

There are 33 reserved words available in Python.

 True, False, None

 and, or ,not,is
 if, elif, else
 while, for, break, continue, return, in, yield
 try, except, finally, raise, assert
 import, from, as, class, def, pass, global, nonlocal, lambda, del, with

Note:

1. All Reserved words in Python contain only alphabet symbols.

2. Except the following 3 reserved words, all contain only lower case alphabet symbols.

 True
 False
 None

Eg: a= true 
a=True √

>>> import keyword

>>> keyword.kwlist
['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else',
'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or',
'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']

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 DATA TYPES
 Data Type represents the type of data present inside a variable.
 In Python we are not required to specify the type explicitly. Based on value provided,
the type will be assigned automatically.Hence Python is dynamically Typed Language.

Python contains the following inbuilt data types

1) Int
2) Float
3) Complex
4) Bool
5) Str
6) Bytes
7) Bytearray
8) Range
9) List
10) Tuple
11) Set
12) Frozenset
13) Dict
14) None

10
a = 10 a
a = 20
20

a
a = 10
b = 10 10
b

Note: Python contains several inbuilt functions

1) type()
to check the type of variable

2) id()
to get address of object

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3) print()
to print the value

In Python everything is an Object.

1) int Data Type:

We can use int data type to represent whole numbers (integral values)
Eg: a = 10
type(a) #int

Note:
 In Python2 we have long data type to represent very large integral values.
 But in Python3 there is no long type explicitly and we can represent long values also by
using int type only.

We can represent int values in the following ways

1) Decimal form
2) Binary form
3) Octal form
4) Hexa decimal form

I) Decimal Form (Base-10):

 It is the default number system in Python
 The allowed digits are: 0 to 9
 Eg: a =10

II) Binary Form (Base-2):

 The allowed digits are : 0 & 1
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0b or 0B

 Eg: a = 0B1111
a = 0B123
a = b111

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III) Octal Form (Base-8):
 The allowed digits are : 0 to 7
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0o or 0O.

 Eg: a = 0o123
a = 0o786

IV) Hexa Decimal Form (Base-16):

 The allowed digits are: 0 to 9, a-f (both lower and upper cases are allowed)
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0x or 0X

 Eg: a = 0XFACE
a = 0XBeef
a = 0XBeer

Note: Being a programmer we can specify literal values in decimal, binary, octal and hexa
decimal forms. But PVM will always provide values only in decimal form.

 a=10
 b=0o10
 c=0X10
 d=0B10
 print(a)10
 print(b)8
 print(c)16
 print(d)2

Base Conversions
Python provide the following in-built functions for base conversions

1) bin():
We can use bin() to convert from any base to binary

1) >>> bin(15)
2) '0b1111'
3) >>> bin(0o11)
4) '0b1001'
5) >>> bin(0X10)
6) '0b10000'

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2) oct():
We can use oct() to convert from any base to octal

1) >>> oct(10)
2) '0o12'
3) >>> oct(0B1111)
4) '0o17'
5) >>> oct(0X123)
6) '0o443'

3) hex():
We can use hex() to convert from any base to hexa decimal

1) >>> hex(100)
2) '0x64'
3) >>> hex(0B111111)
4) '0x3f'
5) >>> hex(0o12345)
6) '0x14e5'

2) Float Data Type:

 We can use float data type to represent floating point values (decimal values)
Eg: f = 1.234
type(f) float

 We can also represent floating point values by using exponential form

(Scientific Notation)
Eg: f = 1.2e3  instead of 'e' we can use 'E'
print(f) 1200.0

 The main advantage of exponential form is we can represent big values in less
memory.

***Note:
We can represent int values in decimal, binary, octal and hexa decimal forms. But we
can represent float values only by using decimal form.

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 1) >>> f=0B11.01
2) File "<stdin>", line 1
3) f=0B11.01
4) ^
5) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
6)
7) >>> f=0o123.456
8) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
9)
10) >>> f=0X123.456
11) SyntaxError: invalid syntax

3) Complex Data Type:

 A complex number is of the form

j2 = -1
a + bj
j=
Real Part Imaginary Part

 ‘a’ and ‘b’ contain Intergers OR Floating Point Values.

Eg: 3 + 5j
10 + 5.5j
0.5 + 0.1j

 In the real part if we use int value then we can specify that either by decimal, octal,
binary or hexa decimal form.
 But imaginary part should be specified only by using decimal form.

1) >>> a=0B11+5j
2) >>> a
3) (3+5j)
4) >>> a=3+0B11j
5) SyntaxError: invalid syntax

 Even we can perform operations on complex type values.

1) >>> a=10+1.5j
2) >>> b=20+2.5j
3) >>> c=a+b
4) >>> print(c)
5) (30+4j)

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 6) >>> type(c)
7) <class 'complex'>

Note: Complex data type has some inbuilt attributes to retrieve the real part and
imaginary part

c = 10.5+3.6j

c.real  10.5
c.imag  3.6

We can use complex type generally in scientific Applications and electrical engineering
Applications.

4) bool Data Type:

 We can use this data type to represent boolean values.
 The only allowed values for this data type are:
 True and False

 Internally Python represents True as 1 and False as 0

b = True
type(b) bool

Eg:
a = 10
b = 20
c = a<b
print(c)  True

True+True  2
True-False  1

5) str Data Type:

 str represents String data type.
 A String is a sequence of characters enclosed within single quotes or double
quotes.

 s1='durga'
 s1="durga"
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  By using single quotes or double quotes we cannot represent multi line string
literals.

 s1="durga
soft"

 For this requirement we should go for triple single quotes(''') or triple double
quotes(""")

 s1='''durga
soft'''

 s1="""durga
soft"""

 We can also use triple quotes to use single quote or double quote in our String.
 ''' This is " character'''
' This i " Character '

 We can embed one string in another string

 '''This "Python class very helpful" for java students'''

Slicing of Strings:
1) slice means a piece
2) [ ] operator is called slice operator, which can be used to retrieve parts of String.
3) In Python Strings follows zero based index.
4) The index can be either +ve or -ve.
5) +ve index means forward direction from Left to Right
6) -ve index means backward direction from Right to Left
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
d u r g a
0 1 2 3 4
1) >>> s="durga"
2) >>> s[0]
3) 'd'
4) >>> s[1]
5) 'u'
6) >>> s[-1]
7) 'a'
8) >>> s[40]

IndexError: string index out of range

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 1) >>> s[1:40]
2) 'urga'
3) >>> s[1:]
4) 'urga'
5) >>> s[:4]
6) 'durg'
7) >>> s[:]
8) 'durga'
9) >>>
10)
11) >>> s*3
12) 'durgadurgadurga'
13)
14) >>> len(s)
15) 5

Note:

1) In Python the following data types are considered as Fundamental Data types

 int
 float
 complex
 bool
 str

2) In Python, we can represent char values also by using str type and explicitly char type
is not available.

1) >>> c='a'
2) >>> type(c)
3) <class 'str'>

3) long Data Type is available in Python2 but not in Python3. In Python3 long values also
we can represent by using int type only.

4) In Python we can present char Value also by using str Type and explicitly char Type is
not available.

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 TYPE CASTING
֍ We can convert one type value to another type. This conversion is called Typecasting
or Type coersion.
֍ The following are various inbuilt functions for type casting.

1) int()
2) float()
3) complex()
4) bool()
5) str()

֍ int():
We can use this function to convert values from other types to int

1) >>> int(123.987)
2) 123
3) >>> int(10+5j)
4) TypeError: can't convert complex to int
5) >>> int(True)
6) 1
7) >>> int(False)
8) 0
9) >>> int("10")
10) 10
11) >>> int("10.5")
12) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '10.5'
13) >>> int("ten")
14) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'
15) >>> int("0B1111")
16) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '0B1111'

Note:

1) We can convert from any type to int except complex type.

2) If we want to convert str type to int type, compulsary str should contain only integral
value and should be specified in base-10.

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֍ float():
We can use float() function to convert other type values to float type.

1) >>> float(10)
2) 10.0
3) >>> float(10+5j)
4) TypeError: can't convert complex to float
5) >>> float(True)
6) 1.0
7) >>> float(False)
8) 0.0
9) >>> float("10")
10) 10.0
11) >>> float("10.5")
12) 10.5
13) >>> float("ten")
14) ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'ten'
15) >>> float("0B1111")
16) ValueError: could not convert string to float: '0B1111'

Note:
1) We can convert any type value to float type except complex type.
2) Whenever we are trying to convert str type to float type compulsary str should be
either integral or floating point literal and should be specified only in base-10.

֍ complex():
We can use complex() function to convert other types to complex type.

Form-1: complex(x)
We can use this function to convert x into complex number with real part x and imaginary
part 0.

Eg:

1) complex(10)==>10+0j
2) complex(10.5)===>10.5+0j
3) complex(True)==>1+0j
4) complex(False)==>0j
5) complex("10")==>10+0j
6) complex("10.5")==>10.5+0j
7) complex("ten")
8) ValueError: complex() arg is a malformed string

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Form-2: complex(x,y)

We can use this method to convert x and y into complex number such that x will be real
part and y will be imaginary part.

Eg: complex(10, -2)  10-2j

complex(True, False)  1+0j

֍ bool():
We can use this function to convert other type values to bool type.

1) bool(0)  False
2) bool(1)  True
3) bool(10)  True
4) bool(10.5)  True
5) bool(0.178)  True
6) bool(0.0)  False
7) bool(10-2j)  True
8) bool(0+1.5j)  True
9) bool(0+0j)  False
10) bool("True")  True
11) bool("False")  True
12) bool("")  False

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֍ str():
We can use this method to convert other type values to str type.

1) >>> str(10)
2) '10'
3) >>> str(10.5)
4) '10.5'
5) >>> str(10+5j)
6) '(10+5j)'
7) >>> str(True)
8) 'True'

Fundamental Data Types vs Immutability:

֍ All Fundamental Data types are immutable. i.e once we creates an object,we cannot
perform any changes in that object. If we are trying to change then with those changes
a new object will be created. This non-chageable behaviour is called immutability.

֍ In Python if a new object is required, then PVM won’t create object immediately. First
it will check is any object available with the required content or not. If available then
existing object will be reused. If it is not available then only a new object will be
created. The advantage of this approach is memory utilization and performance will be
improved.

֍ But the problem in this approach is, several references pointing to the same object, by
using one reference if we are allowed to change the content in the existing object then
the remaining references will be effected. To prevent this immutability concept is
required. According to this once creates an object we are not allowed to change
content. If we are trying to change with those changes a new object will be created.

1) >>> a=10
2) >>> b=10
3) >>> a is b
4) True
5) >>> id(a)
6) 1572353952
7) >>> id(b)
8) 1572353952
9) >>>

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 >>> a=10 >>> a=10+5j >>> a=True >>> a='durga'

>>> b=10 >>> b=10+5j >>> b=True >>> b='durga'

>>> id(a) >>> a is b >>> a is b >>> a is b

1572353952 False True True

>>> id(b) >>> id(a) >>> id(a) >>> id(a)

1572353952 15980256 1572172624 16378848

>>> a is b >>> id(b) >>> id(b) >>> id(b)

True 15979944 1572172624 16378848

6) bytes Data Type:

bytes data type represens a group of byte numbers just like an array.

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) b = bytes(x)
3) type(b)  bytes
4) print(b[0])  10
5) print(b[-1])  40
6) >>> for i in b : print(i)
7)
8) 10
9) 20
10) 30
11) 40

Conclusion 1:
The only allowed values for byte data type are 0 to 256. By mistake if we are trying to
provide any other values then we will get value error.

Conclusion 2:
Once we creates bytes data type value, we cannot change its values,otherwise we will get
TypeError.

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Eg:

1) >>> x=[10,20,30,40]
2) >>> b=bytes(x)
3) >>> b[0]=100
4) TypeError: 'bytes' object does not support item assignment

7) bytearray Data Type:

bytearray is exactly same as bytes data type except that its elements can be
modified.

Eg 1:

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) b = bytearray(x)
3) for i in b : print(i)
4) 10
5) 20
6) 30
7) 40
8) b[0]=100
9) for i in b: print(i)
10) 100
11) 20
12) 30
13) 40

Eg 2:

1) >>> x =[10,256]
2) >>> b = bytearray(x)
3) ValueError: byte must be in range(0, 256)

8) List Data Type:

If we want to represent a group of values as a single entity where insertion order
required to preserve and duplicates are allowed then we should go for list data
type.

1) Insertion Order is preserved

2) Heterogeneous Objects are allowed
3) Duplicates are allowed
4) Growable in nature
5) Values should be enclosed within square brackets.

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Eg:

1) list=[10,10.5,'durga',True,10]
2) print(list) # [10,10.5,'durga',True,10]

Eg:

1) list=[10,20,30,40]
2) >>> list[0]
3) 10
4) >>> list[-1]
5) 40
6) >>> list[1:3]
7) [20, 30]
8) >>> list[0]=100
9) >>> for i in list:print(i)
10) ...
11) 100
12) 20
13) 30
14) 40

list is growable in nature. i.e based on our requirement we can increase or decrease the
size.

1) >>> list=[10,20,30]
2) >>> list.append("durga")
3) >>> list
4) [10, 20, 30, 'durga']
5) >>> list.remove(20)
6) >>> list
7) [10, 30, 'durga']
8) >>> list2=list*2
9) >>> list2
10) [10, 30, 'durga', 10, 30, 'durga']

Note: An ordered, mutable, heterogenous collection of eleemnts is nothing but list,

where duplicates also allowed.

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9) Tuple Data Type:
 tuple data type is exactly same as list data type except that it is immutable.i.e we
cannot chage values.
 Tuple elements can be represented within parenthesis.

Eg:

1) t=(10,20,30,40)
2) type(t)
3) <class 'tuple'>
4) t[0]=100
5) TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
6) >>> t.append("durga")
7) AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'
8) >>> t.remove(10)
9) AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'remove'

Note: tuple is the read only version of list

10) Range Data Type:

 range Data Type represents a sequence of numbers.
 The elements present in range Data type are not modifiable. i.e range Data type is
immutable.

Form-1: range(10)
generate numbers from 0 to 9

Eg:
r = range(10)
for i in r : print(i)  0 to 9

Form-2: range(10, 20)

generate numbers from 10 to 19

Eg:
r = range(10,20)
for i in r : print(i) 10 to 19

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Form-3: range(10, 20, 2)
2 means increment value

Eg:
r = range(10,20,2)
for i in r : print(i)  10,12,14,16,18

We can access elements present in the range Data Type by using index.

Eg:
r = range(10,20)
r[0]  10
r[15]  IndexError: range object index out of range

We cannot modify the values of range data type

Eg:
r[0] = 100
TypeError: 'range' object does not support item assignment

We can create a list of values with range data type

Eg:

1) >>> l = list(range(10))
2) >>> l
3) [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

11) set Data Type:

֍ If we want to represent a group of values without duplicates where order is not
important then we should go for set Data Type.

1) Insertion order is not preserved

2) Duplicates are not allowed
3) Heterogeneous objects are allowed
4) Index concept is not applicable
5) It is mutable collection
6) Growable in nature

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Eg:

1) s={100,0,10,200,10,'durga'}
2) s # {0, 100, 'durga', 200, 10}
3) s[0]  TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing

֍ set is growable in nature, based on our requirement we can increase or decrease the
size.

1) >>> s.add(60)
2) >>> s
3) {0, 100, 'durga', 200, 10, 60}
4) >>> s.remove(100)
5) >>> s
6) {0, 'durga', 200, 10, 60}

12) frozenset Data Type:

֍ It is exactly same as set except that it is immutable.
֍ Hence we cannot use add or remove functions.

1) >>> s={10,20,30,40}
2) >>> fs=frozenset(s)
3) >>> type(fs)
4) <class 'frozenset'>
5) >>> fs
6) frozenset({40, 10, 20, 30})
7) >>> for i in fs:print(i)
8) ...
9) 40
10) 10
11) 20
12) 30
13)
14) >>> fs.add(70)
15) AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'
16) >>> fs.remove(10)
17) AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'remove'

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13) dict Data Type:
֍ If we want to represent a group of values as key-value pairs then we should go for
dict data type.

֍ Eg: d = {101:'durga',102:'ravi',103:'shiva'}

֍ Duplicate keys are not allowed but values can be duplicated. If we are trying to
insert an entry with duplicate key then old value will be replaced with new value.

Eg:

1) >>> d={101:'durga',102:'ravi',103:'shiva'}
2) >>> d[101]='sunny'
3) >>> d
4) {101: 'sunny', 102: 'ravi', 103: 'shiva'}
5)
6) We can create empty dictionary as follows
7) d={ }
8) We can add key-value pairs as follows
9) d['a']='apple'
10) d['b']='banana'
11) print(d)

Note: dict is mutable and the order won’t be preserved.

Note:

1) In general we can use bytes and bytearray data types to represent binary information
like images, video files etc
2) In Python2 long data type is available. But in Python3 it is not available and we can
represent long values also by using int type only.
3) In Python there is no char data type. Hence we can represent char values also by using
str type.

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 Summary of Datatypes in Python 3
Datatype Description Is Immutable? Example
Int We can use to Immutable >>> a=10
represent the >>> type(a)
whole/integral <class 'int'>
numbers
Float We can use to Immutable >>> b=10.5
represent the >>> type(b)
decimal/floating <class 'float'>
point numbers
Complex We can use to Immutable >>> c=10+5j
represent the >>> type(c)
complex numbers <class 'complex'>
>>> c.real
10.0
>>> c.imag
5.0
Bool We can use to Immutable >>> flag=True
represent the logical >>> flag=False
values (Only allowed >>> type(flag)
values are True and <class 'bool'>
False)
Str To represent Immutable >>> s='durga'
sequence of >>> type(s)
Characters <class 'str'>
>>> s="durga"
>>> s='''Durga Software
Solutions... Ameerpet'''
>>> type(s)
<class 'str'>
bytes To represent a Immutable >>> list=[1,2,3,4]
sequence of byte >>> b=bytes(list)
values from 0-255 >>> type(b)
<class 'bytes'>
bytearray To represent a Mutable >>> list=[10,20,30]
sequence of byte >>> ba=bytearray(list)
values from 0-255 >>> type(ba)
<class 'bytearray'>
range To represent a range Immutable >>> r=range(10)
of values >>> r1=range(0,10)
>>> r2=range(0,10,2)

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list To represent an Mutable >>> l=[10,11,12,13,14,15]
ordered collection of >>> type(l)
objects <class 'list'>
tuple To represent an Immutable >>> t=(1,2,3,4,5)
ordered collections of >>> type(t)
objects <class 'tuple'>
set To represent an Mutable >>> s={1,2,3,4,5,6}
unordered collection >>> type(s)
of unique objects <class 'set'>
frozenset To represent an Immutable >>> s={11,2,3,'Durga',100,'Ramu'}
unordered collection >>> fs=frozenset(s)
of unique objects >>> type(fs)
<class 'frozenset'>
dict To represent a group Mutable >>>
of key value pairs d = {101:'durga', 102:'ramu',
103:'hari'}
>>> type(d)
<class 'dict'>

14) None Data Type:

 None means nothing or No value associated.
 If the value is not available, then to handle such type of cases None introduced.
 It is something like null value in Java.

Eg:
def m1():
a=10

print(m1())
None

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Escape Characters:
In String literals we can use esacpe characters to associate a special meaning.

1) >>> s="durga\nsoftware"
2) >>> print(s)
3) durga
4) software
5) >>> s="durga\tsoftware"
6) >>> print(s)
7) durga software
8) >>> s="This is " symbol"
9) File "<stdin>", line 1
10) s="This is " symbol"
11) ^
12) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
13) >>> s="This is \" symbol"
14) >>> print(s)
15) This is " symbol

The following are various important escape characters in Python

1) \n  New Line
2) \t  Horizontal Tab
3) \r  Carriage Return
4) \b  Back Space
5) \f  Form Feed
6) \v  Vertical Tab
7) \'  Single Quote
8) \"  Double Quote
9) \\  Back Slash Symbol
....

Constants:
 Constants concept is not applicable in Python.
 But it is convention to use only uppercase characters if we don’t want to change value.

 MAX_VALUE = 10

 It is just convention but we can change the value.

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OPERATORS

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 Operator is a symbol that performs certain operations.
 Python provides the following set of operators

1) Arithmetic Operators
2) Relational Operators OR Comparison Operators
3) Logical operators
4) Bitwise oeprators
5) Assignment operators
6) Special operators

1) Arithmetic Operators:
1) +  Addition

2) –  Subtraction

3) *  Multiplication

4) /  Division Operator

5) %  Modulo Operator

6) //  Floor Division Operator

7) **  Exponent Operator OR Power Operator

Eg: test.py

1) a=10
2) b=2
3) print('a+b=',a+b)
4) print('a-b=',a-b)
5) print('a*b=',a*b)
6) print('a/b=',a/b)
7) print('a//b=',a//b)
8) print('a%b=',a%b)
9) print('a**b=',a**b)

Output:
Python test.py OR py test.py
a+b = 12
a-b= 8
a*b= 20
a/b= 5.0

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a//b= 5
a%b= 0
a**b= 100

Eg:

1) a = 10.5
2) b=2
3)
4) a+b= 12.5
5) a-b= 8.5
6) a*b= 21.0
7) a/b= 5.25
8) a//b= 5.0
9) a%b= 0.5
10) a**b= 110.25

Eg:
10/2  5.0
10//2  5
10.0/2  5.0
10.0//2  5.0

Note:
֍ / operator always performs floating point arithmetic. Hence it will always returns float
value.

֍ But Floor division (//) can perform both floating point and integral arithmetic. If
arguments are int type then result is int type. If atleast one argument is float type then
result is float type.

Note:
֍ We can use +,* operators for str type also.
֍ If we want to use + operator for str type then compulsory both arguments should be
str type only otherwise we will get error.

1) >>> "durga"+10
2) TypeError: must be str, not int
3) >>> "durga"+"10"
4) 'durga10'

֍ If we use * operator for str type then compulsory one argument should be int and
other argument should be str type.

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֍ 2*"durga"
"durga"*2
2.5*"durga"  TypeError: can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'float'
"durga"*"durga"  TypeError: can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'str'

֍ +  String Concatenation Operator

֍ *  String Multiplication Operator

Note: For any number x,

x/0 and x%0 always raises "ZeroDivisionError"

10/0
10.0/0
.....

2) Relational Operators: >, >=, <, <=

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) print("a > b is ",a>b)
4) print("a >= b is ",a>=b)
5) print("a < b is ",a<b)
6) print("a <= b is ",a<=b)
7)
8) a > b is False
9) a >= b is False
10) a < b is True
11) a <= b is True

We can apply relational operators for str types also.

Eg 2:

1) a="durga"
2) b="durga"
3) print("a > b is ",a>b)
4) print("a >= b is ",a>=b)
5) print("a < b is ",a<b)
6) print("a <= b is ",a<=b)
7)
8) a > b is False
9) a >= b is True
10) a < b is False
11) a <= b is True

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Eg:

1) print(True>True) False
2) print(True>=True) True
3) print(10 >True) True
4) print(False > True) False
5)
6) print(10>'durga')
7) TypeError: '>' not supported between instances of 'int' and 'str'

Eg:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) if(a>b):
4) print("a is greater than b")
5) else:
6) print("a is not greater than b")

Output: a is not greater than b

Note: Chaining of relational operators is possible. In the chaining, if all comparisons

returns True then only result is True. If atleast one comparison returns False then the
result is False

1) 10<20  True
2) 10<20<30  True
3) 10<20<30<40  True
4) 10<20<30<40>50  False

3) Equality Operators: ==, !=

We can apply these operators for any type even for incompatible types also.

1) >>> 10==20
2) False
3) >>> 10!= 20
4) True
5) >>> 10==True
6) False
7) >>> False==False
8) True
9) >>> "durga"=="durga"
10) True
11) >>> 10=="durga"

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 12) False

Note: Chaining concept is applicable for equality operators. If atleast one comparison
returns False then the result is False. Otherwise the result is True.

1) >>> 10==20==30==40
2) False
3) >>> 10==10==10==10
4) True

4) Logical Operators: and, or, not

We can apply for all types.

 For boolean Types Behaviour:

and  If both arguments are True then only result is True
or  If atleast one arugemnt is True then result is True
not  Complement

True and False  False

True or False  True
not False  True

 For non-boolean Types Behaviour:

0 means False
non-zero means True
empty string is always treated as False

x and y:
If x is evaluates to false return x otherwise return y
Eg:
10 and 20
0 and 20

If first argument is zero then result is zero otherwise result is y

x or y:
If x evaluates to True then result is x otherwise result is y

10 or 20  10
0 or 20  20

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not x:
If x is evalutates to False then result is True otherwise False

not 10  False
not 0  True

Eg:

1) "durga" and "durgasoft" ==>durgasoft

2) "" and "durga" ==>""
3) "durga" and "" ==>""
4) "" or "durga" ==>"durga"
5) "durga" or ""==>"durga"
6) not ""==>True
7) not "durga" ==>False

5) Bitwise Operators:
֍ We can apply these operators bitwise.
֍ These operators are applicable only for int and boolean types.
֍ By mistake if we are trying to apply for any other type then we will get Error.

֍ &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

֍ print(4&5)  Valid
֍ print(10.5 & 5.6)
 TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for &: 'float' and 'float'

֍ print(True & True)  Valid

֍ &  If both bits are 1 then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0

֍ | If atleast one bit is 1 then result is 1 otherwise result is 0
֍ ^  If bits are different then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
֍ ~  bitwise complement operator
֍ 10 & 01
֍ <<  Bitwise Left Shift
֍ >>  Bitwise Right Shift

֍ print(4&5)  4
֍ print(4|5)  5
֍ print(4^5)  1

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 Operator Description
& If both bits are 1 then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
| If atleast one bit is 1 then result is 1 otherwise result is 0
^ If bits are different then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
~ bitwise complement operator i.e 1 means 0 and 0 means 1
>> Bitwise Left shift Operator
<< Bitwise Right shift Operator

Bitwise Complement Operator (~):

We have to apply complement for total bits.

Eg: print(~5) -6

Note:
֍ The most significant bit acts as sign bit. 0 value represents +ve number where as 1
represents -ve value.
֍ Positive numbers will be repesented directly in the memory where as -ve numbers will
be represented indirectly in 2's complement form.

6) Shift Operators:
<< Left Shift Operator
After shifting the empty cells we have to fill with zero

print(10<<2)  40

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

>> Right Shift Operator

After shifting the empty cells we have to fill with sign bit.( 0 for +ve and 1 for -ve)

print(10>>2)  2

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
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We can apply bitwise operators for boolean types also

֍ print(True & False)  False

֍ print(True | False)  True
֍ print(True ^ False)  True
֍ print(~True)  -2
֍ print(True<<2)  4
֍ print(True>>2)  0

7) Assignment Operators:
֍ We can use assignment operator to assign value to the variable.
Eg: x = 10

֍ We can combine asignment operator with some other operator to form compound
assignment operator.
Eg: x += 10  x = x+10

The following is the list of all possible compound assignment operators in Python.

 +=
 -=
 *=
 /=
 %=
 //=
 **=
 &=
 |=
 ^=
 >>=
 <<=

Eg:

1) x=10
2) x+=20
3) print(x)  30

Eg:

1) x=10
2) x&=5
3) print(x)  0
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8) Ternary Operator OR Conditional Operator
Syntax: x = firstValue if condition else secondValue

If condition is True then firstValue will be considered else secondValue will be considered.

Eg 1:

1) a,b=10,20
2) x=30 if a<b else 40
3) print(x) #30

Eg 2: Read two numbers from the keyboard and print minimum value

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) min=a if a<b else b
4) print("Minimum Value:",min)

Output:
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:30
Minimum Value: 10

Note: Nesting of Ternary Operator is Possible.

Q) Program for Minimum of 3 Numbers

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) c=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) min=a if a<b and a<c else b if b<c else c
5) print("Minimum Value:",min)

Q) Program for Maximum of 3 Numbers

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) c=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) max=a if a>b and a>c else b if b>c else c
5) print("Maximum Value:",max)

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Eg:

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) print("Both numbers are equal" if a==b else "First Number is Less than Second Nu
mber" if a<b else "First Number Greater than Second Number")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:10
Both numbers are equal

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
First Number is Less than Second Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:20
Enter Second Number:10
First Number Greater than Second Number

9) Special Operators:
Python defines the following 2 special operators
1) Identity Operators
2) Membership operators

1) Identity Operators
 We can use identity operators for address comparison.
 There are 2 identity operators are available
1) is
2) is not

 r1 is r2 returns True if both r1 and r2 are pointing to the same object.

 r1 is not r2 returns True if both r1 and r2 are not pointing to the same object.

Eg:

1) a=10
2) b=10
3) print(a is b) True
4) x=True

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 5) y=True
6) print( x is y) True

Eg:

1) a="durga"
2) b="durga"
3) print(id(a))
4) print(id(b))
5) print(a is b)

Eg:

1) list1=["one","two","three"]
2) list2=["one","two","three"]
3) print(id(list1))
4) print(id(list2))
5) print(list1 is list2) False
6) print(list1 is not list2) True
7) print(list1 == list2) True

Note: We can use is operator for address comparison where as == operator for content
comparison.

2) Membership Operators:
 We can use Membership operators to check whether the given object present in the
given collection. (It may be String, List, Set, Tuple OR Dict)
 In  Returns True if the given object present in the specified Collection
 not in  Retruns True if the given object not present in the specified Collection

Eg:

1) x="hello learning Python is very easy!!!"

2) print('h' in x) True
3) print('d' in x) False
4) print('d' not in x) True
5) print('Python' in x) True

Eg:

1) list1=["sunny","bunny","chinny","pinny"]
2) print("sunny" in list1) True
3) print("tunny" in list1) False
4) print("tunny" not in list1) True

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Operator Precedence:
If multiple operators present then which operator will be evaluated first is decided by
operator precedence.

Eg:
print(3+10*2)  23
print((3+10)*2)  26

The following list describes operator precedence in Python

1) ()  Parenthesis
2) **  Exponential Operator
3) ~, -  Bitwise Complement Operator, Unary Minus Operator
4) *, /, %, //  Multiplication, Division, Modulo, Floor Division
5) +, -  Addition, Subtraction
6) <<, >>  Left and Right Shift
7) &  Bitwise And
8) ^  Bitwise X-OR
9) |  Bitwise OR
10) >, >=, <, <=, ==, !=  Relational OR Comparison Operators
11) =, +=, -=, *=...  Assignment Operators
12) is , is not  Identity Operators
13) in , not in  Membership operators
14) not  Logical not
15) and  Logical and
16) or  Logical or

1) a=30
2) b=20
3) c=10
4) d=5
5) print((a+b)*c/d)  100.0
6) print((a+b)*(c/d))  100.0
7) print(a+(b*c)/d)  70.0
8)
9) 3/2*4+3+(10/5)**3-2
10) 3/2*4+3+2.0**3-2
11) 3/2*4+3+8.0-2
12) 1.5*4+3+8.0-2
13) 6.0+3+8.0-2
14) 15.0

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 Mathematical Functions (math Module)
֍ A Module is collection of functions, variables and classes etc.
֍ math is a module that contains several functions to perform mathematical operations.
֍ If we want to use any module in Python, first we have to import that module.
import math
֍ Once we import a module then we can call any function of that module.

1) import math
2) print(math.sqrt(16))
3) print(math.pi)

Output
4.0
3.141592653589793

֍ We can create alias name by using as keyword. import math as m

֍ Once we create alias name, by using that we can access functions and variables of that
module.

1) import math as m
2) print(m.sqrt(16))
3) print(m.pi)

֍ We can import a particular member of a module explicitly as follows

from math import sqrt
from math import sqrt,pi

֍ If we import a member explicitly then it is not required to use module name while
accessing.

1) from math import sqrt,pi

2) print(sqrt(16))
3) print(pi)
4) print NameError: name (math.pi) 'math' is not defined

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Important Functions of math Module:
1) ceil(x)
2) floor(x)
3) pow(x,y)
4) factorial(x)
5) trunc(x)
6) gcd(x,y)
7) sin(x)
8) cos(x)
9) tan(x)
10) ....

Important Variables of math Module:

pi3.14
e  2.71
inf  infinity
nan  not a number

Q) Write a Python Program to find Area of Circle pi*r**2

1) from math import pi
2) r = 16
3) print("Area of Circle is :",pi*r**2)

Output: Area of Circle is: 804.247719318987

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 INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS
Reading Dynamic Input from the Keyboard:
In Python 2 the following 2 functions are available to read dynamic input from the
keyboard.

1) raw_input()
2) input()

1) raw_input():
This function always reads the data from the keyboard in the form of String Format.
We have to convert that string type to our required type by using the corresponding
type casting methods.

Eg: x = raw_input("Enter First Number:")

print(type(x))  It will always print str type only for any input type

2) input():
input() function can be used to read data directly in our required format.We are not
required to perform type casting.

x = input("Enter Value)
type(x)

10  int
"durga" str
10.5  float
True  bool

***Note:
 But in Python 3 we have only input() method and raw_input() method is not available.
 Python3 input() function behaviour exactly same as raw_input() method of Python2.
i.e every input value is treated as str type only.
 raw_input() function of Python 2 is renamed as input() function in Python 3.

1) >>> type(input("Enter value:"))

2) Enter value:10
3) <class 'str'>
4)
5) Enter value:10.5
6) <class 'str'>
7)
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 8) Enter value:True
9) <class 'str'>

Q) Write a program to read 2 numbers from the keyboard and print sum

1) x=input("Enter First Number:")

2) y=input("Enter Second Number:")
3) i = int(x)
4) j = int(y)
5) print("The Sum:",i+j)

Enter First Number: 100

Enter Second Number: 200
The Sum: 300
-----------------------------------------------------

1) x=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) y=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) print("The Sum:",x+y)

-----------------------------------------------------------

print("The Sum:",int(input("Enter First Number:"))+int(input("Enter Second Number:")))

Q) Write a Program to read Employee Data from the Keyboard and

print that Data
1) eno=int(input("Enter Employee No:"))
2) ename=input("Enter Employee Name:")
3) esal=float(input("Enter Employee Salary:"))
4) eaddr=input("Enter Employee Address:")
5) married=bool(input("Employee Married ?[True|False]:"))
6) print("Please Confirm Information")
7) print("Employee No :",eno)
8) print("Employee Name :",ename)
9) print("Employee Salary :",esal)
10) print("Employee Address :",eaddr)
11) print("Employee Married ? :",married)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Employee No:100
Enter Employee Name:Sunny
Enter Employee Salary:1000
Enter Employee Address:Mumbai

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Employee Married ?[True|False]:True
Please Confirm Information

Employee No : 100
Employee Name : Sunny
Employee Salary : 1000.0
Employee Address : Mumbai
Employee Married ? : True

How to read multiple values from the keyboard in a

single line:
1) a,b= [int(x) for x in input("Enter 2 numbers :").split()]
2) print("Product is :", a*b)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter 2 numbers :10 20
Product is : 200

Note: split() function can take space as seperator by default .But we can pass
anything as seperator.

Q) Write a program to read 3 float numbers from the keyboard

with, seperator and print their sum
1) a,b,c= [float(x) for x in input("Enter 3 float numbers :").split(',')]
2) print("The Sum is :", a+b+c)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter 3 float numbers :10.5,20.6,20.1
The Sum is : 51.2

eval():
eval Function take a String and evaluate the Result.

Eg: x = eval(“10+20+30”)
print(x)
Output: 60

Eg: x = eval(input(“Enter Expression”))

Enter Expression: 10+2*3/4
Output: 11.5

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eval() can evaluate the Input to list, tuple, set, etc based the provided Input.

Eg: Write a Program to accept list from the keynboard on the display

1) l = eval(input(“Enter List”))
2) print (type(l))
3) print(l)

COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS

 argv is not Array it is a List. It is available sys Module.
 The Argument which are passing at the time of execution are called Command Line
Arguments.

Eg: D:\Python_classes py test.py 10 20 30

Command Line Arguments

Within the Python Program this Command Line Arguments are available in argv. Which is
present in SYS Module.

test.py 10 20 30

Note: argv[0] represents Name of Program. But not first Command Line Argument.
argv[1] represent First Command Line Argument.

Program: To check type of argv from sys

import argv
print(type(argv))

D:\Python_classes\py test.py

Write a Program to display Command Line Arguments

1) from sys import argv
2) print(“The Number of Command Line Arguments:”, len(argv))
3) print(“The List of Command Line Arguments:”, argv)
4) print(“Command Line Arguments one by one:”)
5) for x in argv:
6) print(x)

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20 30
The Number of Command Line Arguments: 4
The List of Command Line Arguments: [‘test.py’, ‘10’,’20’,’30’]
Command Line Arguments one by one:
test.py
10
20
30
---------------------------
1) from sys import argv
2) sum=0
3) args=argv[1:]
4) for x in args :
5) n=int(x)
6) sum=sum+n
7) print("The Sum:",sum)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20 30 40
The Sum: 100

Note 1: Usually space is seperator between command line arguments. If our command
line argument itself contains space then we should enclose within double quotes(but not
single quotes)

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[1])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py Sunny Leone

Sunny

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 'Sunny Leone'

'Sunny

D:\Python_classes>py test.py "Sunny Leone"

Sunny Leone

Note 2: Within the Python program command line arguments are available in the String
form. Based on our requirement, we can convert into corresponding type by using type
casting methods.

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[1]+argv[2])
3) print(int(argv[1])+int(argv[2]))

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20
1020
30

Note 3: If we are trying to access command line arguments with out of range index then
we will get Error.

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[100])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20
IndexError: list index out of range

Note: In Python there is argparse module to parse command line arguments and display
some help messages whenever end user enters wrong input.

input()
raw_input()

Command Line Arguments

Output Statements:
We can use print() function to display output.

Form-1: print() without any argument

Just it prints new line character

Form-2:

1) print(String):
2) print("Hello World")
3) We can use escape characters also
4) print("Hello \n World")
5) print("Hello\tWorld")
6) We can use repetetion operator (*) in the string
7) print(10*"Hello")
8) print("Hello"*10)
9) We can use + operator also
10) print("Hello"+"World")

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Note:
֍ If both arguments are String type then + operator acts as concatenation operator.
֍ If one argument is string type and second is any other type like int then we will get
Error.
֍ If both arguments are number type then + operator acts as arithmetic addition
operator.

Note:

1) print("Hello"+"World")
2) print("Hello","World")

HelloWorld
Hello World

Form-3: print() with variable number of arguments

1) a,b,c=10,20,30
2) print("The Values are :",a,b,c)

Output: The Values are : 10 20 30

By default output values are seperated by space.If we want we can specify seperator by
using "sep" attribute

1) a,b,c=10,20,30
2) print(a,b,c,sep=',')
3) print(a,b,c,sep=':')

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10,20,30
10:20:30

Form-4:print() with end attribute

1) print("Hello")
2) print("Durga")
3) print("Soft")

Output:
Hello
Durga
Soft

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If we want output in the same line with space

1) print("Hello",end=' ')
2) print("Durga",end=' ')
3) print("Soft")

Output: Hello Durga Soft

Note: The default value for end attribute is \n, which is nothing but new line character.

Form-5: print(object) statement

We can pass any object (like list, tuple, set etc) as argument to the print() statement.

1) l=[10,20,30,40]
2) t=(10,20,30,40)
3) print(l)
4) print(t)

Form-6: print(String, variable list)

We can use print() statement with String and any number of arguments.

1) s = "Durga"
2) a = 48
3) s1 ="Java"
4) s2 ="Python"
5) print("Hello",s,"Your Age is",a)
6) print("You are teaching",s1,"and",s2)

Output:
Hello Durga Your Age is 48
You are teaching java and Python

Form-7: print (formatted string)

1) %i  int
2) %d  int
3) %f  float
4) %s  String type

Syntax: print("formatted string" %(variable list))

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Eg 1:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) c=30
4) print("a value is %i" %a)
5) print("b value is %d and c value is %d" %(b,c))

Output
a value is 10
b value is 20 and c value is 30

Eg 2:

1) s="Durga"
2) list=[10,20,30,40]
3) print("Hello %s ...The List of Items are %s" %(s,list))

Output: Hello Durga ...The List of Items are [10, 20, 30, 40]

Form-8: print() with replacement operator {}

Eg:

1) name = "Durga"
2) salary = 10000
3) gf = "Sunny"
4) print("Hello {0} your salary is {1} and Your Friend {2} is waiting".
format(name,salary,gf))
5) print("Hello {x} your salary is {y} and Your Friend {z} is waiting".
format(x=name,y=salary,z=gf))

Output
Hello Durga your salary is 10000 and Your Friend Sunny is waiting
Hello Durga your salary is 10000 and Your Friend Sunny is waiting

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FLOW
CONTROL

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 Flow control describes the order in which statements will be executed at runtime.

Control Flow

Conditional Transfer Iterative

Statements Statements Statements

1) if 1) break 1) for
2) if-elif 2) continue 2) while
3) if-elif-else 3) pass

I. Conditional Statements
1) if
if condition : statement
OR

if condition :
statement-1
statement-2
statement-3

If condition is true then statements will be executed.

Eg:

1) name=input("Enter Name:")
2) if name=="durga" :
3) print("Hello Durga Good Morning")
4) print("How are you!!!")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:durga
Hello Durga Good Morning
How are you!!!

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name: Ravi
How are you!!!

2) if-else:
if condition:
Action-1
else:
Action-2

if condition is true then Action-1 will be executed otherwise Action-2 will be executed.

1) name=input("Enter Name:")
2) if name=="durga" :
3) print("Hello Durga Good Morning")
4) else:
5) print("Hello Guest Good Moring")
6) print("How are you!!!")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:durga
Hello Durga Good Morning
How are you!!!

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:Ravi
Hello Guest Good Moring
How are you!!!

3) if-elif-else:
if condition1:
Action-1
elif condition2:
Action-2
elif condition3:
Action-3
elif condition4:
Action-4
...
else:
Default Action

Based condition the corresponding action will be executed.

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 1) brand=input("Enter Your Favourite Brand:")
2) if brand=="RC" :
3) print("It is childrens brand")
4) elif brand=="KF":
5) print("It is not that much kick")
6) elif brand=="FO":
7) print("Buy one get Free One")
8) else :
9) print("Other Brands are not recommended")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand:RC
It is childrens brand

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand:KF
It is not that much kick

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand: KALYANI
Other Brands are not recommended

Note:
1) else part is always optional. Hence the following are various possible syntaxes.
1) If
2) if – else
3) if-elif-else
4) if-elif
2) There is no switch statement in Python

Q) Write a Program to find Biggest of given 2 Numbers from the

Commad Prompt?
1) n1=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) n2=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) if n1>n2:
4) print("Biggest Number is:",n1)
5) else :
6) print("Biggest Number is:",n2)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
Biggest Number is: 20

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Q) Write a Program to find Biggest of given 3 Numbers from the
Commad Prompt?
1) n1=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) n2=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) n3=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) if n1>n2 and n1>n3:
5) print("Biggest Number is:",n1)
6) elif n2>n3:
7) print("Biggest Number is:",n2)
8) else :
9) print("Biggest Number is:",n3)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
Enter Third Number:30
Biggest Number is: 30

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:30
Enter Third Number:20
Biggest Number is: 30

Q) Write a program to find smallest of given 2 numbers?

Q) Write a program to find smallest of given 3 numbers?
Q) Write a program to check whether the given number is even or odd?

Q) Write a Program to Check whether the given Number is in

between 1 and 100?
1) n=int(input("Enter Number:"))
2) if n>=1 and n<=10 :
3) print("The number",n,"is in between 1 to 10")
4) else:
5) print("The number",n,"is not in between 1 to 10")

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Q) Write a Program to take a Single Digit Number from the Key
Board and Print is Value in English Word?
1) 0  ZERO
2) 1  ONE
3)
4) n=int(input("Enter a digit from o to 9:"))
5) if n==0 :
6) print("ZERO")
7) elif n==1:
8) print("ONE")
9) elif n==2:
10) print("TWO")
11) elif n==3:
12) print("THREE")
13) elif n==4:
14) print("FOUR")
15) elif n==5:
16) print("FIVE")
17) elif n==6:
18) print("SIX")
19) elif n==7:
20) print("SEVEN")
21) elif n==8:
22) print("EIGHT")
23) elif n==9:
24) print("NINE")
25) else:
26) print("PLEASE ENTER A DIGIT FROM 0 TO 9")

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II. Iterative Statements
֍ If we want to execute a group of statements multiple times then we should go for
Iterative statements.
֍ Python supports 2 types of iterative statements.
1) for loop
2) while loop

1) for loop:
If we want to execute some action for every element present in some sequence
(it may be string or collection) then we should go for for loop.

Syntax: for x in sequence:

Body

Where sequence can be string or any collection.

Body will be executed for every element present in the sequence.

Eg 1: To print characters present in the given string

1) s="Sunny Leone"
2) for x in s :
3) print(x)

Output
S
u
n
n
y

L
e
o
n
e

Eg 2: To print characters present in string index wise:

1) s=input("Enter some String: ")

2) i=0
3) for x in s :
4) print("The character present at ",i,"index is :",x)
5) i=i+1

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter some String: Sunny Leone
The character present at 0 index is : S
The character present at 1 index is : u
The character present at 2 index is : n
The character present at 3 index is : n
The character present at 4 index is : y
The character present at 5 index is :
The character present at 6 index is : L
The character present at 7 index is : e
The character present at 8 index is : o
The character present at 9 index is : n
The character present at 10 index is : e

Eg 3: To print Hello 10 times

1) for x in range(10) :
2) print("Hello")

Eg 4: To display numbers from 0 to 10

1) for x in range(11) :
2) print(x)

Eg 5: To display odd numbers from 0 to 20

1) for x in range(21) :
2) if (x%2!=0):
3) print(x)

Eg 6: To display numbers from 10 to 1 in descending order

1) for x in range(10,0,-1) :
2) print(x)

Eg 7: To print sum of numbers presenst inside list

1) list = eval(input("Enter List:"))

2) sum=0;
3) for x in list:
4) sum=sum+x;
5) print("The Sum=",sum)

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[10,20,30,40]
The Sum= 100

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[45,67]
The Sum= 112

2) while loop:
If we want to execute a group of statements iteratively until some condition false,then
we should go for while loop.

Syntax: while condition :

body

Eg: To print numbers from 1 to 10 by using while loop

1) x = 1
2) while x <= 10:
3) print(x)
4) x = x+1

Eg: To display the sum of first n numbers

1) n=int(input("Enter number:"))
2) sum=0
3) i=1
4) while i<=n:
5) sum=sum+i
6) i=i+1
7) print("The sum of first",n,"numbers is :",sum)

Eg: Write a program to prompt user to enter some name until entering Durga

1) name=""
2) while name!="durga":
3) name=input("Enter Name:")
4) print("Thanks for confirmation")

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Infinite Loops:
1) i=0;
2) while True :
3) i=i+1;
4) print("Hello",i)

Nested Loops:
Sometimes we can take a loop inside another loop,which are also known as nested loops.

1) for i in range(4):
2) for j in range(4):
3) print("i=",i," j=",j)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
i= 0 j= 0
i= 0 j= 1
i= 0 j= 2
i= 0 j= 3
i= 1 j= 0
i= 1 j= 1
i= 1 j= 2
i= 1 j= 3
i= 2 j= 0
i= 2 j= 1
i= 2 j= 2
i= 2 j= 3
i= 3 j= 0
i= 3 j= 1
i= 3 j= 2
i= 3 j= 3

Q) Write a Program to dispaly *'s in Right Angled Triangled Form

* 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
*** 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 4) print("*",end=" ")
***** 5) print() Alternative Way
****** 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
******* 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print("* " * i)

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 Q) Write a Program to display *'s in Pyramid Style
(Also known as Equivalent Triangle)

*
** 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
**** 3) print(" " * (n-i),end="")
***** 4) print("* "*i)
******
*******

III. Transfer Statements

1) break:
We can use break statement inside loops to break loop execution based on some
condition.

1) for i in range(10):
2) if i==7:
3) print("processing is enough..plz break")
4) break
5) print(i)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
processing is enough..plz break

Eg:

1) cart=[10,20,600,60,70]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>500:
4) print("To place this order insurence must be required")
5) break
6) print(item)

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
To place this order insurence must be required

2) continue:
We can use continue statement to skip current iteration and continue next iteration.

Eg 1: To print odd numbers in the range 0 to 9

1) for i in range(10):
2) if i%2==0:
3) continue
4) print(i)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
1
3
5
7
9

Eg 2:

1) cart=[10,20,500,700,50,60]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this item :",item)
5) continue
6) print(item)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
We cannot process this item : 500
We cannot process this item : 700
50
60

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Eg 3:

1) numbers=[10,20,0,5,0,30]
2) for n in numbers:
3) if n==0:
4) print("Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping")
5) continue
6) print("100/{} = {}".format(n,100/n))

Output
100/10 = 10.0
100/20 = 5.0
Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping
100/5 = 20.0
Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping
100/30 = 3.3333333333333335

Loops with else Block:

 Inside loop execution, if break statement not executed, then only else part will be
executed.
 else means loop without break.

1) cart=[10,20,30,40,50]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this order")
5) break
6) print(item)
7) else:
8) print("Congrats ...all items processed successfully")

Output
10
20
30
40
50
Congrats ...all items processed successfully

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Eg:

1) cart=[10,20,600,30,40,50]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this order")
5) break
6) print(item)
7) else:
8) print("Congrats ...all items processed successfully")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
We cannot process this order

Q) What is the difference between for loop and while loop

in Python?
֍ We can use loops to repeat code execution
֍ Repeat code for every item in sequence  for loop
֍ Repeat code as long as condition is true  while loop

Q) How to exit from the loop? By using break statement

Q)How to skip some iterations inside loop? By using continue statement.

Q)When else part will be executed wrt loops? If loop executed without break

3) pass statement:
 pass is a keyword in Python.
 In our programming syntactically if block is required which won't do anything then we
can define that empty block with pass keyword.

pass
|- It is an empty statement
|- It is null statement
|- It won't do anything

Eg: if True:
SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing
if True: pass  valid

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def m1():
SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing

def m1(): pass

Use Case of pass:

Sometimes in the parent class we have to declare a function with empty body and child
class responsible to provide proper implementation. Such type of empty body we can
define by using pass keyword. (It is something like abstract method in Java)
Eg: def m1(): pass

1) for i in range(100):
2) if i%9==0:
3) print(i)
4) else:pass

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
9
18
27
36
45
54
63
72
81
90
99

del Statement:
 del is a keyword in Python.
 After using a variable, it is highly recommended to delete that variable if it is no longer
required,so that the corresponding object is eligible for Garbage Collection.
 We can delete variable by using del keyword.

1) x = 10
2) print(x)
3) del x

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After deleting a variable we cannot access that variable otherwise we will get NameError.

1) x = 10
2) del x
3) print(x)

NameError: name 'x' is not defined.

Note: We can delete variables which are pointing to immutable objects.But we cannot
delete the elements present inside immutable object.

1) s = "durga"
2) print(s)
3) del s  valid
4) del s[0]  TypeError: 'str' object doesn't support item deletion

Difference between del and None:

In the case del, the variable will be removed and we cannot access that variable(unbind
operation)

1) s = "durga"
2) del s
3) print(s)  NameError: name 's' is not defined.

But in the case of None assignment the variable won't be removed but the corresponding
object is eligible for Garbage Collection (re bind operation). Hence after assigning with
None value, we can access that variable.

1) s = "durga"
2) s = None
3) print(s)  None

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STRING
DATA TYPE

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The most commonly used object in any project and in any programming language is String
only. Hence we should aware complete information about String data type.

What is String?
Any sequence of characters within either single quotes or double quotes is considered as a
String.

Syntax:
s = 'durga'
s = "durga"

Note: In most of other languges like C, C++, Java, a single character with in single quotes
is treated as char data type value. But in Python we are not having char data type.Hence it
is treated as String only.

Eg:
>>> ch = 'a'
>>> type(ch)
<class 'str'>

How to define multi-line String Literals?

We can define multi-line String literals by using triple single or double quotes.

Eg:
>>> s = '''durga
software
solutions'''

We can also use triple quotes to use single quotes or double quotes as symbol inside
String literal.

1) s = 'This is ' single quote symbol'  Invalid

2) s = 'This is \' single quote symbol'  Valid
3) s = "This is ' single quote symbol"  Valid
4) s = 'This is " double quotes symbol'  Valid
5) s = 'The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful'  Invalid
6) s = "The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful"  Invalid
7) s = 'The \"Python Notes\" by \'durga\' is very helpful'  Valid
8) s = '''The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful'''  Valid

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How to Access Characters of a String?
We can access characters of a string by using the following ways.
1) By using index
2) By using slice operator

1) Accessing Characters By using Index:

 Python supports both +ve and -ve Index.
 +ve Index means Left to Right (Forward Direction)
 -ve Index means Right to Left (Backward Direction)
Eg: s = 'durga'

1) >>> s='durga'
2) >>> s[0]
3) 'd'
4) >>> s[4]
5) 'a'
6) >>> s[-1]
7) 'a'
8) >>> s[10]
9) IndexError: string index out of range

Note: If we are trying to access characters of a string with out of range index then we will
get error saying: IndexError

Q) Write a Program to Accept some String from the Keyboard and display its
Characters by Index wise (both Positive and Negative Index)

test.py:

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) i=0
3) for x in s:
4) print("The character present at positive index {} and at nEgative index {} is {}".fo
rmat(i,i-len(s),x))
5) i=i+1

Output: D:\python_classes>py test.py

Enter Some String:durga
The character present at positive index 0 and at nEgative index -5 is d
The character present at positive index 1 and at nEgative index -4 is u
The character present at positive index 2 and at nEgative index -3 is r
The character present at positive index 3 and at nEgative index -2 is g
The character present at positive index 4 and at nEgative index -1 is a

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2) Accessing Characters by using Slice Operator:
 Syntax: s[bEginindex:endindex:step]

 Begin Index: From where we have to consider slice (substring)

 End Index: We have to terminate the slice (substring) at endindex-1
 Step: Incremented Value.

Note:
 If we are not specifying bEgin index then it will consider from bEginning of the string.
 If we are not specifying end index then it will consider up to end of the string.
 The default value for step is 1.

1) >>> s="Learning Python is very very easy!!!"

2) >>> s[1:7:1]
3) 'earnin'
4) >>> s[1:7]
5) 'earnin'
6) >>> s[1:7:2]
7) 'eri'
8) >>> s[:7]
9) 'Learnin'
10) >>> s[7:]
11) 'g Python is very very easy!!!'
12) >>> s[::]
13) 'Learning Python is very very easy!!!'
14) >>> s[:]
15) 'Learning Python is very very easy!!!'
16) >>> s[::-1]
17) '!!!ysae yrev yrev si nohtyP gninraeL'

Behaviour of Slice Operator:

1) s[bEgin:end:step]
2) Step value can be either +ve or –ve
3) If +ve then it should be forward direction(left to right) and we have to consider bEgin
to end-1
4) If -ve then it should be backward direction (right to left) and we have to consider bEgin
to end+1.

***Note:
 In the backward direction if end value is -1 then result is always empty.
 In the forward direction if end value is 0 then result is always empty.

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In Forward Direction:
default value for bEgin: 0
default value for end: length of string
default value for step: +1

In Backward Direction:
default value for bEgin: -1
default value for end: -(length of string+1)

Note: Either forward or backward direction, we can take both +ve and -ve values for
bEgin and end index.

Slice Operator Case Study:

1) S = 'abcdefghij'
2) s[1:6:2]  'bdf'
3) s[::1]  'abcdefghij'
4) s[::-1]  'jihgfedcba'
5) s[3:7:-1]  ''
6) s[7:4:-1]  'hgf'
7) s[0:10000:1]  'abcdefghij'
8) s[-4:1:-1]  'gfedc'
9) s[-4:1:-2]  'gec'
10) s[5:0:1]  ''
11) s[9:0:0]  ValueError: slice step cannot be zero
12) s[0:-10:-1]  ''
13) s[0:-11:-1]  'a'
14) s[0:0:1]  ''
15) s[0:-9:-2]  ''
16) s[-5:-9:-2]  'fd'
17) s[10:-1:-1]  ''
18) s[10000:2:-1]  'jihgfed'

Note: Slice operator never raises IndexError

Mathematical Operators for String:

We can apply the following mathematical operators for Strings.
1) + operator for concatenation
2) * operator for repetition

 print("durga"+"soft")  durgasoft
 print("durga"*2)  durgadurga

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Note:
1) To use + operator for Strings, compulsory both arguments should be str type.
2) To use * operator for Strings, compulsory one argument should be str and other
argument should be int.

len() in-built Function:

We can use len() function to find the number of characters present in the string.
Eg:
s = 'durga'
print(len(s))  5

Q) Write a Program to access each Character of String in

Forward and Backward Direction by using while Loop?
1) s = "Learning Python is very easy !!!"
2) n = len(s)
3) i = 0
4) print("Forward direction")
5) while i<n:
6) print(s[i],end=' ')
7) i +=1
8) print("Backward direction")
9) i = -1
10) while i >= -n:
11) print(s[i],end=' ')
12) i = i-1

Alternative ways:
1) s = "Learning Python is very easy !!!"
2) print("Forward direction")
3) for i in s:
4) print(i,end=' ')
5) print("Forward direction")
6) for i in s[::]:
7) print(i,end=' ')
8)
9) print("Backward direction")
10) for i in s[::-1]:
11) print(i,end=' ')

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Checking Membership:
We can check whether the character or string is the member of another string or not by
using in and not in operators

s = 'durga'
print('d' in s)  True
print('z' in s)  False

1) s = input("Enter main string:")

2) subs = input("Enter sub string:")
3) if subs in s:
4) print(subs,"is found in main string")
5) else:
6) print(subs,"is not found in main string")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:durgasoftwaresolutions
Enter sub string:durga
durga is found in main string

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:durgasoftwaresolutions
Enter sub string:python
python is not found in main string

Comparison of Strings:
 We can use comparison operators (<, <=, >, >=) and equality operators (==, !=) for
strings.
 Comparison will be performed based on alphabetical order.

1) s1=input("Enter first string:")

2) s2=input("Enter Second string:")
3) if s1==s2:
4) print("Both strings are equal")
5) elif s1<s2:
6) print("First String is less than Second String")
7) else:
8) print("First String is greater than Second String")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga

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Enter Second string:durga
Both strings are equal

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga
Enter Second string:ravi
First String is less than Second String

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga
Enter Second string:anil
First String is greater than Second String

Removing Spaces from the String:

We can use the following 3 methods

1) rstrip()  To remove spaces at right hand side

2) lstrip() To remove spaces at left hand side
3) strip()  To remove spaces both sides

1) city=input("Enter your city Name:")

2) scity=city.strip()
3) if scity=='Hyderabad':
4) print("Hello Hyderbadi..Adab")
5) elif scity=='Chennai':
6) print("Hello Madrasi...Vanakkam")
7) elif scity=="Bangalore":
8) print("Hello Kannadiga...Shubhodaya")
9) else:
10) print("your entered city is invalid")

Finding Substrings:
We can use the following 4 methods

For forward direction:

1) find()
2) index()

For backward direction:

1) rfind()
2) rindex()
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find():
s.find(substring)
Returns index of first occurrence of the given substring. If it is not available then we will
get -1.

1) s="Learning Python is very easy"

2) print(s.find("Python")) #9
3) print(s.find("Java")) # -1
4) print(s.find("r"))#3
5) print(s.rfind("r"))#21

Note: By default find() method can search total string. We can also specify the
boundaries to search.

s.find(substring,bEgin,end)
It will always search from bEgin index to end-1 index.

1) s="durgaravipavanshiva"
2) print(s.find('a'))#4
3) print(s.find('a',7,15))#10
4) print(s.find('z',7,15))#-1

index():
index() method is exactly same as find() method except that if the specified substring is
not available then we will get ValueError.

1) s=input("Enter main string:")

2) subs=input("Enter sub string:")
3) try:
4) n=s.index(subs)
5) except ValueError:
6) print("substring not found")
7) else:
8) print("substring found")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:learning python is very easy
Enter sub string:python
substring found

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D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:learning python is very easy
Enter sub string:java
substring not found

Q) Program to display all Positions of Substring in a given

Main String
1) s=input("Enter main string:")
2) subs=input("Enter sub string:")
3) flag=False
4) pos=-1
5) n=len(s)
6) while True:
7) pos=s.find(subs,pos+1,n)
8) if pos==-1:
9) break
10) print("Found at position",pos)
11) flag=True
12) if flag==False:
13) print("Not Found")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:abbababababacdefg
Enter sub string:a
Found at position 0
Found at position 3
Found at position 5
Found at position 7
Found at position 9
Found at position 11

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:abbababababacdefg
Enter sub string:bb
Found at position 1

Counting substring in the given String:

We can find the number of occurrences of substring present in the given string by using
count() method.
1) s.count(substring)  It will search through out the string.
2) s.count(substring, bEgin, end)  It will search from bEgin index to end-1 index.

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 1) s="abcabcabcabcadda"
2) print(s.count('a'))
3) print(s.count('ab'))
4) print(s.count('a',3,7))

Output:
6
4
2

Replacing a String with another String:

s.replace(oldstring, newstring)
inside s, every occurrence of old String will be replaced with new String.

Eg 1:
s = "Learning Python is very difficult"
s1 = s.replace("difficult","easy")
print(s1)

Output: Learning Python is very easy

Eg 2: All occurrences will be replaced

s = "ababababababab"
s1 = s.replace("a","b")
print(s1)

Output: bbbbbbbbbbbbbb

Q) String Objects are Immutable then how we can change the

Content by using replace() Method
 Once we creates string object, we cannot change the content.This non changeable
behaviour is nothing but immutability. If we are trying to change the content by using
any method, then with those changes a new object will be created and changes won't
be happend in existing object.
 Hence with replace() method also a new object got created but existing object won't
be changed.

Eg:
s = "abab"
s1 = s.replace("a","b")
print(s,"is available at :",id(s))
print(s1,"is available at :",id(s1))

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Output:
abab is available at : 4568672
bbbb is available at : 4568704

In the above example, original object is available and we can see new object which was
created because of replace() method.

Splitting of Strings:
 We can split the given string according to specified seperator by using split() method.
 l = s.split(seperator)
 The default seperator is space. The return type of split() method is List.

1) s="durga software solutions"

2) l=s.split()
3) for x in l:
4) print(x)

Output:
durga
software
solutions

1) s="22-02-2018"
2) l=s.split('-')
3) for x in l:
4) print(x)

Output:
22
02
2018

Joining of Strings:
We can join a Group of Strings (List OR Tuple) wrt the given Seperator.
s = seperator.join(group of strings)

Eg 1:
t = ('sunny', 'bunny', 'chinny')
s = '-'.join(t)
print(s)

Output: sunny-bunny-chinny

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Eg 2:
l = ['hyderabad', 'singapore', 'london', 'dubai']
s = ':'.join(l)
print(s)

Output: hyderabad:singapore:london:dubai

Changing Case of a String:

We can change case of a string by using the following 4 methods.

1) upper()  To convert all characters to upper case

2) lower()  To convert all characters to lower case
3) swapcase()  Converts all lower case characters to upper case and all upper case
characters to lower case
4) title()  To convert all character to title case. i.e first character in every word should
be upper case and all remaining characters should be in lower case.
5) capitalize()  Only first character will be converted to upper case and all remaining
characters can be converted to lower case

1) s = 'learning Python is very Easy'

2) print(s.upper())
3) print(s.lower())
4) print(s.swapcase())
5) print(s.title())
6) print(s.capitalize())

Output:
LEARNING PYTHON IS VERY EASY
learning python is very easy
LEARNING pYTHON IS VERY eASY
Learning Python Is Very Easy
Learning python is very easy

Checking Starting and Ending Part of the String:

Python contains the following methods for this purpose
1) s.startswith(substring)
2) s.endswith(substring)

1) s = 'learning Python is very easy'

2) print(s.startswith('learning'))
3) print(s.endswith('learning'))
4) print(s.endswith('easy'))

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Output:
True
False
True

To Check Type of Characters Present in a String:

Python contains the following methods for this purpose.

1) isalnum(): Returns True if all characters are alphanumeric( a to z , A to Z ,0 to9 )

2) isalpha(): Returns True if all characters are only alphabet symbols(a to z,A to Z)
3) isdigit(): Returns True if all characters are digits only( 0 to 9)
4) islower(): Returns True if all characters are lower case alphabet symbols
5) isupper(): Returns True if all characters are upper case aplhabet symbols
6) istitle(): Returns True if string is in title case
7) isspace(): Returns True if string contains only spaces

Eg:
1) print('Durga786'.isalnum())  True
2) print('durga786'.isalpha())  False
3) print('durga'.isalpha())  True
4) print('durga'.isdigit())  False
5) print('786786'.isdigit())  True
6) print('abc'.islower())  True
7) print('Abc'.islower())  False
8) print('abc123'.islower())  True
9) print('ABC'.isupper())  True
10) print('Learning python is Easy'.istitle())  False
11) print('Learning Python Is Easy'.istitle())  True
12) print(' '.isspace())  True

Demo Program:

1) s=input("Enter any character:")

2) if s.isalnum():
3) print("Alpha Numeric Character")
4) if s.isalpha():
5) print("Alphabet character")
6) if s.islower():
7) print("Lower case alphabet character")
8) else:
9) print("Upper case alphabet character")
10) else:
11) print("it is a digit")
12) elif s.isspace():

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 13) print("It is space character")
14) else:
15) print("Non Space Special Character")

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:7
Alpha Numeric Character
it is a digit

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:a
Alpha Numeric Character
Alphabet character
Lower case alphabet character

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:$
Non Space Special Character

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:A
Alpha Numeric Character
Alphabet character
Upper case alphabet character

Formatting the Strings:

We can format the strings with variable values by using replacement operator {} and
format() method.

1) name = 'durga'
2) salary = 10000
3) age = 48
4) print("{} 's salary is {} and his age is {}".format(name,salary,age))
5) print("{0} 's salary is {1} and his age is {2}".format(name,salary,age))
6) print("{x} 's salary is {y} and his age is {z}".format(z=age,y=salary,x=name))

Output:
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48

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Important Programs regarding String Concept

Q1) Write a Program to Reverse the given String

Input: durga
Output: agrud

1st Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) print(s[::-1])

2nd Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) print(''.join(reversed(s)))

3rd Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) i=len(s)-1
3) target=''
4) while i>=0:
5) target=target+s[i]
6) i=i-1
7) print(target)

Q2) Program to Reverse Order of Words

Input: Learning Python is very Easy
Output: Easy Very is Python Learning

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=s.split()
3) l1=[]
4) i=len(l)-1
5) while i>=0:
6) l1.append(l[i])
7) i=i-1
8) output=' '.join(l1)
9) print(output)

Output: Enter Some String:Learning Python is very easy!!

easy!!! very is Python Learning
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Q3) Program to Reverse Internal Content of each Word
Input: Durga Software Solutions
Output: agruD erawtfoS snoituloS

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=s.split()
3) l1=[]
4) i=0
5) while i<len(l):
6) l1.append(l[i][::-1])
7) i=i+1
8) output=' '.join(l1)
9) print(output)

Q4) Write a Program to Print Characters at Odd Position and

Even Position for the given String?
1st Way:
s = input("Enter Some String:")
print("Characters at Even Position:",s[0::2])
print("Characters at Odd Position:",s[1::2])

2nd Way:
1) s=input("Enter Some String:")
2) i=0
3) print("Characters at Even Position:")
4) while i< len(s):
5) print(s[i],end=',')
6) i=i+2
7) print()
8) print("Characters at Odd Position:")
9) i=1
10) while i< len(s):
11) print(s[i],end=',')
12) i=i+2

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Q5) Program to Merge Characters of 2 Strings into a Single
String by taking Characters alternatively
Input: s1 = "ravi"
s2 = "reja"
Output: rtaevjia

1) s1=input("Enter First String:")

2) s2=input("Enter Second String:")
3) output=''
4) i,j=0,0
5) while i<len(s1) or j<len(s2):
6) if i<len(s1):
7) output=output+s1[i]
8) i+=1
9) if j<len(s2):
10) output=output+s2[j]
11) j+=1
12) print(output)

Output:
Enter First String:durga
Enter Second String:ravisoft
druarvgiasoft

Q6) Write a Program to Sort the Characters of the String and

First Alphabet Symbols followed by Numeric Values
Input: B4A1D3
Output: ABD134

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) s1=s2=output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) s1=s1+x
6) else:
7) s2=s2+x
8) for x in sorted(s1):
9) output=output+x
10) for x in sorted(s2):
11) output=output+x
12) print(output)

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Q7) Write a Program for the following Requirement
Input: a4b3c2
Output: aaaabbbcc

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) output=output+x
6) previous=x
7) else:
8) output=output+previous*(int(x)-1)
9) print(output)

Note: chr(unicode)  The corresponding character

ord(character)  The corresponding unicode value

Q8) Write a Program to perform the following Activity

Input: a4k3b2
Outpt: aeknbd

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) output=output+x
6) previous=x
7) else:
8) output=output+chr(ord(previous)+int(x))
9) print(output)

Q9) Write a Program to Remove Duplicate Characters from

the given Input String?
Input: ABCDABBCDABBBCCCDDEEEF
Output: ABCDEF

1) s = input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=[]
3) for x in s:
4) if x not in l:
5) l.append(x)
6) output=''.join(l)
7) print(output)

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Q10) Write a Program to find the Number of Occurrences of
each Character present in the given String?
Input: ABCABCABBCDE
Output: A-3,B-4,C-3,D-1,E-1

1) s=input("Enter the Some String:")

2) d={}
3) for x in s:
4) if x in d.keys():
5) d[x]=d[x]+1
6) else:
7) d[x]=1
8) for k,v in d.items():
9) print("{} = {} Times".format(k,v))

Q11) Write a Program to perform the following Task?

Input: 'one two three four five six seven'
Output: 'one owt three ruof five xis seven'

1) s = input('Enter Some String:')

2) l = s.split()
3) l1 = []
4) i = 0
5) while i<len(l):
6) if i%2==0:
7) l1.append(l[i])
8) else:
9) l1.append(l[i][::-1])
10) i=i+1
11) output=' '.join(l1)
12) print('Original String:',s)
13) print('output String:',output)

Output:
D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter Some String:one two three four five six seven
Original String: one two three four five six seven
output String: one owt three ruof five xis seven

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Formatting the Strings:
֍ We can format the strings with variable values by using replacement operator {} and
format() method.
֍ The main objective of format() method to format string into meaningful output form.

Case- 1: Basic formatting for default, positional and keyword arguments

1) name = 'durga'
2) salary = 10000
3) age = 48
4) print("{} 's salary is {} and his age is {}".format(name,salary,age))
5) print("{0} 's salary is {1} and his age is {2}".format(name,salary,age))
6) print("{x} 's salary is {y} and his age is {z}".format(z=age,y=salary,x=name))

Output:
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48

Case-2: Formatting Numbers

d  Decimal IntEger
f  Fixed point number(float).The default precision is 6
b  Binary format
o  Octal Format
x  Hexa Decimal Format (Lower case)
X  Hexa Decimal Format (Upper case)

Eg-1:

1) print("The intEger number is: {}".format(123))

2) print("The intEger number is: {:d}".format(123))
3) print("The intEger number is: {:5d}".format(123))
4) print("The intEger number is: {:05d}".format(123))

Output:
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 00123

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Eg-2:

1) print("The float number is: {}".format(123.4567))

2) print("The float number is: {:f}".format(123.4567))
3) print("The float number is: {:8.3f}".format(123.4567))
4) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(123.4567))
5) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(123.45))
6) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(786786123.45))

Output:
The float number is: 123.4567
The float number is: 123.456700
The float number is: 123.457
The float number is: 0123.457
The float number is: 0123.450
The float number is: 786786123.450

Note:
֍ {:08.3f}
֍ Total positions should be minimum 8.
֍ After decimal point exactly 3 digits are allowed.If it is less then 0s will be placed in the
last positions
֍ If total number is < 8 positions then 0 will be placed in MSBs
֍ If total number is >8 positions then all intEgral digits will be considered.
֍ The extra digits we can take only 0

Note: For numbers default alignment is Right Alignment (>)

Eg-3: Print Decimal value in binary, octal and hexadecimal form

1) print("Binary Form:{0:b}".format(153))
2) print("Octal Form:{0:o}".format(153))
3) print("Hexa decimal Form:{0:x}".format(154))
4) print("Hexa decimal Form:{0:X}".format(154))

Output:
Binary Form:10011001
Octal Form:231
Hexa decimal Form:9a
Hexa decimal Form:9A

Note: We can represent only int values in binary, octal and hexadecimal and it is not
possible for float values.

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Note:
1) {:5d} It takes an intEger argument and assigns a minimum width of 5.
2) {:8.3f} It takes a float argument and assigns a minimum width of 8 including "." and
after decimal point excatly 3 digits are allowed with round operation if required
3) {:05d} The blank places can be filled with 0. In this place only 0 allowed.

Case-3: Number formatting for signed numbers

֍ While displaying positive numbers,if we want to include + then we have to write
{:+d} and {:+f}
֍ Using plus for -ve numbers there is no use and for -ve numbers - sign will come
automatically.

1) print("int value with sign:{:+d}".format(123))

2) print("int value with sign:{:+d}".format(-123))
3) print("float value with sign:{:+f}".format(123.456))
4) print("float value with sign:{:+f}".format(-123.456))

Output:
int value with sign:+123
int value with sign:-123
float value with sign:+123.456000
float value with sign:-123.456000

Case-4: Number formatting with alignment

֍ <, >, ^ and = are used for alignment

֍ <  Left Alignment to the remaining space
֍ ^  Center alignment to the remaining space
֍ >  Right alignment to the remaining space
֍ =  Forces the signed(+) (-) to the left most position

Note: Default Alignment for numbers is Right Alignment.

Ex:

1) print("{:5d}".format(12))
2) print("{:<5d}".format(12))
3) print("{:<05d}".format(12))
4) print("{:>5d}".format(12))
5) print("{:>05d}".format(12))
6) print("{:^5d}".format(12))
7) print("{:=5d}".format(-12))
8) print("{:^10.3f}".format(12.23456))
9) print("{:=8.3f}".format(-12.23456))

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Output:
12
12
12000
12
00012
12
-12
12.235
- 12.235

Case-5: String formatting with format()

Similar to numbers, we can format String values also with format() method.
s.format(string)

1) print("{:5d}".format(12))
2) print("{:5}".format("rat"))
3) print("{:>5}".format("rat"))
4) print("{:<5}".format("rat"))
5) print("{:^5}".format("rat"))
6) print("{:*^5}".format("rat")) #Instead of * we can use any character(like +,$,a etc)

Output:
12
rat
rat
rat
rat
*rat*

Note: For numbers default alignment is right where as for strings default alignment is left

Case-6: Truncating Strings with format() method

1) print("{:.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
2) print("{:5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
3) print("{:>5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
4) print("{:^5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
5) print("{:*^5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))

Output:
dur
dur
dur

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dur
*dur*

Case-7: Formatting dictionary members using format()

1) person={'age':48,'name':'durga'}
2) print("{p[name]}'s age is: {p[age]}".format(p=person))

Output:
durga's age is: 48
Note: p is alias name of dictionary
person dictionary we are passing as keyword argument

More convinient way is to use **person

1) person={'age':48,'name':'durga'}
2) print("{name}'s age is: {age}".format(**person))

Output: durga's age is: 48

Case-8: Formatting class members using format()

1) class Person:
2) age=48
3) name="durga"
4) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person()))

Output: durga's age is :48

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person('durga',48)))
6) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person('Ravi',50)))

Note: Here Person object is passed as keyword argument. We can access by using its
reference variable in the template string

Case-9: Dynamic Formatting using format()

1) string="{:{fill}{align}{width}}"
2) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='^',width=5))
3) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='^',width=6))

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109
 4) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='<',width=6))
5) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='>',width=6))

Output:
*cat*
*cat**
cat***
***cat

Case-10: Dynamic Float format template

1) num="{:{align}{width}.{precision}f}"
2) print(num.format(123.236,align='<',width=8,precision=2))
3) print(num.format(123.236,align='>',width=8,precision=2))

Output:
123.24
123.24

Case-11: Formatting Date values

1) import datetime
2) #datetime formatting
3) date=datetime.datetime.now()
4) print("It's now:{:%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S}".format(date))

Output: It's now:09/03/2018 12:36:26

Case-12: Formatting complex numbers

1) complexNumber=1+2j
2) print("Real Part:{0.real} and Imaginary Part:{0.imag}".format(complexNumber))

Output: Real Part: 1.0 and Imaginary Part: 2.0

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LIST
DATA STRUCTURE

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֍ If we want to represent a group of individual objects as a single entity where insertion
order preserved and duplicates are allowed, then we should go for List.
֍ insertion order preserved.
֍ duplicate objects are allowed.
֍ heterogeneous objects are allowed.
֍ List is dynamic because based on our requirement we can increase the size and
decrease the size.
֍ In List the elements will be placed within square brackets and with comma seperator.
֍ We can differentiate duplicate elements by using index and we can preserve insertion
order by using index. Hence index will play very important role.
֍ Python supports both positive and negative indexes. +ve index means from left to
right where as negative index means right to left.
[10,"A","B",20, 30, 10]

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 A B 20 30 10
0 1 2 3 4 5
֍ List objects are mutable.i.e we can change the content.

Creation of List Objects:

1) We can create empty list object as follows...

1) list=[]
2) print(list)
3) print(type(list))
4)
5) []
6) <class 'list'>

2) If we know elements already then we can create list as follows list = [10, 20, 30, 40]

3) With Dynamic Input:

1) list=eval(input("Enter List:"))
2) print(list)
3) print(type(list))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[10,20,30,40]
[10, 20, 30, 40]
<class 'list'>

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4) With list() Function:

1) l=list(range(0,10,2))
2) print(l)
3) print(type(l))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
<class 'list'>

Eg:

1) s="durga"
2) l=list(s)
3) print(l)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['d', 'u', 'r', 'g', 'a']

5) With split() Function:

1) s="Learning Python is very very easy !!!"

2) l=s.split()
3) print(l)
4) print(type(l))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Learning', 'Python', 'is', 'very', 'very', 'easy', '!!!']
<class 'list'>

Note: Sometimes we can take list inside another list, such type of lists are called nested
lists.
[10, 20, [30, 40]]

Accessing Elements of List:

We can access elements of the list either by using index or by using slice operator(:)

1) By using Index:
֍ List follows zero based index. ie index of first element is zero.
֍ List supports both +ve and -ve indexes.
֍ +ve index meant for Left to Right
֍ -ve index meant for Right to Left
֍ list = [10, 20, 30, 40]

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 -4 -3 -2 -1
list 10 20 30 40
0 1 2 3

֍ print(list[0])  10
֍ print(list[-1])  40
֍ print(list[10])  IndexError: list index out of range

2) By using Slice Operator:

Syntax: list2 = list1[start:stop:step]

Start  It indicates the Index where slice has to Start

Default Value is 0

Stop  It indicates the Index where slice has to End

Default Value is max allowed Index of List ie Length of the List

Step  increment value

Default Value is 1

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) print(n[2:7:2])
3) print(n[4::2])
4) print(n[3:7])
5) print(n[8:2:-2])
6) print(n[4:100])

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[3, 5, 7]
[5, 7, 9]
[4, 5, 6, 7]
[9, 7, 5]
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

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List vs Mutability:
Once we creates a List object, we can modify its content. Hence List objects are mutable.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n)
3) n[1]=777
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[10, 777, 30, 40]

Traversing the Elements of List:

The sequential access of each element in the list is called traversal.

1) By using while Loop:

1) n = [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) i = 0
3) while I < len(n):
4) print(n[i])
5) i=i+1

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

2) By using for Loop:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for n1 in n:
3) print(n1)

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

3) To display only Even Numbers:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for n1 in n:
3) if n1%2==0:
4) print(n1)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
2
4
6
8
10

4) To display Elements by Index wise:

1) l = ["A","B","C"]
2) x = len(l)
3) for i in range(x):
4) print(l[i],"is available at positive index: ",i,"and at negative index: ",i-x)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
A is available at positive index: 0 and at negative index: -3
B is available at positive index: 1 and at negative index: -2
C is available at positive index: 2 and at negative index: -1

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Important Functions of List:
I. To get Information about List:
1) len():
Returns the number of elements present in the list
Eg: n = [10, 20, 30, 40]
print(len(n)  4

2) count():
It returns the number of occurrences of specified item in the list

1) n=[1,2,2,2,2,3,3]
2) print(n.count(1))
3) print(n.count(2))
4) print(n.count(3))
5) print(n.count(4))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
1
4
2
0

3) index():
Returns the index of first occurrence of the specified item.

1) n = [1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3]
2) print(n.index(1))  0
3) print(n.index(2))  1
4) print(n.index(3))  5
5) print(n.index(4))  ValueError: 4 is not in list

Note: If the specified element not present in the list then we will get ValueError.Hence
before index() method we have to check whether item present in the list or not by using in
operator.
print( 4 in n)  False

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II. Manipulating Elements of List:
1) append() Function:
We can use append() function to add item at the end of the list.

1) list=[]
2) list.append("A")
3) list.append("B")
4) list.append("C")
5) print(list)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['A', 'B', 'C']

Eg: To add all elements to list upto 100 which are divisible by 10

1) list=[]
2) for i in range(101):
3) if i%10==0:
4) list.append(i)
5) print(list)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100]

2) insert() Function:
To insert item at specified index position

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) n.insert(1,888)
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[1, 888, 2, 3, 4, 5]

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) n.insert(10,777)
3) n.insert(-10,999)
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[999, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 777]

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118
Note: If the specified index is greater than max index then element will be inserted at last
position. If the specified index is smaller than min index then element will be inserted at
first position.

Differences between append() and insert()

append() insert()
In List when we add any element it will In List we can insert any element in
come in last i.e. it will be last element. particular index number

3) extend() Function:
To add all items of one list to another list
l1.extend(l2)
all items present in l2 will be added to l1

1) order1=["Chicken","Mutton","Fish"]
2) order2=["RC","KF","FO"]
3) order1.extend(order2)
4) print(order1)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Chicken', 'Mutton', 'Fish', 'RC', 'KF', 'FO']

1) order = ["Chicken","Mutton","Fish"]
2) order.extend("Mushroom")
3) print(order)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Chicken', 'Mutton', 'Fish', 'M', 'u', 's', 'h', 'r', 'o', 'o', 'm']

4) remove() Function:
We can use this function to remove specified item from the list.If the item present
multiple times then only first occurrence will be removed.

1) n=[10,20,10,30]
2) n.remove(10)
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[20, 10, 30]

If the specified item not present in list then we will get ValueError

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119
 1) n=[10,20,10,30]
2) n.remove(40)
3) print(n)

ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

Note: Hence before using remove() method first we have to check specified element
present in the list or not by using in operator.

5) pop() Function:
 It removes and returns the last element of the list.
 This is only function which manipulates list and returns some element.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n.pop())
3) print(n.pop())
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
40
30
[10, 20]

If the list is empty then pop() function raises IndexError

1) n = []
2) print(n.pop())  IndexError: pop from empty list

Note:
1) pop() is the only function which manipulates the list and returns some value
2) In general we can use append() and pop() functions to implement stack datastructure
by using list,which follows LIFO(Last In First Out) order.

In general we can use pop() function to remove last element of the list. But we can use to
remove elements based on index.

n.pop(index)  To remove and return element present at specified index.

n.pop()  To remove and return last element of the list

1) n = [10,20,30,40,50,60]
2) print(n.pop())  60
3) print(n.pop(1))  20
4) print(n.pop(10))  IndexError: pop index out of range

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 Differences between remove() and pop()
remove() pop()
1) We can use to remove special element 1) We can use to remove last element
from the List. from the List.
2) It can’t return any value. 2) It returned removed element.
3) If special element not available then we 3) If List is empty then we get Error.
get VALUE ERROR.

Note: List Objects are dynamic. i.e based on our requirement we can increase and
decrease the size.

append(), insert(), extend()  for increasing the size/growable nature

remove(), pop()  for decreasing the size /shrinking nature

III) Ordering Elements of List:

1) reverse():
We can use to reverse() order of elements of list.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) n.reverse()
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[40, 30, 20, 10]

2) sort():
In list by default insertion order is preserved. If want to sort the elements of list
according to default natural sorting order then we should go for sort() method.

 For numbers  Default Natural sorting Order is Ascending Order

 For Strings  Default Natural sorting order is Alphabetical Order

1) n = [20,5,15,10,0]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)  [0,5,10,15,20]
4)
5) s = ["Dog","Banana","Cat","Apple"]
6) s.sort()
7) print(s)  ['Apple','Banana','Cat','Dog']

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Note: To use sort() function, compulsory list should contain only homogeneous elements.
Otherwise we will get TypeError

1) n=[20,10,"A","B"]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)

TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'

Note: In Python 2 if List contains both numbers and Strings then sort() function first sort
numbers followed by strings

1) n=[20,"B",10,"A"]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)# [10,20,'A','B']

But in Python 3 it is invalid.

To Sort in Reverse of Default Natural Sorting Order:

We can sort according to reverse of default natural sorting order by using reverse=True
argument.

1) n = [40,10,30,20]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)  [10,20,30,40]
4) n.sort(reverse = True)
5) print(n)  [40,30,20,10]
6) n.sort(reverse = False)
7) print(n)  [10,20,30,40]

Aliasing and Cloning of List Objects:

The process of giving another reference variable to the existing list is called aliasing.

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) y=x 10 20 30 40
x
3) print(id(x)) y
4) print(id(y))

The problem in this approach is by using one reference variable if we are changing
content, then those changes will be reflected to the other reference variable.

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
10 20 30 40
2) y = x
x 777
3) y[1] = 777
y
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 4) print(x)  [10,777,30,40]

To overcome this problem we should go for cloning.

The process of creating exactly duplicate independent object is called cloning.

We can implement cloning by using slice operator or by using copy() function.

1) By using Slice Operator:

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) y = x[:]
3) y[1] = 777
4) print(x)  [10, 20, 30, 40]
5) print(y)  [10, 777, 30, 40]

10 20 30 40
x
10 20 30 40
777
y
2) By using copy() Function:
1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) y = x.copy()
3) y[1] = 777
4) print(x)  [10, 20, 30, 40]
5) print(y)  [10, 777, 30, 40]

10 20 30 40
x

10 20 30 40
777
y

Q) Difference between = Operator and copy() Function

֍ = Operator meant for aliasing
֍ copy() Function meant for cloning

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Using Mathematical Operators for List Objects:
We can use + and * operators for List objects.

1) Concatenation Operator (+):

We can use + to concatenate 2 lists into a single list

1) a = [10, 20, 30]

2) b = [40, 50, 60]
3) c = a+b
4) print(c)  [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]

Note: To use + operator compulsory both arguments should be list objects, otherwise we
will get TypeError.

Eg:
c = a+40  TypeError: can only concatenate list (not "int") to list.
c = a+[40]  Valid

2) Repetition Operator (*):

We can use repetition operator * to repeat elements of list specified number of times.

1) x = [10, 20, 30]

2) y = x*3
3) print(y)  [10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30]

Comparing List Objects

We can use comparison operators for List objects.

1) x = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]

2) y = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]
3) z = ["DOG", "CAT", "RAT"]
4) print(x == y)  True
5) print(x == z)  False
6) print(x != z)  True

Note: Whenever we are using comparison operators (==, !=) for List objects then the
following should be considered
1) The Number of Elements
2) The Order of Elements
3) The Content of Elements (Case Sensitive)
Note: When ever we are using relatational Operators (<, <=, >, >=) between List Objects,
only 1ST Element comparison will be performed.

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 1) x = [50, 20, 30]
2) y = [40, 50, 60, 100, 200]
3) print(x>y)  True
4) print(x>=y)  True
5) print(x<y)  False
6) print(x<=y)  False

Eg:

1) x = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]

2) y=["Rat", "Cat", "Dog"]
3) print(x>y)  False
4) print(x>=y)  False
5) print(x<y)  True
6) print(x<=y)  True

Membership Operators:
We can check whether element is a member of the list or not by using memebership
operators.

1) in Operator
2) not in Operator

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print (10 in n)
3) print (10 not in n)
4) print (50 in n)
5) print (50 not in n)

Output
True
False
False
True

clear() Function:
We can use clear() function to remove all elements of List.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n)
3) n.clear()
4) print(n)

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Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[]

Nested Lists:
Sometimes we can take one list inside another list. Such type of lists are called nested
lists.

1) n=[10,20,[30,40]]
2) print(n)
3) print(n[0])
4) print(n[2])
5) print(n[2][0])
6) print(n[2][1])

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, [30, 40]]
10
[30, 40]
30
40

Note: We can access nested list elements by using index just like accessing multi
dimensional array elements.

Nested List as Matrix:

In Python we can represent matrix by using nested lists.

1) n=[[10,20,30],[40,50,60],[70,80,90]]
2) print(n)
3) print("Elements by Row wise:")
4) for r in n:
5) print(r)
6) print("Elements by Matrix style:")
7) for i in range(len(n)):
8) for j in range(len(n[i])):
9) print(n[i][j],end=' ')
10) print()

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Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[[10, 20, 30], [40, 50, 60], [70, 80, 90]]

Elements by Row wise:

[10, 20, 30]
[40, 50, 60]
[70, 80, 90]

Elements by Matrix style:

10 20 30
40 50 60
70 80 90

List Comprehensions:
It is very easy and compact way of creating list objects from any iterable objects
(Like List, Tuple, Dictionary, Range etc) based on some condition.

Syntax: list = [expression for item in list if condition]

1) s = [ x*x for x in range(1,11)]

2) print(s)
3) v = [2**x for x in range(1,6)]
4) print(v)
5) m = [x for x in s if x%2==0]
6) print(m)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
[2, 4, 8, 16, 32]
[4, 16, 36, 64, 100]

1) words=["Balaiah","Nag","Venkatesh","Chiranjeevi"]
2) l=[w[0] for w in words]
3) print(l)

Output: ['B', 'N', 'V', 'C']

1) num1=[10,20,30,40]
2) num2=[30,40,50,60]
3) num3=[ i for i in num1 if i not in num2]
4) print(num3) [10,20]
5)
6) common elements present in num1 and num2

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127
 7) num4=[i for i in num1 if i in num2]
8) print(num4) [30, 40]

Eg:

1) words="the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split()

2) print(words)
3) l=[[w.upper(),len(w)] for w in words]
4) print(l)

Output
['the', 'quick', 'brown', 'fox', 'jumps', 'over', 'the', 'lazy', 'dog']
[['THE', 3], ['QUICK', 5], ['BROWN', 5], ['FOX', 3], ['JUMPS', 5], ['OVER', 4],
['THE', 3], ['LAZY', 4], ['DOG', 3]]

Q) Write a Program to display Unique Vowels present in the

given Word?
1) vowels=['a','e','i','o','u']
2) word=input("Enter the word to search for vowels: ")
3) found=[]
4) for letter in word:
5) if letter in vowels:
6) if letter not in found:
7) found.append(letter)
8) print(found)
9) print("The number of different vowels present in",word,"is",len(found))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter the word to search for vowels: durgasoftwaresolutions
['u', 'a', 'o', 'e', 'i']
The number of different vowels present in durgasoftwaresolutions is 5

List out all Functions of List and write a Program to use these Functions

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TUPLE
DATA STRUCTURE

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1) Tuple is exactly same as List except that it is immutable. i.e once we creates Tuple
object, we cannot perform any changes in that object.
2) Hence Tuple is Read only version of List.
3) If our data is fixed and never changes then we should go for Tuple.
4) Insertion Order is preserved
5) Duplicates are allowed
6) Heterogeneous objects are allowed.
7) We can preserve insertion order and we can differentiate duplicate objects by using
index. Hence index will play very important role in Tuple also.
8) Tuple support both +ve and -ve index. +ve index means forward direction (from left to
right) and -ve index means backward direction (from right to left)
9) We can represent Tuple elements within Parenthesis and with comma seperator.
10) Parenethesis are optional but recommended to use.

1) t=10,20,30,40
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) (10, 20, 30, 40)
7)
8) <class 'tuple'>
9) t=()
10) print(type(t)  tuple

Note: We have to take special care about single valued tuple.compulsary the value
should ends with comma, otherwise it is not treated as tuple.

1) t=(10)
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) 10
7) <class 'int'>

Eg:

1) t=(10,)
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) (10,)
7) <class 'tuple'>

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Q) Which of the following are valid Tuples?
1) t = ()
2) t = 10, 20, 30, 40
3) t = 10
4) t = 10,
5) t = (10)
6) t = (10,)
7) t = (10, 20, 30, 40)

Tuple Creation:
1) t = ()
Creation of Empty Tuple

2) t = (10,)
t = 10,
Creation of Single valued Tuple, Parenthesis are Optional, should ends with Comma

3) t = 10, 20, 30
t = (10, 20, 30)
Creation of multi values Tuples & Parenthesis are Optional.

4) By using tuple() Function:

1) list=[10,20,30]
2) t=tuple(list)
3) print(t)
4)
5) t=tuple(range(10,20,2))
6) print(t)

Accessing Elements of Tuple:

We can access either by index or by slice operator

1) By using Index:
1) t = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
2) print(t[0])  10
3) print(t[-1])  60
4) print(t[100])  IndexError: tuple index out of range

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2) By using Slice Operator:
1) t=(10,20,30,40,50,60)
2) print(t[2:5])
3) print(t[2:100])
4) print(t[::2])

Output
(30, 40, 50)
(30, 40, 50, 60)
(10, 30, 50)

Tuple vs Immutability:
 Once we creates tuple, we cannot change its content.
 Hence tuple objects are immutable.

Eg:
t = (10, 20, 30, 40)
t[1] = 70  TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Mathematical Operators for Tuple:

We can apply + and * operators for tuple

1) Concatenation Operator (+):

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=(40,50,60)
3) t3=t1+t2
4) print(t3)  (10,20,30,40,50,60)

2) Multiplication Operator OR Repetition Operator (*)

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=t1*3
3) print(t2)  (10,20,30,10,20,30,10,20,30)

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Important Functions of Tuple:
1) len()
To return number of elements present in the tuple.

Eg: t = (10,20,30,40)
print(len(t))  4

2) count()
To return number of occurrences of given element in the tuple

Eg: t = (10, 20, 10, 10, 20)

print(t.count(10))  3

3) index()
 Returns index of first occurrence of the given element.
 If the specified element is not available then we will get ValueError.

Eg: t = (10, 20, 10, 10, 20)

print(t.index(10))  0
print(t.index(30))  ValueError: tuple.index(x): x not in tuple

4) sorted()
To sort elements based on default natural sorting order

1) t=(40,10,30,20)
2) t1=sorted(t)
3) print(t1)
4) print(t)

Output
[10, 20, 30, 40]
(40, 10, 30, 20)

We can sort according to reverse of default natural sorting order as follows

t1 = sorted(t, reverse = True)
print(t1)  [40, 30, 20, 10]

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5) min() And max() Functions:
These functions return min and max values according to default natural sorting order.

1) t = (40,10,30,20)
2) print(min(t))  10
3) print(max(t))  40

6) cmp():
֍ It compares the elements of both tuples.
֍ If both tuples are equal then returns 0
֍ If the first tuple is less than second tuple then it returns -1
֍ If the first tuple is greater than second tuple then it returns +1

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=(40,50,60)
3) t3=(10,20,30)
4) print(cmp(t1,t2))  -1
5) print(cmp(t1,t3))  0
6) print(cmp(t2,t3))  +1

Note: cmp() function is available only in Python2 but not in Python 3

Tuple Packing and Unpacking:

We can create a tuple by packing a group of variables.

Eg:
a = 10
b = 20
c = 30
d = 40
t = a, b, c, d
print(t)  (10, 20, 30, 40)

 Here a, b, c, d are packed into a Tuple t. This is nothing but Tuple packing.
 Tuple unpacking is the reverse process of Tuple packing.
 We can unpack a Tuple and assign its values to different variables.

1) t=(10,20,30,40)
2) a,b,c,d=t
3) print("a=",a,"b=",b,"c=",c,"d=",d)

Output: a= 10 b= 20 c= 30 d= 40

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Note: At the time of tuple unpacking the number of variables and number of values
should be same, otherwise we will get ValueError.

Eg:
t = (10,20,30,40)
a, b, c = t  ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 3)

Tuple Comprehension:
 Tuple Comprehension is not supported by Python.
 t = ( x**2 for x in range(1,6))
 Here we are not getting tuple object and we are getting generator object.

1) t= ( x**2 for x in range(1,6))

2) print(type(t))
3) for x in t:
4) print(x)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
<class 'generator'>
1
4
9
16
25

Q) Write a Program to take a Tuple of Numbers from the Keyboard

and Print its Sum and Average?
1) t=eval(input("Enter Tuple of Numbers:"))
2) l=len(t)
3) sum=0
4) for x in t:
5) sum=sum+x
6) print("The Sum=",sum)
7) print("The Average=",sum/l)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Tuple of Numbers:(10,20,30,40)
The Sum= 100
The Average= 25.0

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Tuple of Numbers: (100,200,300)

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The Sum= 600
The Average= 200.0

Differences between List and Tuple:

 List and Tuple are exactly same except small difference: List objects are mutable where
as Tuple objects are immutable.
 In both cases insertion order is preserved, duplicate objects are allowed, heterogenous
objects are allowed, index and slicing are supported.

List Tuple
1) List is a Group of Comma separeated 1) Tuple is a Group of Comma separeated
Values within Square Brackets and Values within Parenthesis and
Square Brackets are mandatory. Parenthesis are optional.
Eg: i = [10, 20, 30, 40] Eg: t = (10, 20, 30, 40)
t = 10, 20, 30, 40
2) List Objects are Mutable i.e. once we 2) Tuple Objeccts are Immutable i.e. once
creates List Object we can perform any we creates Tuple Object we cannot
changes in that Object. change its content.
Eg: i[1] = 70 t[1] = 70  ValueError: tuple object
does not support item assignment.
3) If the Content is not fixed and keep on 3) If the content is fixed and never changes
changing then we should go for List. then we should go for Tuple.
4) List Objects can not used as Keys for 4) Tuple Objects can be used as Keys for
Dictionries because Keys should be Dictionries because Keys should be
Hashable and Immutable. Hashable and Immutable.

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SET
DATA STRUCTURE

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 If we want to represent a group of unique values as a single entity then we should go
for set.
 Duplicates are not allowed.
 Insertion order is not preserved.But we can sort the elements.
 Indexing and slicing not allowed for the set.
 Heterogeneous elements are allowed.
 Set objects are mutable i.e once we creates set object we can perform any changes in
that object based on our requirement.
 We can represent set elements within curly braces and with comma seperation
 We can apply mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference etc on set
objects.

Creation of Set Objects:

1) s={10,20,30,40}
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

Output
{40, 10, 20, 30}
<class 'set'>

We can create set objects by using set() Function s = set(any sequence)

Eg 1:

1) l = [10,20,30,40,10,20,10]
2) s=set(l)
3) print(s) # {40, 10, 20, 30}

Eg 2:

1) s=set(range(5))
2) print(s) #{0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

Note:
֍ While creating empty set we have to take special care.
֍ Compulsory we should use set() function.
֍ s = {}  It is treated as dictionary but not empty set.

1) s={}
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

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Output
{}
<class 'dict'>

Eg:

1) s=set()
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

Output
set()
<class 'set'>

Important Functions of Set:

1) add(x):
Adds item x to the set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) s.add(40);
3) print(s) #{40, 10, 20, 30}

2) update(x,y,z):
 To add multiple items to the set.
 Arguments are not individual elements and these are Iterable objects like List, Range
etc.
 All elements present in the given Iterable objects will be added to the set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) l=[40,50,60,10]
3) s.update(l,range(5))
4) print(s)

Output: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 40, 10, 50, 20, 60, 30}

Q) What is the difference between add() and update()

Functions in Set?
 We can use add() to add individual item to the Set,where as we can use update()
function to add multiple items to Set.
 add() function can take only one argument where as update() function can take any
number of arguments but all arguments should be iterable objects.
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Q) Which of the following are valid for set s?
1) s.add(10)
2) s.add(10,20,30)  TypeError: add() takes exactly one argument (3 given)
3) s.update(10)  TypeError: 'int' object is not iterable
4) s.update(range(1,10,2),range(0,10,2))

3) copy():
 Returns copy of the set.
 It is cloned object.

1) s = {10,20,30}
2) s1 = s.copy()
3) print(s1)

4) pop():
It removes and returns some random element from the set.

1) s={40,10,30,20}
2) print(s)
3) print(s.pop())
4) print(s)

Output
{40, 10, 20, 30}
40
{10, 20, 30}

5) remove(x):
 It removes specified element from the set.
 If the specified element not present in the Set then we will get KeyError.

1) s = {40, 10, 30, 20}

2) s.remove(30)
3) print {(s) 40, 10, 20}
4) s.remove(50 KeyError: ) 50

6) discard(x):
1) It removes the specified element from the set.
2) If the specified element not present in the set then we won't get any error.

1) s = {10, 20, 30}

2) s.discard(10)

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 3) print {(s) 20, 30}
4) s.discard(50)
5) print {(s) 20, 30}

Q) What is the difference between remove() and discard() functions in Set?

Q) Explain differences between pop(),remove() and discard() functionsin Set?

7) clear():
To remove all elements from the Set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) print(s)
3) s.clear()
4) print(s)

Output
{10, 20, 30}
set()

Mathematical Operations on the Set:

1) union():
 x.union(y)  We can use this function to return all elements present in both sets
 x.union(y) OR x|y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.union(y))  {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60}
4) print (x|y)  {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60}

2) intersection():
 x.intersection(y) OR x&y.
 Returns common elements present in both x and y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.intersection(y))  {40, 30}
4) print(x&y)  {40, 30}

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3) difference():
 x.difference(y) OR x-y.
 Returns the elements present in x but not in y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.difference(y))  10, 20
4) print (x-y)  {10, 20}
5) print (y-x)  {50, 60}

4) symmetric_difference():
 x.symmetric_difference(y) OR x^y.
 Returns elements present in either x OR y but not in both.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.symmetric_difference(y))  {10, 50, 20, 60}
4) print(x^y)  {10, 50, 20, 60}

Membership Operators: (in, not in)

1) s=set("durga")
2) print(s)
3) print('d' in s)
4) print('z' in s)

Output
{'u', 'g', 'r', 'd', 'a'}
True
False

Set Comprehension:
Set comprehension is possible.

1) s = {x*x for x in range(5)}

2) print (s)  {0, 1, 4, 9, 16}
3)
4) s = {2**x for x in range(2,10,2)}
5) print (s)  {16, 256, 64, 4}

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Set Objects won't support indexing and slicing:
1) s = {10,20,30,40}
2) print(s[0])  TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing
3) print(s[1:3])  TypeError: 'set' object is not subscriptable

Q) Write a Program to eliminate Duplicates Present in the

List?
Approach - 1 Approach - 2

1) l=eval(input("Enter List of values: ")) 1) l=eval(input("Enter List of values: "))

2) s=set(l) 2) l1=[]
3) print(s) 3) for x in l:
4) if x not in l1:
D:\Python_classes>py test.py 5) l1.append(x)
Enter List of values: [10,20,30,10,20,40] 6) print(l1)
{40, 10, 20, 30}
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List of values: [10,20,30,10,20,40]
[10, 20, 30, 40]

Q) Write a Program to Print different Vowels Present in the

given Word?
1) w=input("Enter word to search for vowels: ")
2) s=set(w)
3) v={'a','e','i','o','u'}
4) d=s.intersection(v)
5) print("The different vowel present in",w,"are",d)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter word to search for vowels: durga
The different vowel present in durga are {'u', 'a'}

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DICTIONARY
DATA STRUCTURE

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֍ We can use List, Tuple and Set to represent a group of individual objects as a single
entity.
֍ If we want to represent a group of objects as key-value pairs then we should go for
Dictionary.

Eg:
 rollno ---- name
 phone number -- address
 ipaddress --- domain name

֍ Duplicate keys are not allowed but values can be duplicated.

֍ Hetrogeneous objects are allowed for both key and values.
֍ Insertion order is not preserved
֍ Dictionaries are mutable
֍ Dictionaries are dynamic
֍ indexing and slicing concepts are not applicable

Note: In C++ and Java Dictionaries are known as "Map" where as in Perl and Ruby it is
known as "Hash"

How to Create Dictionary?

 d = {} OR d = dict()
 We are creating empty dictionary. We can add entries as follows

1) d[100]="durga"
2) d[200]="ravi"
3) d[300]="shiva"
4) print(d)  {100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}

 If we know data in advance then we can create dictionary as follows

 d = {100:'durga' ,200:'ravi', 300:'shiva'}

 d = {key:value, key:value}

How to Access Data from the Dictionary?

We can access data by using keys.

1) d = {100:'durga',200:'ravi', 300:'shiva'}
2) print(d[100]) #durga
3) print(d[300]) #shiva

If the specified key is not available then we will get KeyError

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print(d[400])  KeyError: 400

We can prevent this by checking whether key is already available or not by using
has_key() function or by using in operator.

d.has_key(400)  Returns 1 if key is available otherwise returns 0

But has_key() function is available only in Python 2 but not in Python 3. Hence
compulsory we have to use in operator.

if 400 in d:
print(d[400])

Q) Write a Program to Enter Name and Percentage Marks

in a Dictionary and Display Information on the Screen
1) rec={}
2) n=int(input("Enter number of students: "))
3) i=1
4) while i <=n:
5) name=input("Enter Student Name: ")
6) marks=input("Enter % of Marks of Student: ")
7) rec[name]=marks
8) i=i+1
9) print("Name of Student","\t","% of marks")
10) for x in rec:
11) print("\t",x,"\t\t",rec[x])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter number of students: 3
Enter Student Name: durga
Enter % of Marks of Student: 60%
Enter Student Name: ravi
Enter % of Marks of Student: 70%
Enter Student Name: shiva
Enter % of Marks of Student: 80%

Name of Student % of marks

--------------- ------------
durga 60%
ravi 70 %
shiva 80%

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How to Update Dictionaries?
֍ d[key] = value
֍ If the key is not available then a new entry will be added to the dictionary with the
specified key-value pair
֍ If the key is already available then old value will be replaced with new value.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) d[400]="pavan"
4) print(d)
5) d[100]="sunny"
6) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}
{100: 'sunny', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}

How to Delete Elements from Dictionary?

1) del d[key]
 It deletes entry associated with the specified key.
 If the key is not available then we will get KeyError.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) del d[100]
4) print(d)
5) del d[400]

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
KeyError: 400

2) d.clear()
To remove all entries from the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) d.clear()
4) print(d)

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Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{}

3) del d
To delete total dictionary.Now we cannot access d.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) del d
4) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
NameError: name 'd' is not defined

Important Functions of Dictionary:

1) dict():
To create a dictionary

 d = dict()  It creates empty dictionary

 d = dict({100:"durga",200:"ravi"})  It creates dictionary with specified elements
 d = dict([(100,"durga"),(200,"shiva"),(300,"ravi")])
 It creates dictionary with the given list of tuple elements

2) len()
Returns the number of items in the dictionary.

3) clear():
To remove all elements from the dictionary.

4) get():
To get the value associated with the key

d.get(key)
If the key is available then returns the corresponding value otherwise returns None.It
wont raise any error.

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d.get(key,defaultvalue)
If the key is available then returns the corresponding value otherwise returns default
value.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d[100])  durga
3) print(d[400])  KeyError:400
4) print(d.get(100))  durga
5) print(d.get(400))  None
6) print(d.get(100,"Guest"))  durga
7) print(d.get(400,"Guest"))  Guest

5) pop():
d.pop(key)
 It removes the entry associated with the specified key and returns the
corresponding value.
 If the specified key is not available then we will get KeyError.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.pop(100))
3) print(d)
4) print(d.pop(400))

Output
durga
{200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
KeyError: 400

6) popitem():
It removes an arbitrary item(key-value) from the dictionaty and returns it.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) print(d.popitem())
4) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
(300, 'shiva')
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi'}
If the dictionary is empty then we will get KeyError
d={}
print(d.popitem()) ==>KeyError: 'popitem(): dictionary is empty'

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7) keys():
It returns all keys associated eith dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.keys())
3) for k in d.keys():
4) print(k)

Output
dict_keys([100, 200, 300])
100
200
300

8) values():
It returns all values associated with the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.values())
3) for v in d.values():
4) print(v)

Output
dict_values(['durga', 'ravi', 'shiva'])
durga
ravi
shiva

9) items():
It returns list of tuples representing key-value pairs.
[(k,v),(k,v),(k,v)]

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) for k,v in d.items():
3) print(k,"--",v)

Output
100 -- durga
200 -- ravi
300 -- shiva

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10) copy():
To create exactly duplicate dictionary (cloned copy)
d1 = d.copy();

11) setdefault():
d.setdefault(k,v)
 If the key is already available then this function returns the corresponding value.
 If the key is not available then the specified key-value will be added as new item to
the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.setdefault(400,"pavan"))
3) print(d)
4) print(d.setdefault(100,"sachin"))
5) print(d)

Output
pavan
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}
durga
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}

12) update():
d.update(x)
All items present in the dictionary x will be added to dictionary d

Q) Write a Program to take Dictionary from the Keyboard

and print the Sum of Values?
1) d=eval(input("Enter dictionary:"))
2) s=sum(d.values())
3) print("Sum= ",s)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter dictionary:{'A':100,'B':200,'C':300}
Sum= 600

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Q) Write a Program to find Number of Occurrences of each Letter
present in the given String?
1) word=input("Enter any word: ")
2) d={}
3) for x in word:
4) d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
5) for k,v in d.items():
6) print(k,"occurred ",v," times")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter any word: mississippi
m occurred 1 times
i occurred 4 times
s occurred 4 times
p occurred 2 times

Q) Write a Program to find Number of Occurrences of each Vowel

present in the given String?
1) word=input("Enter any word: ")
2) vowels={'a','e','i','o','u'}
3) d={}
4) for x in word:
5) if x in vowels:
6) d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
7) for k,v in sorted(d.items()):
8) print(k,"occurred ",v," times")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter any word: doganimaldoganimal
a occurred 4 times
i occurred 2 times
o occurred 2 times

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Q) Write a Program to accept Student Name and Marks from the
Keyboard and creates a Dictionary. Also display Student Marks
by taking Student Name as Input?
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of students: "))
2) d={}
3) for i in range(n):
4) name=input("Enter Student Name: ")
5) marks=input("Enter Student Marks: ")
6) d[name]=marks
7) while True:
8) name=input("Enter Student Name to get Marks: ")
9) marks=d.get(name,-1)
10) if marks== -1:
11) print("Student Not Found")
12) else:
13) print("The Marks of",name,"are",marks)
14) option=input("Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]")
15) if option=="No":
16) break
17) print("Thanks for using our application")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter the number of students: 5

Enter Student Name: sunny

Enter Student Marks: 90

Enter Student Name: banny

Enter Student Marks: 80

Enter Student Name: chinny

Enter Student Marks: 70

Enter Student Name: pinny

Enter Student Marks: 60

Enter Student Name: vinny

Enter Student Marks: 50

Enter Student Name to get Marks: sunny

The Marks of sunny are 90

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Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]Yes

Enter Student Name to get Marks: durga

Student Not Found

Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]No

Thanks for using our application

Dictionary Comprehension:
Comprehension concept applicable for dictionaries also.

1) squares={x:x*x for x in range(1,6)}

2) print(squares)
3) doubles={x:2*x for x in range(1,6)}
4) print(doubles)

Output
{1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
{1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 6, 4: 8, 5: 10}

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FUNCTIONS

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֍ If a group of statements is repeatedly required then it is not recommended to write
these statements everytime seperately.We have to define these statements as a single
unit and we can call that unit any number of times based on our requirement without
rewriting. This unit is nothing but function.

֍ The main advantage of functions is code Reusability.

֍ Note: In other languages functions are known as methods,procedures,subroutines etc

֍ Python supports 2 types of functions

1) Built in Functions
2) User Defined Functions

1) Built in Functions:
The functions which are coming along with Python software automatically, are called
built in functions or pre defined functions.
Eg: id()
type()
input()
eval()
etc..

2) User Defined Functions:

The functions which are developed by programmer explicitly according to business
requirements, are called user defined functions.

Syntax to Create User defined Functions:

def function_name(parameters) :
""" doc string"""
----
-----
return value

Note: While creating functions we can use 2 keywords

1) def (mandatory)
2) return (optional)

Eg 1: Write a function to print Hello

test.py
1) def wish():
2) print("Hello Good Morning")
3) wish()
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 4) wish()
5) wish()

Parameters
Parameters are inputs to the function. If a function contains parameters, then at the time
of calling,compulsory we should provide values otherwise,otherwise we will get error.
Eg: Write a function to take name of the student as input and print wish message by
name.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Hello",name," Good Morning")
3) wish("Durga")
4) wish("Ravi")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Ravi Good Morning

Eg: Write a function to take number as input and print its square value

1) def squareIt(number):
2) print("The Square of",number,"is", number*number)
3) squareIt(4)
4) squareIt(5)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The Square of 4 is 16
The Square of 5 is 25

Return Statement:
Function can take input values as parameters and executes business logic, and returns
output to the caller with return statement.

Q) Write a Function to accept 2 Numbers as Input and

return Sum
1) def add(x,y):
2) return x+y
3) result=add(10,20)
4) print("The sum is",result)
5) print("The sum is",add(100,200))

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The sum is 30
The sum is 300

If we are not writing return statement then default return value is None.

1) def f1():
2) print("Hello")
3) f1()
4) print(f1())

Output
Hello
Hello
None

Q) Write a Function to check whether the given Number is

Even OR Odd?
1) def even_odd(num):
2) if num%2==0:
3) print(num,"is Even Number")
4) else:
5) print(num,"is Odd Number")
6) even_odd(10)
7) even_odd(15)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10 is Even Number
15 is Odd Number

Q) Write a Function to find Factorial of given Number?

1) def fact(num):
2) result=1
3) while num>=1:
4) result=result*num
5) num=num-1
6) return result
7) for i in range(1,5):
8) print("The Factorial of",i,"is :",fact(i))

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Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The Factorial of 1 is : 1
The Factorial of 2 is : 2
The Factorial of 3 is : 6
The Factorial of 4 is : 24

Returning Multiple Values from a Function:

In other languages like C,C++ and Java, function can return atmost one value. But in
Python, a function can return any number of values.

Eg 1:

1) def sum_sub(a,b):
2) sum=a+b
3) sub=a-b
4) return sum,sub
5) x,y=sum_sub(100,50)
6) print("The Sum is :",x)
7) print("The Subtraction is :",y)

Output
The Sum is : 150
The Subtraction is : 50

Eg 2:

1) def calc(a,b):
2) sum=a+b
3) sub=a-b
4) mul=a*b
5) div=a/b
6) return sum,sub,mul,div
7) t=calc(100,50)
8) print("The Results are")
9) for i in t:
10) print(i)

Output
The Results are
150
50
5000
2.0
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Types of Arguments
def f1(a,b):
------
------
------
f1(10,20)

a, b are formal arguments where as 10,20 are actual arguments.

There are 4 types are actual arguments are allowed in Python.

1) Positional Arguments
2) Keyword Arguments
3) Default Arguments
4) Variable Length Arguments

1) Positional Arguments:
 These are the arguments passed to function in correct positional order.
def sub(a, b):
print(a-b)

sub(100, 200)
sub(200, 100)

 The number of arguments and position of arguments must be matched. If we change

the order then result may be changed.
 If we change the number of arguments then we will get error.

2) Keyword Arguments:
We can pass argument values by keyword i.e by parameter name.

1) def wish(name,msg):
2) print("Hello",name,msg)
3) wish(name="Durga",msg="Good Morning")
4) wish(msg="Good Morning",name="Durga")

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Durga Good Morning
Here the order of arguments is not important but number of arguments must be matched.

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Note: We can use both positional and keyword arguments simultaneously. But first we
have to take positional arguments and then keyword arguments,otherwise we will get
syntaxerror.

1) def wish(name,msg):
2) print("Hello",name,msg)
3) wish("Durga","GoodMorning")  Valid
4) wish("Durga",msg="GoodMorning")  Valid
5) wish(name="Durga","GoodMorning")  Invalid
6) SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

3) Default Arguments:
Sometimes we can provide default values for our positional arguments.

1) def wish(name="Guest"):
2) print("Hello",name,"Good Morning")
3) wish("Durga")
4) wish()

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Guest Good Morning
If we are not passing any name then only default value will be considered.

***Note:
After default arguments we should not take non default arguments.

1) def wish(name="Guest",msg="Good Morning"):  Valid

2) def wish(name,msg="Good Morning"):  Valid
3) def wish(name="Guest",msg):  Invalid

SyntaxError: non-default argument follows default argument

4) Variable Length Arguments:

 Sometimes we can pass variable number of arguments to our function, such type of
arguments are called variable length arguments.
 We can declare a variable length argument with * symbol as follows
 def f1(*n):
 We can call this function by passing any number of arguments including zero number.
 Internally all these values represented in the form of tuple.

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 1) def sum(*n):
2) total=0
3) for n1 in n:
4) total=total+n1
5) print("The Sum=",total)
6)
7) sum()
8) sum(10)
9) sum(10,20)
10) sum(10,20,30,40)

Output
The Sum= 0
The Sum= 10
The Sum= 30
The Sum= 100

Note: We can mix variable length arguments with positional arguments.

1) def f1(n1,*s):
2) print(n1)
3) for s1 in s:
4) print(s1)
5)
6) f1(10)
7) f1(10,20,30,40)
8) f1(10,"A",30,"B")

Output
10
10
20
30
40
10
A
30
B

Note: After variable length argument,if we are taking any other arguments then we
should provide values as keyword arguments.

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 1) def f1(*s,n1):
2) for s1 in s:
3) print(s1)
4) print(n1)
5)
6) f1("A","B",n1=10)

Output
A
B
10
f1("A","B",10)  Invalid
TypeError: f1() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'n1'

Note: We can declare key word variable length arguments also.

 For this we have to use **.

 def f1(**n):
 We can call this function by passing any number of keyword arguments. Internally
these keyword arguments will be stored inside a dictionary.

1) def display(**kwargs):
2) for k,v in kwargs.items():
3) print(k,"=",v)
4) display(n1=10,n2=20,n3=30)
5) display(rno=100,name="Durga",marks=70,subject="Java")

Output
n1 = 10
n2 = 20
n3 = 30
rno = 100
name = Durga
marks = 70
subject = Java

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Case Study:
def f(arg1,arg2,arg3=4,arg4=8):
print(arg1,arg2,arg3,arg4)

1) f(3,2)  3 2 4 8

2) f(10,20,30,40)  10 20 30 40

3) f(25,50,arg4=100)  25 50 4 100

4) f(arg4=2,arg1=3,arg2=4)  3 4 4 2

5) f()  Invalid
TypeError: f() missing 2 required positional arguments: 'arg1' and 'arg2'

6) f(arg3=10, arg4=20, 30, 40)  Invalid

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument
[After keyword arguments we should not take positional arguments]

7) f(4, 5, arg2 = 6)  Invalid

TypeError: f() got multiple values for argument 'arg2'

8) f(4, 5, arg3 = 5, arg5 = 6)  Invalid

TypeError: f() got an unexpected keyword argument 'arg5'

Note: Function vs Module vs Library

1) A group of lines with some name is called a function
2) A group of functions saved to a file, is called Module
3) A group of Modules is nothing but Library

Library Function

Module 1 Module 2 -----------------

-----------------
Function 1 Function 1 -----------------
-----------------
-----------------
Function 2 Function 2 -----------------
-----------------
Function 3 Function 3 -----------------
-----------------
-

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Types of Variables
Python supports 2 types of variables.

1) Global Variables
2) Local Variables

1) Global Variables
 The variables which are declared outside of function are called global variables.
 These variables can be accessed in all functions of that module.

1) a=10 # global variable

2) def f1():
3) print(a)
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a)
7)
8) f1()
9) f2()

Output
10
10

2) Local Variables:
 The variables which are declared inside a function are called local variables.
 Local variables are available only for the function in which we declared it.i.e from
outside of function we cannot access.

1) def f1():
2) a=10
3) print(a) # valid
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a) #invalid
7)
8) f1()
9) f2()

NameError: name 'a' is not defined

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global Keyword:
We can use global keyword for the following 2 purposes:
1) To declare global variable inside function
2) To make global variable available to the function so that we can perform required
modifications

1) a=10
2) def f1():
3) a=777
4) print(a)
5)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()
11)

Output
777
10

1) a=10
2) def f1():
3) global a
4) a=777
5) print(a)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()

Output
777
777

1) def f1():
2) a=10
3) print(a)
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a)
7)

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 8) f1()
9) f2()

Output: NameError: name 'a' is not defined

1) def f1():
2) global a
3) a=10
4) print(a)
5)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()

Output
10
10

Note: If global variable and local variable having the same name then we can access
global variable inside a function as follows

1) a = 10  Global Variable
2) def f1():
3) a=777  Local Variable
4) print(a)
5) print(globals()['a'])
6) f1()

Output
777
10

Recursive Functions
A function that calls itself is known as Recursive Function.

Eg:
factorial(3) = 3 * factorial(2)
= 3 * 2 * factorial(1)
= 3 * 2 * 1 * factorial(0)
=3*2*1*1
=6
factorial(n) = n * factorial(n-1)
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167
The main advantages of recursive functions are:
1) We can reduce length of the code and improves readability.
2) We can solve complex problems very easily.

Q) Write a Python Function to find Factorial of given

Number with Recursion
1) def factorial(n):
2) if n==0:
3) result=1
4) else:
5) result=n*factorial(n-1)
6) return result
7) print("Factorial of 4 is :",factorial(4))
8) print("Factorial of 5 is :",factorial(5))

Output
Factorial of 4 is : 24
Factorial of 5 is : 120

Anonymous Functions:
 Sometimes we can declare a function without any name,such type of nameless
functions are called anonymous functions or lambda functions.
 The main purpose of anonymous function is just for instant use(i.e for one time usage)

Normal Function:
We can define by using def keyword.
def squareIt(n):
return n*n

Lambda Function:
We can define by using lambda keyword lambda n:n*n

Syntax of lambda Function: lambda argument_list : expression

Note: By using Lambda Functions we can write very concise code so that readability of
the program will be improved.

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Q) Write a Program to create a Lambda Function to find Square of
given Number?
1) s=lambda n:n*n
2) print("The Square of 4 is :",s(4))
3) print("The Square of 5 is :",s(5))

Output
The Square of 4 is : 16
The Square of 5 is : 25

Q) Lambda Function to find Sum of 2 given Numbers

1) s=lambda a,b:a+b
2) print("The Sum of 10,20 is:",s(10,20))
3) print("The Sum of 100,200 is:",s(100,200))

Output
The Sum of 10,20 is: 30
The Sum of 100,200 is: 300

Q) Lambda Function to find biggest of given Values

1) s=lambda a,b:a if a>b else b
2) print("The Biggest of 10,20 is:",s(10,20))
3) print("The Biggest of 100,200 is:",s(100,200))

Output
The Biggest of 10,20 is: 20
The Biggest of 100,200 is: 200

Note: Lambda Function internally returns expression value and we are not required to
write return statement explicitly.

Note: Sometimes we can pass function as argument to another function. In such cases
lambda functions are best choice.

We can use lambda functions very commonly with filter(), map() and reduce() functions,
because these functions expect function as argument.

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filter() Function:
We can use filter() function to filter values from the given sequence based on some
condition.

filter(function,sequence)
Where Function Argument is responsible to perform conditional check Sequence can be
List OR Tuple OR String.

Q) Program to filter only Even Numbers from the List by using

filter() Function?

Without Lambda Function:

1) def isEven(x):
2) if x%2==0:
3) return True
4) else:
5) return False
6) l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
7) l1=list(filter(isEven,l))
8) print(l1) #[0,10,20,30]

With Lambda Function:

1) l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
2) l1=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==0,l))
3) print(l1) #[0,10,20,30]
4) l2=list(filter(lambda x:x%2!=0,l))
5) print(l2) #[5,15,25]

map() Function:
 For every element present in the given sequence,apply some functionality and
generate new element with the required modification. For this requirement we
should go for map() function.

 Eg: For every element present in the list perform double and generate new list of
doubles.

 Syntax: map(function, sequence)

 The function can be applied on each element of sequence and generates new
sequence.

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Without Lambda
1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) def doubleIt(x):
3) return 2*x
4) l1=list(map(doubleIt,l))
5) print(l1) #[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

With Lambda
1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) l1=list(map(lambda x:2*x,l))
3) print(l1) #[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

-------------------------------------------------------------
Eg 2: To find square of given numbers

1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) l1=list(map(lambda x:x*x,l))
3) print(l1) #[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

We can apply map() function on multiple lists also.But make sure all list should have same
length.

Syntax: map(lambda x,y:x*y,l1,l2))

x is from l1 and y is from l2

1) l1=[1,2,3,4]
2) l2=[2,3,4,5]
3) l3=list(map(lambda x,y:x*y,l1,l2))
4) print(l3) #[2, 6, 12, 20]

reduce() Function:
 reduce() function reduces sequence of elements into a single element by applying the
specified function.
 reduce(function,sequence)
 reduce() function present in functools module and hence we should write import
statement.

1) from functools import *

2) l=[10,20,30,40,50]
3) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,l)
4) print(result) # 150

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Eg:

1) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x*y,l)
2) print(result) #12000000

Eg:

1) from functools import *

2) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,range(1,101))
3) print(result) #5050

Everything is an Object:
 In Python every thing is treated as object.
 Even functions also internally treated as objects only.

1) def f1():
2) print("Hello")
3) print(f1)
4) print(id(f1))

Output:
<function f1 at 0x00419618>
4298264

Function Aliasing:
For the existing function we can give another name, which is nothing but function aliasing.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Good Morning:",name)
3)
4) greeting=wish
5) print(id(wish))
6) print(id(greeting))
7)
8) greeting('Durga')
9) wish('Durga')

Output:
4429336
4429336
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Durga

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172
Note:
 In the above example only one function is available but we can call that function by
using either wish name or greeting name.
 If we delete one name still we can access that function by using alias name.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Good Morning:",name)
3)
4) greeting=wish
5)
6) greeting('Durga')
7) wish('Durga')
8)
9) del wish
10) #wish('Durga')  NameError: name 'wish' is not defined
11) greeting('Pavan')

Output:
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Pavan

Nested Functions:
We can declare a function inside another function,such type of functions are called Nested
functions.

1) def outer():
2) print("outer function started")
3) def inner():
4) print("inner function execution")
5) print("outer function calling inner function")
6) inner()
7) outer()
8) #inner()  NameError: name 'inner' is not defined

Output:
outer function started
outer function calling inner function
inner function execution

In the above example inner() function is local to outer() function and hence it is not
possible to call directly from outside of outer() function.

Note: A function can return another function.

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 1) def outer():
2) print("outer function started")
3) def inner():
4) print("inner function execution")
5) print("outer function returning inner function")
6) return inner
7) f1=outer()
8) f1()
9) f1()
10) f1()

Output:
outer function started
outer function returning inner function
inner function execution
inner function execution
inner function execution

Q) What is the differenece between the following lines?

f1 = outer
f1 = outer()

 In the first case for the outer() function we are providing another name f1
(function aliasing).
 But in the second case we calling outer() function,which returns inner function.For
that inner function() we are providing another name f1

Note: We can pass function as argument to another function

Eg: filter(function,sequence)
map(function,sequence)
reduce(function,sequence)

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MODULES

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 A group of functions, variables and classes saved to a file, which is nothing but
module.
 Every Python file (.py) acts as a module.

durgamath.py

1) x = 888
2)
3) def add(a,b):
4) print("The Sum:",a+b)
5)
6) def product(a,b):
7) print("The Product:",a*b)

 durgamath module contains one variable and 2 functions.

 If we want to use members of module in our program then we should import that
module.
import modulename

 We can access members by using module name.

modulename.variable
modulename.function()

test.py:

1) import durgamath
2) print(durgamath.x)
3) durgamath.add(10,20)
4) durgamath.product(10,20)

Output
888
The Sum: 30
The Product: 200

Note: Whenever we are using a module in our program, for that module compiled file
will be generated and stored in the hard disk permanently.

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Renaming a Module at the time of import
(Module Aliasing):
 Eg: import durgamath as m
 Here durgamath is original module name and m is alias name.
 We can access members by using alias name m

test.py:

1) import durgamath as m
2) print(m.x)
3) m.add(10,20)
4) m.product(10,20)

from ... import:

We can import particular members of module by using from ... import .
The main advantage of this is we can access members directly without using module
name.

1) from durgamath import x,add

2) print(x)
3) add(10,20)
4) product(10,20)  NameError: name 'product' is not defined

We can import all members of a module as follows from durgamath import *

test.py:

1) from durgamath import *

2) print(x)
3) add(10,20)
4) product(10,20)

Various Possibilties of import:

1) import modulename
2) import module1,module2,module3
3) import module1 as m
4) import module1 as m1,module2 as m2,module3
5) from module import member
6) from module import member1,member2,memebr3
7) from module import memeber1 as x
8) from module import *

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Member Aliasing:
1) from durgamath import x as y,add as sum
2) print(y)
3) sum(10,20)

Once we defined as alias name,we should use alias name only and we should not use
original name

1) from durgamath import x as y

2) print(x)  NameError: name 'x' is not defined

Reloading a Module:
By default module will be loaded only once eventhough we are importing multiple
multiple times.

module1.py:
print("This is from module1")

test.py

1) import module1
2) import module1
3) import module1
4) import module1
5) print("This is test module")

Output
This is from module1
This is test module

 In the above program test module will be loaded only once eventhough we are
importing multiple times.

 The problem in this approach is after loading a module if it is updated outside then
updated version of module1 is not available to our program.

 We can solve this problem by reloading module explicitly based on our requirement.
 We can reload by using reload() function of imp module.

1) import imp
2) imp.reload(module1)

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test.py:

1) import module1
2) import module1
3) from imp import reload
4) reload(module1)
5) reload(module1)
6) reload(module1)
7) print("This is test module")

In the above program module1 will be loaded 4 times in that 1 time by default and 3 times
explicitly. In this case output is

1) This is from module1

2) This is from module1
3) This is from module1
4) This is from module1
5) This is test module

The main advantage of explicit module reloading is we can ensure that updated version is
always available to our program.

Finding Members of Module by using dir() Function:

Python provides inbuilt function dir() to list out all members of current module or a
specified module.

dir()  To list out all members of current module

dir(moduleName)  To list out all members of specified module

Eg 1: test.py

1) x=10
2) y=20
3) def f1():
4) print("Hello")
5) print(dir()) # To print all members of current module

Output
['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__nam
e__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'f1', 'x', 'y']

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Eg 2: To display members of particular module

durgamath.py:

1) x=888
2)
3) def add(a,b):
4) print("The Sum:",a+b)
5)
6) def product(a,b):
7) print("The Product:",a*b)

test.py:

1) import durgamath
2) print(dir(durgamath))

Output
['__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__',
'__package__', '__spec__', 'add', 'product', 'x']

Note: For every module at the time of execution Python interpreter will add some special
properties automatically for internal use.

Eg: __builtins__,__cached__,'__doc__,__file__, __loader__, __name__,__package__,

__spec__

Based on our requirement we can access these properties also in our program.

Eg: test.py

1) print(__builtins__ )
2) print(__cached__ )
3) print(__doc__)
4) print(__file__)
5) print(__loader__)
6) print(__name__)
7) print(__package__)
8) print(__spec__)

Output
<module 'builtins' (built-in)>
None
None

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test.py

1) <_frozen_importlib_external.SourceFileLoader object at 0x00572170>

2) __main__
3) None
4) None

The Special Variable __name__:

 For every Python program, a special variable __name__ will be added internally.
 This variable stores information regarding whether the program is executed as an
individual program or as a module.

 If the program executed as an individual program then the value of this variable is
__main__

 If the program executed as a module from some other program then the value of this
variable is the name of module where it is defined.

 Hence by using this __name__ variable we can identify whether the program executed
directly or as a module.

Demo program:

module1.py:

1) def f1():
2) if __name__=='__main__':
3) print("The code executed as a program")
4) else:
5) print("The code executed as a module from some other program")
6) f1()

test.py:

1) import module1
2) module1.f1()

D:\Python_classes>py module1.py
The code executed as a program

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The code executed as a module from some other program
The code executed as a module from some other program
nd
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181
Working with math Module:
 Python provides inbuilt module math.
 This module defines several functions which can be used for mathematical operations.
 The main important functions are
1) sqrt(x)
2) ceil(x)
3) floor(x)
4) fabs(x)
5) log(x)
6) sin(x)
7) tan(x)
8) ....

1) from math import *

2) print(sqrt(4))
3) print(ceil(10.1))
4) print(floor(10.1))
5) print(fabs(-10.6))
6) print(fabs(10.6))

Output
2.0
11
10
10.6
10.6

Note: We can find help for any module by using help() function

Eg:
import math
help(math)

Working with random Module:

 This module defines several functions to generate random numbers.
 We can use these functions while developing games,in cryptography and to generate
random numbers on fly for authentication.

1) random() Function:
This function always generate some float value between 0 and 1 ( not inclusive)
0<x<1

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182
 1) from random import *
2) for i in range(10):
3) print(random())

Output
0.4572685609302056
0.6584325233197768
0.15444034016553587
0.18351427005232201
0.1330257265904884
0.9291139798071045
0.6586741197891783
0.8901649834019002
0.25540891083913053
0.7290504335962871

2) randint() Function:
To generate random integer beween two given numbers(inclusive)

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randint(1,100)) # generate random int value between 1 and 100(inclusive)

Output
51
44
39
70
49
74
52
10
40
8

3) uniform() Function:
It returns random float values between 2 given numbers (not inclusive)

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(uniform(1,10))

nd
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183
Output
9.787695398230332
6.81102218793548
8.068672144377329
8.567976357239834
6.363511674803802
2.176137584071641
4.822867939432386
6.0801725149678445
7.508457735544763
1.9982221862917555

random()  in between 0 and 1 (not inclusive)

randint(x,y)  in between x and y ( inclusive)
uniform(x,y)  in between x and y ( not inclusive)

4) randrange ([start], stop, [step])

 Returns a random number from range
 start <= x < stop
 start argument is optional and default value is 0
 step argument is optional and default value is 1

 randrange(10)  generates a number from 0 to 9

 randrange(1,11)  generates a number from 1 to 10
 randrange(1,11,2)  generates a number from 1,3,5,7,9

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(10))

Output: 9
4
0
2
9
4
8
9
5
9

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11))

nd
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184
Output: 2
2
8
10
3
5
9
1
6
3

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11,2))

Output: 1
3
9
5
7
1
1
1
7
3

5) choice() Function:
 It won’t return random number.
 It will return a random object from the given list or tuple.

1) from random import *

2) list=["Sunny","Bunny","Chinny","Vinny","pinny"]
3) for i in range(10):
4) print(choice(list))
Output
Bunny
pinny
Bunny
Sunny
Bunny
pinny
pinny
Vinny
Bunny
Sunny
nd
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185
PACKAGES

nd
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186
֍ It is an encapsulation mechanism to group related modules into a single unit.
֍ package is nothing but folder or directory which represents collection of Python
modules.
֍ Any folder or directory contains __init__.py file,is considered as a Python package.This
file can be empty.
֍ A package can contains sub packages also.

__init__.py

File 1

File 1 File 1
__init__.py __init__.py

x.py y.py m.py n.py

Home Loan Vehicle Loan

Loan

__init__.py

File 1

File 1 File 1

__init__.py __init__.py

Module 1 Module 1 Module 1 Module 1

Home Loan Vehicle Loan

Loan

The main advantages of package statement are

1) We can resolve naming conflicts
2) We can identify our components uniquely
3) It improves modularity of the application

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187
Eg 1:
D:\Python_classes>
|-test.py
|-pack1
|-module1.py
|-__init__.py

__init__.py:
empty file

module1.py:
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in pack1")

test.py (version-1):
import pack1.module1
pack1.module1.f1()

test.py (version-2):
from pack1.module1 import f1
f1()

Eg 2:
D:\Python_classes>
|-test.py
|-com
|-module1.py
|-__init__.py
|-durgasoft
|-module2.py
|-__init__.py

__init__.py:
empty file

module1.py:
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in com")

module2.py:
def f2():
print("Hello this is from module2 present in com.durgasoft")

nd
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188
test.py

1) from com.module1 import f1

2) from com.durgasoft.module2 import f2
3) f1()
4) f2()

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Hello this is from module1 present in com
Hello this is from module2 present in com.durgasoft

Note: Summary diagram of library, packages, modules which contains functions, classes
and variables.

Library

pack 1 pack 2 --------------- pack n

module 1 module 2 module n module 1 module 2 module n

function 1 function 2 function n variables classes

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189
100
PATTERN
PROGRAMS
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190
Pattern-1:
**********
********** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
********** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
********** 3) print("* "*n)
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********

Pattern-2:
1111111111
2222222222 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
3333333333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
4444444444 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
5555555555 4) print(i,end=" ")
6666666666 5) print()
7777777777
8888888888
9999999999
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Pattern-3:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4) print(j,end=" ")
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5) print()
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

nd
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191
Pattern-4:
AAAAAAAAAA
BBBBBBBBBB
CCCCCCCCCC 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDDDDDDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEEEEEEE 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFFFFFF 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
GGGGGGGGGG 5) print()
HHHHHHHHHH
IIIIIIIIII
JJJJJJJJJJ

Pattern-5:
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCDEFGHIJ 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEFGHIJ 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEFGHIJ 4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGHIJ 5) print()
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ

Pattern-6:
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
9999999999
8888888888 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
7777777777 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
6666666666 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
5555555555 4) print(n+1-i,end=" ")
4444444444 5) print()
3333333333
2222222222
1111111111

nd
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192
Pattern-7:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 5) print()
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Pattern-8:
JJJJJJJJJJ
IIIIIIIIII
HHHHHHHHHH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
GGGGGGGGGG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFFFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
EEEEEEEEEE 4) print(chr(65+n-i),end=" ")
DDDDDDDDDD 5) print()
CCCCCCCCCC
BBBBBBBBBB
AAAAAAAAAA

Pattern-9:
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
JIHGFEDCBA 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
JIHGFEDCBA 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
JIHGFEDCBA 4) print(chr(65+n-j),end=" ")
JIHGFEDCBA 5) print()
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA

nd
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193
Pattern-10: Code - 1
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows:"))
* 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
** 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
*** 4) print("*",end=" ")
**** 5) print()
*****
****** Code - 2
******* 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows:"))
******** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
********* 3) print("* "*i)
**********

Pattern-11:
1
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
22
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
333
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
4444
4) print(i,end=" ")
55555
5) print()
666666
7777777
88888888
999999999
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Pattern-12:
1
12
123
1234 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
12345 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123456 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
1234567 4) print(j,end=" ")
12345678 5) print()
123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

nd
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194
Pattern-13:
A
BB
CCC 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEE 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
FFFFFF 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
GGGGGGG 5) print()
HHHHHHHH
IIIIIIIII
JJJJJJJJJJ

Pattern-14:
A
AB
ABC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDE
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCDEF
4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFG
5) print()
ABCDEFGH
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGHIJ

1) Squares
2) Right Angled Triangle
3) Reverse of Right Angled Triangle

Pattern-15:
**********
*********
********
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*******
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
******
3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
*****
4) print("*",end=" ")
****
5) print()
***
**
*
nd
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195
Pattern-16:
1111111111
222222222
33333333 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
4444444 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
555555 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
66666 4) print(i,end=" ")
7777 5) print()
888
99
10

Pattern-17:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
123456789
12345678 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1234567 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123456 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
12345 4) print(j,end=" ")
1234 5) print()
123
12
1

Pattern-18:
AAAAAAAAAA
BBBBBBBBB
CCCCCCCC
DDDDDDD 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
EEEEEE 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
GGGG 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
HHH 5) print()
II
J

nd
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196
Pattern-19:
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCDEFG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
ABCDE 4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCD 5) print()
ABC
AB
A

Pattern-20:
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
999999999
88888888
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
7777777
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
666666
3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
55555
4) print(n+1-i,end=" ")
4444
5) print()
333
22
1

Pattern-21:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
10 9 8 7 6 5 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
10 9 8 7 4) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
10 9 8 5) print()
10 9
10

nd
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197
Pattern-22:
JJJJJJJJJJ
IIIIIIIII
HHHHHHHH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
GGGGGGG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
EEEEE 4) print(chr(65+n-i),end=" ")
DDDD 5) print()
CCC
BB
A

Pattern-23:
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCB
JIHGFEDC
JIHGFED 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
JIHGFE 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
JIHGF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
JIHG 4) print(chr(65+n-j),end=" ")
JIH 5) print()
JI
J

Pattern-24:
*
**
***
****
***** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
****** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
******* 3) print(" "*(n-i),"*"*i,end=" ")
******** 4) print()
*********
**********

nd
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198
Pattern-25:
*
**
*** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
**** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
***** 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
****** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
******* 5) print("*",end=" ")
******** 6) print()
*********
**********

Pattern-26:
1

22

333

4444 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
55555 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(i)+" ")*i)
4) print()
666666

7777777

88888888

999999999

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

nd
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199
Pattern-27:
1
12 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
123 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
1234 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
12345 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
123456 5) print(j,end=" ")
1234567 6) print()
12345678
123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pattern-28:
A

BB

CCC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print(" "*(n-i),(chr(64+i)+" ")*i)
EEEEE 4) print()

FFFFFF

GGGGGGG

HHHHHHHH

Pattern-29:
A
AB
ABC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDE
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABCDEF
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCDEFG
5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGH
6) print()
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGHIJ

nd
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200
Pattern-30:
*****
**** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
** 3) print(" "*(i-1),"* "*(n+1-i))
*

Pattern-31:
55555
4444 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
22 3) print(" "*(i-1),(str(n+1-i)+" ")*(n+1-i))
1

Pattern-32:
12345 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1234 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
12 4) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
1 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) print()

Pattern-33:
EEEEE
DDDD 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
BB 3) print(" "*(i-1),(str(chr(65+n-i))+" ")*(n+1-i))
A

Pattern-34:
ABCDE 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABC 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
AB 4) for j in range(65,66+n-i):
A 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
6) print()

nd
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201
Pattern-35:
* 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
***** 3) print(" "*(n-i),"* "*(2*i-1))
*******
*********

Pattern-36:
1
222 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
33333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
4444444 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(i)+" ")*(2*i-1))
555555555

Pattern-37:
A
BBB 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCCCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
DDDDDDD 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(chr(64+i)+" "))*(2*i-1))
EEEEEEEEE

Pattern-38:
A 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEE 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(chr(64+2*i-1)+" "))*(2*i-1))
GGGGGGG
IIIIIIIII

Pattern-39:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
12345
4) for j in range(1,2*i):
1234567
5) print(j,end=" ")
123456789
6) print()

nd
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202
Pattern-40:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
321 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
54321 4) for j in range(2*i-1,0,-1):
7654321 5) print(j,end=" ")
987654321 6) print()

Pattern-41:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
A 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABC 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABCDE 4) for j in range(65,65+2*i-1):
ABCDEFG 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGHI 6) print()

Pattern-42:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
A 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
CBA 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
EDCBA 4) for j in range(65+2*i-2,64,-1):
GFEDCBA 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
IHGFEDCBA 6) print()

Pattern-43:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
0 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
101 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
21012 4) for j in range(1,i):
3210123 5) print(i-j,end=" ")
432101234 6) for k in range(0,i):
7) print(k,end=" ")
8) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
190  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

203
Pattern-44: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
A
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
BAB
4) for j in range(1,i):
CBABC
5) print(chr(i-j+65),end=" ")
DCBABCD
6) for k in range(0,i):
EDCBABCDE
7) print(chr(k+65),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-45: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
1
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
121
5) print(j,end=" ")
12321
6) for k in range(i-1,0,-1):
1234321
7) print(k,end=" ")
123454321
8) print()

Pattern-46: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
A 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABA 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCAB 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDABC 6) for k in range(1,i):
ABCDEABCD 7) print(chr(64+k),end=" ")
8) print()
Pattern-47:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
5 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
54 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
543 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
5432 5) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
54321 6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
191  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

204
Pattern-48: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
********* 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
******* 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
***** 5) print("*",end=" ")
*** 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
* 7) print("*",end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-49: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
555555555 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4444444 4) for j in range(0,num+1-i):
33333 5) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
222 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
1 7) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-50: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
999999999 4) for j in range(0,num+1-i):
7777777 5) print(2*num+1-2*i,end=" ")
55555 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
333 7) print(2*num+1-2*i,end=" ")
1 8) print()

Pattern-51:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1234567 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
12345 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
123 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
1 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
7) print(num+k-i,end=" ")
8) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
192  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

205
Pattern-52: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
EEEEEEEEE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
DDDDDDD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
CCCCC 5) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
BBB 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
A 7) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-53: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
I I I I I I I I I 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
G G G G G G G 5) print(chr(65+2*num-2*i),end=" ")
E E E E E 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
C C C 7) print(chr(65+2*num-2*i),end=" ")
A 8) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-54: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
ABCDEFG 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
ABCDE 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABC 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
A 7) print(chr(68+k-i),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-55: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
12 5) print(j,end=" ")
123 6) print()
1234 7) for k in range(1,num):
12345 8) print(" "*k,end="")
1234 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
123 10) print(l,end=" ")
12 11) print()
1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
193  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

206
Pattern-56:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
* 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
** 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
*** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 5) print("*",end=" ")
***** 6) print()
**** 7) for k in range(1,num):
*** 8) print(" "*k,end="")
** 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
* 10) print("*",end=" ")
11) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-57: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
43 5) print(num-j,end=" ")
432 6) print()
4321 7) for k in range(1,num):
43210 8) print(" "*k,end="")
4321 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
432 10) print(num-l,end=" ")
43 11) print()
4

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-58: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(0,i):
3
5) print(num+j-i,end=" ")
23
6) print()
123
7) for k in range(1,num):
0123
8) print(" "*k,end="")
123
9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
23
10) print(l+k-1,end=" ")
3
11) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
194  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

207
Pattern-59: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
E 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
DE 4) for j in range(0,i):
CDE 5) print(chr(65+num+j-i),end=" ")
BCDE 6) print()
ABCDE 7) for k in range(1,num):
BCDE 8) print(" "*k,end="")
CDE 9) for l in range(0,num-k):
DE 10) print(chr(65+k+l),end=" ")
E 11) print()

Pattern-60:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
*
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
**
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
***
4) print("*",end=" ")
****
5) print()
*****
6) for a in range(1,num+1):
****
7) for k in range(1,num+1-a):
***
8) print("*",end=" ")
**
9) print()
*

Pattern-61:
4 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
43 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
432 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
4321 4) print(num-j,end=" ")
43210 5) print()
4321 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
432 7) for k in range(1,num+1-a):
43 8) print(num-k,end=" ")
4 9) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
195  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

208
Pattern-62:
4 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
34 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
234 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
1234 4) print(num-i+j-1,end=" ")
01234 5) print()
1234 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
234 7) for k in range(0,num-a):
34 8) print(k+a,end=" ")
4 9) print()

Pattern-63:
E 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
DD 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
CCC 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
BBBB 4) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
AAAAA 5) print()
BBBB 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
CCC 7) for k in range(0,num-a):
DD 8) print(chr(65+a),end=" ")
E 9) print()

Pattern-64:
E 1) for i in range(1,num+1):
ED 2) for j in range(1,i+1):
EDC 3) print(chr(65+num-j),end=" ")
EDCB 4) print()
EDCBA 5) for a in range(1,num+1):
EDCB 6) for k in range(num-a,0,-1):
EDC 7) print(chr(64+k+a),end=" ")
ED 8) print()
E 9) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
196  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

209
Pattern-65:
E 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
DE 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
CDE 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
BCDE 4) print(chr(64+num-i+j),end=" ")
ABCDE 5) print()
BCDE 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
CDE 7) for k in range(1,num-a+1):
DE 8) print(chr(64+k+a),end=" ")
E 9) print()

Pattern-66:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
**
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
***
5) print("*",end=" ")
****
6) print()
*****

Pattern-67:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
22 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
333 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
4444 5) print(i,end=" ")
55555 6) print()

Pattern-68:
1 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
12 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
123 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1234 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
12345 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
197  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

210
Pattern-69:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
A 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
BB 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
CCC 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
DDDD 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
EEEEE 6) print()

Pattern-70: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
AB 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
ABC 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCD 6) print()
ABCDE

Pattern-71:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
****
4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
***
5) print("*",end=" ")
**
6) print()
*

Pattern-72:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
55555
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4444
4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
333
5) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
22
6) print()
1

Pattern-73:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
54321 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
4321 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
321 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
21 5) print(num+2-i-j,end=" ")
1 6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
198  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

211
Pattern-74: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
EEEEE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
DDDD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
CCC 5) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
BB 6) print()
A

Pattern-75:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
EDCBA 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
DCBA 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
CBA 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
BA 5) print(chr(65+num+1-i-j),end=" ")
A 6) print()

Pattern-76: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
ABCDE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
ABCD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
ABC 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
AB 6) print()
A

Pattern-77: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
* 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
* * 5) print("*",end=" ")
* * * 6) print()
* * * * 7) for p in range(1,num):
* * * * * 8) print(" "*p,end="")
* * * * 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
* * * 10) print("*",end=" ")
* * 11) print()
*

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
199  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

212
Pattern-78: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
1
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
22
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
333
5) print(i,end=" ")
4444
6) print()
55555
7) for p in range(1,num):
4444
8) print(" "*p,end="")
333
9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
22
10) print(num-p,end=" ")
1
11) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-79: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
1
5) print(j,end=" ")
12
6) print()
123
7) for p in range(1,num):
1234
8) print(" "*p,end="")
12345
9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
2345
10) print(q+p,end=" ")
345
11) print()
45
5

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-80: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
12 5) print(j,end=" ")
123 6) print()
1234 7) for p in range(1,num):
12345 8) print(" "*p,end="")
1234 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
123 10) print(q,end=" ")
12 11) print()
1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
200  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

213
Pattern-81: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
BB 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
CCC 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
DDDD 6) print()
EEEEE 7) for p in range(1,num):
DDDD 8) print(" "*p,end="")
CCC 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
BB 10) print(chr(64+num-p),end=" ")
A 11) print()

Pattern-82: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
A 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
AB 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABC 6) print()
ABCD 7) for p in range(1,num):
ABCDE 8) print(" "*p,end="")
BCDE 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
CDE 10) print(chr(64+q+p),end=" ")
DE 11) print()
E

1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
Pattern-83: 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
5) print(n-i+j,end=" ")
5
6) for k in range(2,i+1):
454
7) print(n+1-k,end=" ")
34543
2345432 8) print()
123454321 9) for i in range(1,n+1):
2345432 10) print(" "*i,end="")
34543 11) for j in range(1+i,n+1):
454 12) print(j,end=" ")
13) for k in range(2,n+1-i):
5
14) print(n+1-k,end=" ")
15) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
201  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

214
Pattern-84: 1) while True:
2) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
5 3) for i in range(1,n+1):
545 4) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
54345 5) for j in range(1,i+1):
5432345 6) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
543212345 7) for k in range(2,i+1):
5432345 8) print(n-i+k,end=" ")
54345 9) print()
545 10) for i in range(1,n+1):
5 11) print(" "*i,end="")
12) for j in range(1,n+1-i):
13) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
14) for k in range(2,n+1-i):
15) print(i+k,end=" ")
16) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-85: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
* 5) print("*",end=" ")
** 6) if i>=2:
* * 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
* * 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
* * 9) print("*",end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
Pattern-86: 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(i,end=" ")
1
6) if i>=2:
22
7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
3 3
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
4 4
9) print(i,end=" ")
5 5
10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
202  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

215
Pattern-87: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
5 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
44 4) for j in range(i,i+1):
3 3 5) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
2 2 6) if i>=2:
1 1 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-88: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
E
5) print(chr(64+num+1-i),end=" ")
DD
6) if i>=2:
C C
7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
B B
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
A A
9) print(chr(64+num+1-i),end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):

Pattern-89:
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
A 6) if i>=2:
BB 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
C C 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
D D 9) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
E E 10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
203  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com

216
Pattern-90: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
* *
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
* *
5) print("*",end=" ")
* *
6) if i<=4:
**
7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
*
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print("*",end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

Pattern-91:
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
1 1 5) print(i,end=" ")
2 2 6) if i<num:
3 3 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
44 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
5 9) print(i,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-92: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5 5 5) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
4 4 6) if i<=4:
3 3 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
22 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
1 9) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
Pattern-93: 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(chr(64+num-i+1),end=" ")
E E
6) if i<=4:
D D
7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
C C 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
BB 9) print(chr(64+num-i+1),end=" ")
A 10) print()

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Pattern-94: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A A 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
B B 4) for j in range(i,i+1):
C C 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
DD 6) if i<=4:
E 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
10) print()

Pattern-95:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
*****
4) for j in range(1,num+1):
*****
5) print("*",end=" ")
*****
6) print()
*****

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

Pattern-96:
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
* * 5) print("*",end=" ")
** ** 6) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
*** *** 7) for k in range(1,i+1):
**** **** 8) print("*",end=" ")
********** 9) print()

Pattern-97:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
01 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
101 4) if (i%2!=0 and j%2!=0 )or(i%2==0 and j%2==0):
0101 5) print("1",end=" ")
10101 6) else:
010101 7) print("0",end=" ")
1010101 8) print()

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Pattern-98:
*
** 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
*** 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
**** 3) print(" "*(2*num-i+3),end="")
*** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 5) print("*",end=" ")
***** 6) print()
****** 7) for i in range(1,num+3):
******* 8) print(" "*(2*num-i+1),end="")
******** 9) for j in range(-1,i+1):
**** 10) print("*",end=" ")
***** 11) print()
****** 12) for i in range(1,num+5):
******* 13) print(" "*(2*num-i),end="")
******** 14) for j in range(-2,i+1):
********* 15) print("*",end=" ")
********** 16) print()
*********** 17) for i in range(1,num+3):
*** 18) print(" "*((2*num)),end="")
*** 19) print("* "*3)
***
***
***
***

Pattern-99: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(2*num-i),end="")
*
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**
5) print("*",end=" ")
***
6) print()
****
7) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
8) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
* *
9) for j in range(1,i+1):
** **
10) print("*",end=" ")
*** ***
11) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
**** ****
12) for k in range(1,i+1):
**********
13) print("*",end=" ")
14) print()

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Pattern-100:
**
** 1) n=int(input("Enter a number"))
**** 2) for i in range(1,2*n+1):
**** 3) if i%2==0:
****** 4) print("*"*i,end=" ")
****** 5) else:
******** 6) print("*"*(i+1),end=" ")
******** 7) print()
**********
**********

Pattern-101:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for a in range(1,n+1,2):
3) for i in range(1,n+1):
4) print(" "*(2*n-i-a),end="")
5) for j in range(1,i+a):
6) print("*",end=" ")
7) print()
8) for b in range(1,n+1):
9) print(" "*(n-2),end="")
10) print("* "*3)

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 *
**
***
****
*****
******
*******
********
***
****
*****
******
*******
********
*********
**********
*****
******
*******
********
*********
**********
***********
************
*******
********
*********
**********
***********
************
*************
**************
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***

D D
U U
R R
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A A
DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA
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 INDEX
1) OOP’s Part – 1 ……………………………………………………….........… 1

2) OOP’s Part – 2 ……..……………………………………………….....…… 30

3) OOP’s Part – 3 ………………………………………………………………. 58

4) OOP’s Part – 4 …….………………………………………………….…….. 71

5) Exception Handling ….……………………………………….………….. 83

6) File Handling ………………………………….……………………………. 104

7) Multi Threading ………………………………………………………….. 123

8) Python Database Programming ………..…………….…………… 151

9) Regular Expressions & Web Scraping …….……………………. 166

10) Decorator Functions ……………………………………..………… 180

11) Generator Functions …………….……………………………..….. 185

12) Assertions ………………………………………………..……………… 190

13) Python Logging ………………………………………………………… 193

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DETAILED INDEX
֍ OOP’s Part – 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1
⚽ What is Class? …………………………………………………………………………………….………………. 2
⚽ How to define a Class? ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
⚽ What is Object? ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
⚽ What is Reference Variable? …………………………………………………………………………….... 3
⚽ Self Variable ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
⚽ Constructor Concept …………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
⚽ Differences between Methods and Constructors ………………………………………………… 6

⚽ Types of Variables ……………………………………………………..……………………..……………….. 6

☕ Instance Variables (Object Level Variables)
☕ Static Variables (Class Level Variables)
☕ Local variables (Method Level Variables)

⚽ Where we can declare Instance Variables …………………………………………………..………. 6

☕ Inside Constructor by using self variable
☕ Inside Instance Method by using self variable
☕ Outside of the class by using object reference variable

⚽ How to Access Instance Variables ……………………………………………....……………………… 8

⚽ How to delete Instance Variable from the Object ………………………………….………….… 8

⚽ Static Variables …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10

⚽ Instance Variable vs Static Variable ……………………..…………………………………………... 10
⚽ Various Places to declare Static Variables …………………..…………………………………….. 10
⚽ How to access Static Variables ………………………………….…………………………………….… 11
⚽ Where we can modify the Value of Static Variable ……………….………………………….. 12
⚽ How to Delete Static Variables of a Class ………………………………….………………………. 15

⚽ Local Variables …………………………………………………..…………………………………………….. 18

⚽ Types of Methods ………………………………………………………………..…………………………… 19
☕ Instance Methods
☕ Class Methods
☕ Static Methods
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 ⚽ Setter and Getter Methods …………………………..…………………….……………………………. 20
⚽ Passing Members of One Class to Another Class ……………………...………………………..23
⚽ Inner Classes …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
⚽ Garbage Collection ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
⚽ How to enable and disable Garbage Collector in our Program ……………………….…. 27
⚽ Destructors ……………………………..……………………………………………………………………….. 28
⚽ How to find the Number of References of an Object ……..…………………………………. 29

֍ OOP’s Part – 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 30

⚽ Inheritance …………………………….…………………………………………………..…………………… 31
☕ By Composition (Has-A Relationship)
☕ By Inheritance (IS-A Relationship

⚽ IS-A vs HAS-A Relationship …………………….………………………………………………………… 36

⚽ Composition vs Aggregation ………………………………………………………………………….… 38

⚽ Types of Inheritance ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 41

☕ Single Inheritance
☕ Multi Level Inheritance
☕ Hierarchical Inheritance
☕ Multiple Inheritance
☕ Hybrid Inheritance
☕ Cyclic Inheritance

⚽ Method Resolution Order (MRO) ……………………………..…………………………………….. 46

⚽ Head Element vs Tail Terminology …………………………………………………………………… 46
⚽ How to find Merge? ……………………………………………………………………………………..…. 46
⚽ Finding mro(P) by using C3 Algorithm ……………………………………………………………… 48
⚽ super() Method …………………………………………………………………………………………….… 51
⚽ How to Call Method of a Particular Super Class? ……………………………………………… 53
⚽ Various Important Points about super() ………………………………………………………..… 53

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֍ OOP’s Part – 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 58
⚽ Polymorphism ………………………………….……………………………………………………………….. 59
⚽ Duck Typing Philosophy of Python ………….…………………………………………………………. 59
⚽ Overloading ……………………………………………………………………..………………………………… 62
☕ Operator Overloading
☕ Method Overloading
☕ Constructor Overloading
⚽ Overriding ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
☕ Method Overriding
☕ Constructor Overriding

֍ OOP’s Part – 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 71

⚽ Abstract Method ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 72
⚽ Abstract class …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
⚽ Interface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
⚽ Concreate class vs Abstract Class vs Inteface ……………………………………………....... 78
⚽ Public,Private and Protected Members ………………………………………………………….. 78
⚽ __str__() Method …………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
⚽ Difference between str() and repr() functions ………………………………………………… 80
⚽ Small Banking Application …………………………………………………………………………...… 81

֍ Exception Handling ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 83

⚽ Syntax Errors ……………………………………………..……………………………………………….. 84
⚽ Runtime Errors ……………………………………………………………..…………………………….. 84
⚽ What is Exception …………………………………………………………………………..…………….85
⚽ Default Exception Handing in Python ……………………………………………………….…. 85
⚽ Python's Exception Hierarchy ……………….………………………………………………..…… 86
⚽ Customized Exception Handling by using try-except ………………………………….… 87
⚽ Control Flow in try-except …………………………………………………………………………... 87
⚽ How to Print Exception Information ……………………………..………………………….…. 88
⚽ try with Multiple except Blocks ……………………………………………………..……….…… 88
⚽ Single except Block that can handle Multiple Exceptions …………………………….. 90
⚽ Default except Block ………………………………………………………………………………..…. 90
⚽ finally Block ………………………………………………………………………………………..………. 91
⚽ Control Flow in try-except-finally …………………………………………………………..……. 93
⚽ Nested try-except-finally Blocks ………………………………………………………………….. 94
⚽ Control Flow in nested try-except-finally …………………………………………..………… 95
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 ⚽ else Block with try-except-finally ……………………………………………………………..…. 96
⚽ Various possible Combinations of try-except-else-finally ………………………..…… 97
⚽ Types of Exceptions ………………………………………….………………………………………. 101
☕ Predefined Exceptions
☕ User Definded Exceptions
⚽ How to Define and Raise Customized Exceptions …………………..………………..… 102

֍ File Handling ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 104

⚽ Types of Files ………………………………………….……………………………………………… 105
☕ Text Files
☕ Binary Files
⚽ Opening a File …………………………………….………………………………………………….. 105
⚽ Closing a File ……………………………………………………….…………………………………. 106
⚽ Various Properties of File Object ………………………………………….………………… 106
⚽ Writing Data to Text Files ……………………………………………………………………..… 107
☕ write(str)
☕ writelines(list of lines)
⚽ Reading Character Data from Text Files …………………………………..……………… 108
☕ read()  To Read Total Data from the File
☕ read(n)  To Read 'n' Characters from the File
☕ readline()  To Read only one Line
☕ readlines()  To Read all Lines into a List
⚽ The with Statement ………………………………………….……………………………………. 109
⚽ The seek() and tell() Methods …………………………………………….………………….. 110
⚽ How to check a particular File exists OR not ………………………………………...… 111
⚽ Handling Binary Data ………………………………………………..……………………………. 113
⚽ Handling CSV Files …………………………………………………………………….………….… 113
⚽ Writing Data to CSV File ……………………………………….………………………………… 114
⚽ Reading Data from CSV File ………………………………………………….………………… 114
⚽ Zipping and Unzipping Files ………………………………………………………………….… 115
⚽ To Create Zip File ………………………………………………………………….………………… 115
⚽ Working with Directories ………………………………………………….………………….… 116
⚽ Running Other Programs from Python Program …………………………………..…. 118
⚽ How to get Information about a File …………………….………………………………… 119
⚽ Pickling and Unpickling of Objects ………………………….………………………………. 120

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֍ Multi Threading ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 123
⚽ Multi Tasking ………………………………………………………………………………………….… 124
☕ Process based Multi Tasking
☕ Thread based Multi Tasking
⚽ The ways of Creating Thread in Python ……………………………………………………… 125
☕ Creating a Thread without using any class
☕ Creating a Thread by extending Thread class
☕ Creating a Thread without extending Thread class
⚽ Setting and Getting Name of a Thread ………………………………………………………. 127
⚽ Thread Identification Number (ident) ………………………………………………………… 128
⚽ enumerate() Function ……………………………………………………………………………….. 129
⚽ isAlive() Method ……………………………………………………………………………………..… 130
⚽ join() Method ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 130
⚽ Daemon Threads ………………………………………………………………………………………. 132
⚽ Default Nature ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 133
⚽ Synchronization ………………………………………………………………………………………... 134
☕ Lock
☕ RLock
☕ Semaphore
⚽ Synchronization By using Lock Concept ……………………………………………………… 135
⚽ Problem with Simple Lock …………………………………………………………………….…… 136
⚽ Demo Program for Synchronization by using RLock …………………………………… 137
⚽ Difference between Lock and RLock ……………………………………………………..…… 138
⚽ Synchronization by using Semaphore ………………………………………………………… 138
⚽ Bounded Semaphore ………………………………………………………………………………... 140
⚽ Difference between Lock and Semaphore ……………………………………………….… 140
⚽ Inter Thread Communication ……………………………………………………………..……… 141
⚽ Inter Thread Communication by using Event Objects ………………………………… 141
⚽ Methods of Event Class ……………………………………………………………………………… 141
☕ set()
☕ clear()
☕ isSet()
☕ wait()|wait(seconds)
⚽ Inter Thread Communication by using Condition Object ………………………….… 143

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 ⚽ Methods of Condition ……………………………………………………………………………….. 143
☕ acquire()
☕ release()
☕ wait()|wait(time)
☕ notify()
☕ notifyAll()
⚽ Case Study ………………………………………………………………………………………………... 144
⚽ Inter Tread Communication by using Queue ……………………………………………… 146
⚽ Important Methods of Queue …………………………………………………………………… 146
☕ put()
☕ get()
⚽ Types of Queues ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 147
☕ FIFO Queue
☕ LIFO Queue
☕ Priority Queue
⚽ Good Programming Practices with usage of Locks ……………………………………… 148

֍ Python Database Programming ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 151

⚽ Storage Areas ……………………………………………………………………………………… 152
☕ Temporary Storage Areas
☕ Permanent Storage Areas
⚽ File Systems ………………………………………………………………………………………… 152
⚽ Databases ………………………………………………………………………………………….… 152
⚽ Python Database Programming …………………………………………………………… 153
⚽ Working with Oracle Database ……………………………………………………………. 155
⚽ Installing cx_Oracle .…..………………………………………………………………………… 155
⚽ How to Test Installation …………………………………………………………………….… 155
⚽ Working with MySQL Database …………………………………………………………… 162
⚽ Commonly used Commands in MySQL …………………………………………….…… 162
⚽ Driver/Connector Information ………………………………………………..…………… 163
⚽ How to Check Installation ……………………………………………………………….…… 163

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֍ Regular Expressions & Web Scraping ~~~~~~~~~ 166
⚽ Character Classes …………………………………………………………………………………….… 168
⚽ Pre defined Character Classes ……………………………………………………………………. 169
⚽ Qunatifiers ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 169
⚽ Important Functions of Remodule …………………………………………………………..… 170
1) match()
2) fullmatch()
3) search()
4) findall()
5) finditer()
6) sub()
7) subn()
8) split()
9) compile()
⚽ Web Scraping by using Regular Expressions …………………………………………….… 177

֍ Decorator Functions ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 180

Decorator Chaining …………………………………………………………………………………………… 183

֍ Generator Functions ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 185

⚽ Advantages of Generator Functions ……………………………………………………….… 188
⚽ Generators vs Normal Collections wrt Performance …………………………………. 188
⚽ Generators vs Normal Collections wrt Memory Utilization ………………………. 189

֍ Assertions ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 190

⚽ Debugging Python Program by using assert Keyword ………………………………. 191
⚽ Types of assert Statements ……………………………………………………………………… 191
☕ Simple Version
☕ Augmented Version
⚽ Exception Handling vs Assertions …………………………………………………………….. 192

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֍ Python Logging ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 193
⚽ Logging Levels …………………………………………………………………………………………. 194
⚽ How to implement Logging ……………………………………………………………………… 194
⚽ How to configure Log File in over writing Mode ………………………………………. 196
⚽ How to Format Log Messages ………………………………………………………………….. 196
⚽ How to add Timestamp in the Log Messages ……………………………………………. 197
⚽ How to Change Date and Time Format …………………………………………………….. 197
⚽ How to write Python Program Exceptions to the Log File …………………………. 198
⚽ Problems with Root Logger ……………………………………………………………………… 199
⚽ Need of Our Own Customized Logger ………………………………………………………. 200
⚽ Advanced logging Module Features: Logger …………………………………………….. 200
⚽ Logger with Configuration File …………………………………………………………………. 203
⚽ Creation of Custom Logger ………………………………………………………………………. 205
⚽ How to Create seperate Log File based on Caller ……………………………………… 206
⚽ Advantages of Customized Logger ……………………………………………………………. 208

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OOP’s
Part - 1

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What is Class:
⚽ In Python every thing is an object. To create objects we required some Model or Plan
or Blue print, which is nothing but class.
⚽ We can write a class to represent properties (attributes) and actions (behaviour) of
object.

⚽ Properties can be represented by variables

⚽ Actions can be represented by Methods.

⚽ Hence class contains both variables and methods.

How to define a Class?

We can define a class by using class keyword.

Syntax:
class className:
''' documenttation string '''
variables:instance variables,static and local variables
methods: instance methods,static methods,class methods

Documentation string represents description of the class. Within the class doc string is
always optional. We can get doc string by using the following 2 ways.

1) print(classname.__doc__)
2) help(classname)

Example:

1) class Student:
2) ''''' This is student class with required data'''
3) print(Student.__doc__)
4) help(Student)

Within the Python class we can represent data by using variables.

There are 3 types of variables are allowed.

1) Instance Variables (Object Level Variables)

2) Static Variables (Class Level Variables)
3) Local variables (Method Level Variables)

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Within the Python class, we can represent operations by using methods. The following are
various types of allowed methods

1) Instance Methods
2) Class Methods
3) Static Methods

Example for Class:

1) class Student:
2) '''''Developed by durga for python demo'''
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.name='durga'
5) self.age=40
6) self.marks=80
7)
8) def talk(self):
9) print("Hello I am :",self.name)
10) print("My Age is:",self.age)
11) print("My Marks are:",self.marks)

What is Object:
Pysical existence of a class is nothing but object. We can create any number of objects for
a class.

Syntax to Create Object: referencevariable = classname()

Example: s = Student()

What is Reference Variable?

The variable which can be used to refer object is called reference variable.
By using reference variable, we can access properties and methods of object.

Program: Write a Python program to create a Student class and Creates an object to it.
Call the method talk() to display student details

1) class Student:
2)
3) def __init__(self,name,rollno,marks):
4) self.name=name
5) self.rollno=rollno
6) self.marks=marks
7)

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 8) def talk(self):
9) print("Hello My Name is:",self.name)
10) print("My Rollno is:",self.rollno)
11) print("My Marks are:",self.marks)
12)
13) s1=Student("Durga",101,80)
14) s1.talk()

Output:
D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Hello My Name is: Durga
My Rollno is: 101
My Marks are: 80

Self Variable:
 self is the default variable which is always pointing to current object (like this keyword
in Java)
 By using self we can access instance variables and instance methods of object.

Note:
1) self should be first parameter inside constructor
def __init__(self):
2) self should be first parameter inside instance methods
def talk(self):

Constructor Concept:
☕ Constructor is a special method in python.
☕ The name of the constructor should be __init__(self)
☕ Constructor will be executed automatically at the time of object creation.
☕ The main purpose of constructor is to declare and initialize instance variables.
☕ Per object constructor will be exeucted only once.
☕ Constructor can take atleast one argument(atleast self)
☕ Constructor is optional and if we are not providing any constructor then python will
provide default constructor.

Example:

1) def __init__(self,name,rollno,marks):
2) self.name=name
3) self.rollno=rollno
4) self.marks=marks

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Program to demonistrate Constructor will execute only once per Object:

1) class Test:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) print("Constructor exeuction...")
5)
6) def m1(self):
7) print("Method execution...")
8)
9) t1=Test()
10) t2=Test()
11) t3=Test()
12) t1.m1()

Output
Constructor exeuction...
Constructor exeuction...
Constructor exeuction...
Method execution...

Program:

1) class Student:
2)
3) ''''' This is student class with required data'''
4) def __init__(self,x,y,z):
5) self.name=x
6) self.rollno=y
7) self.marks=z
8)
9) def display(self):
10) print("Student Name:{}\nRollno:{} \nMarks:{}".format(self.name,self.rollno,self
.marks))
11)
12) s1=Student("Durga",101,80)
13) s1.display()
14) s2=Student("Sunny",102,100)
15) s2.display()

Output
Student Name:Durga
Rollno:101
Marks:80

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Student Name:Sunny
Rollno:102
Marks:100

Differences between Methods and Constructors

Method Constructor
1) Name of method can be any name 1) Constructor name should be always __init__
2) Method will be executed if we call that 2) Constructor will be executed automatically at
method the time of object creation.
3) Per object, method can be called any number 3) Per object, Constructor will be executed only
of times. once
4) Inside method we can write business logic 4) Inside Constructor we have to declare and
initialize instance variables

Types of Variables:
Inside Python class 3 types of variables are allowed.

1) Instance Variables (Object Level Variables)

2) Static Variables (Class Level Variables)
3) Local variables (Method Level Variables)

1) Instance Variables:
 If the value of a variable is varied from object to object, then such type of variables are
called instance variables.
 For every object a separate copy of instance variables will be created.

Where we can declare Instance Variables:

1) Inside Constructor by using self variable
2) Inside Instance Method by using self variable
3) Outside of the class by using object reference variable

1) Inside Constructor by using Self Variable:

We can declare instance variables inside a constructor by using self keyword. Once we
creates object, automatically these variables will be added to the object.

1) class Employee:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.eno=100
5) self.ename='Durga'

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 6) self.esal=10000
7)
8) e=Employee()
9) print(e.__dict__)

Output: {'eno': 100, 'ename': 'Durga', 'esal': 10000}

2) Inside Instance Method by using Self Variable:

We can also declare instance variables inside instance method by using self variable. If
any instance variable declared inside instance method, that instance variable will be
added once we call taht method.

1) class Test:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.a=10
5) self.b=20
6)
7) def m1(self):
8) self.c=30
9)
10) t=Test()
11) t.m1()
12) print(t.__dict__)

Output: {'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30}

3) Outside of the Class by using Object Reference Variable:

We can also add instance variables outside of a class to a particular object.

1) class Test:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.a=10
5) self.b=20
6) def m1(self):
7) self.c=30
8)
9) t=Test()
10) t.m1()
11) t.d=40
12) print(t.__dict__)

Output {'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30, 'd': 40}

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How to Access Instance Variables:
We can access instance variables with in the class by using self variable and outside of the
class by using object reference.

1) class Test:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.a=10
5) self.b=20
6) def display(self):
7) print(self.a)
8) print(self.b)
9)
10) t=Test()
11) t.display()
12) print(t.a,t.b)

Output
10
20
10 20

How to delete Instance Variable from the Object:

1) Within a class we can delete instance variable as follows
del self.variableName

2) From outside of class we can delete instance variables as follows

del objectreference.variableName

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self):
3) self.a=10
4) self.b=20
5) self.c=30
6) self.d=40
7) def m1(self):
8) del self.d
9)
10) t=Test()
11) print(t.__dict__)
12) t.m1()
13) print(t.__dict__)
14) del t.c
15) print(t.__dict__)

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Output
{'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30, 'd': 40}
{'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30}
{'a': 10, 'b': 20}

Note: The instance variables which are deleted from one object,will not be deleted from
other objects.

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self):
3) self.a=10
4) self.b=20
5) self.c=30
6) self.d=40
7)
8) t1=Test()
9) t2=Test()
10) del t1.a
11) print(t1.__dict__)
12) print(t2.__dict__)

Output
{'b': 20, 'c': 30, 'd': 40}
{'a': 10, 'b': 20, 'c': 30, 'd': 40}

If we change the values of instance variables of one object then those changes won't be
reflected to the remaining objects, because for every object we are separate copy of
instance variables are available.

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self):
3) self.a=10
4) self.b=20
5)
6) t1=Test()
7) t1.a=888
8) t1.b=999
9) t2=Test()
10) print('t1:',t1.a,t1.b)
11) print('t2:',t2.a,t2.b)

Output
t1: 888 999
t2: 10 20

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2) Static Variables:
☕ If the value of a variable is not varied from object to object, such type of variables we
have to declare with in the class directly but outside of methods. Such types of
variables are called Static variables.
☕ For total class only one copy of static variable will be created and shared by all objects
of that class.
☕ We can access static variables either by class name or by object reference. But
recommended to use class name.

Instance Variable vs Static Variable:

Note: In the case of instance variables for every object a seperate copy will be
created,but in the case of static variables for total class only one copy will be created and
shared by every object of that class.

1) class Test:
2) x=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.y=20
5)
6) t1=Test()
7) t2=Test()
8) print('t1:',t1.x,t1.y)
9) print('t2:',t2.x,t2.y)
10) Test.x=888
11) t1.y=999
12) print('t1:',t1.x,t1.y)
13) print('t2:',t2.x,t2.y)

Output
t1: 10 20
t2: 10 20
t1: 888 999
t2: 888 20

Various Places to declare Static Variables:

1) In general we can declare within the class directly but from out side of any method
2) Inside constructor by using class name
3) Inside instance method by using class name
4) Inside classmethod by using either class name or cls variable
5) Inside static method by using class name

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 1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) Test.b=20
5) def m1(self):
6) Test.c=30
7) @classmethod
8) def m2(cls):
9) cls.d1=40
10) Test.d2=400
11) @staticmethod
12) def m3():
13) Test.e=50
14) print(Test.__dict__)
15) t=Test()
16) print(Test.__dict__)
17) t.m1()
18) print(Test.__dict__)
19) Test.m2()
20) print(Test.__dict__)
21) Test.m3()
22) print(Test.__dict__)
23) Test.f=60
24) print(Test.__dict__)

How to access Static Variables:

1) inside constructor: by using either self or classname
2) inside instance method: by using either self or classname
3) inside class method: by using either cls variable or classname
4) inside static method: by using classname
5) From outside of class: by using either object reference or classname

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) print(self.a)
5) print(Test.a)
6) def m1(self):
7) print(self.a)
8) print(Test.a)
9) @classmethod
10) def m2(cls):
11) print(cls.a)
12) print(Test.a)

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 13) @staticmethod
14) def m3():
15) print(Test.a)
16) t=Test()
17) print(Test.a)
18) print(t.a)
19) t.m1()
20) t.m2()
21) t.m3()

Where we can modify the Value of Static Variable:

Anywhere either with in the class or outside of class we can modify by using classname.
But inside class method, by using cls variable.

1) class Test:
2) a=777
3) @classmethod
4) def m1(cls):
5) cls.a=888
6) @staticmethod
7) def m2():
8) Test.a=999
9) print(Test.a)
10) Test.m1()
11) print(Test.a)
12) Test.m2()
13) print(Test.a)

Output
777
888
999

*****
If we change the Value of Static Variable by using either self OR
Object Reference Variable:
If we change the value of static variable by using either self or object reference variable,
then the value of static variable won't be changed, just a new instance variable with that
name will be added to that particular object.

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def m1(self):
4) self.a=888

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 5) t1=Test()
6) t1.m1()
7) print(Test.a)
8) print(t1.a)

Output
10
888

1) class Test:
2) x=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.y=20
5)
6) t1=Test()
7) t2=Test()
8) print('t1:',t1.x,t1.y)
9) print('t2:',t2.x,t2.y)
10) t1.x=888
11) t1.y=999
12) print('t1:',t1.x,t1.y)
13) print('t2:',t2.x,t2.y)

Output
t1: 10 20
t2: 10 20
t1: 888 999
t2: 10 20

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) t1=Test()
6) t2=Test()
7) Test.a=888
8) t1.b=999
9) print(t1.a,t1.b)
10) print(t2.a,t2.b)

Output
888 999
888 20

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 1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) def m1(self):
6) self.a=888
7) self.b=999
8)
9) t1=Test()
10) t2=Test()
11) t1.m1()
12) print(t1.a,t1.b)
13) print(t2.a,t2.b)

Output
888 999
10 20

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) @classmethod
6) def m1(cls):
7) cls.a=888
8) cls.b=999
9)
10) t1=Test()
11) t2=Test()
12) t1.m1()
13) print(t1.a,t1.b)
14) print(t2.a,t2.b)
15) print(Test.a,Test.b)

Output
888 20
888 20
888 999

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How to Delete Static Variables of a Class:
1) We can delete static variables from anywhere by using the following syntax
del classname.variablename

2) But inside classmethod we can also use cls variable

del cls.variablename

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) @classmethod
4) def m1(cls):
5) del cls.a
6) Test.m1()
7) print(Test.__dict__)

Example:

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) Test.b=20
5) del Test.a
6) def m1(self):
7) Test.c=30
8) del Test.b
9) @classmethod
10) def m2(cls):
11) cls.d=40
12) del Test.c
13) @staticmethod
14) def m3():
15) Test.e=50
16) del Test.d
17) print(Test.__dict__)
18) t=Test()
19) print(Test.__dict__)
20) t.m1()
21) print(Test.__dict__)
22) Test.m2()
23) print(Test.__dict__)
24) Test.m3()
25) print(Test.__dict__)
26) Test.f=60
27) print(Test.__dict__)

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 28) del Test.e
29) print(Test.__dict__)

****Note:
⚽ By using object reference variable/self we can read static variables, but we cannot
modify or delete.
⚽ If we are trying to modify, then a new instance variable will be added to that
particular object.
⚽ t1.a = 70
⚽ If we are trying to delete then we will get error.

Example:

1) class Test:
2) a=10
3)
4) t1=Test()
5) del t1.a ===>AttributeError: a

We can modify or delete static variables only by using classname or cls variable.

1) import sys
2) class Customer:
3) ''''' Customer class with bank operations.. '''
4) bankname='DURGABANK'
5) def __init__(self,name,balance=0.0):
6) self.name=name
7) self.balance=balance
8) def deposit(self,amt):
9) self.balance=self.balance+amt
10) print('Balance after deposit:',self.balance)
11) def withdraw(self,amt):
12) if amt>self.balance:
13) print('Insufficient Funds..cannot perform this operation')
14) sys.exit()
15) self.balance=self.balance-amt
16) print('Balance after withdraw:',self.balance)
17)
18) print('Welcome to',Customer.bankname)
19) name=input('Enter Your Name:')
20) c=Customer(name)
21) while True:
22) print('d-Deposit \nw-Withdraw \ne-exit')
23) option=input('Choose your option:')

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 24) if option=='d' or option=='D':
25) amt=float(input('Enter amount:'))
26) c.deposit(amt)
27) elif option=='w' or option=='W':
28) amt=float(input('Enter amount:'))
29) c.withdraw(amt)
30) elif option=='e' or option=='E':
31) print('Thanks for Banking')
32) sys.exit()
33) else:
34) print('Invalid option..Plz choose valid option')

Output:
D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Welcome to DURGABANK
Enter Your Name:Durga
d-Deposit
w-Withdraw
e-exit

Choose your option:d

Enter amount:10000
Balance after deposit: 10000.0
d-Deposit
w-Withdraw
e-exit

Choose your option:d

Enter amount:20000
Balance after deposit: 30000.0
d-Deposit
w-Withdraw
e-exit

Choose your option:w

Enter amount:2000
Balance after withdraw: 28000.0
d-Deposit
w-Withdraw
e-exit

Choose your option:r

Invalid option..Plz choose valid option
d-Deposit
w-Withdraw

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e-exit

Choose your option:e

Thanks for Banking

3) Local Variables:
⚽ Sometimes to meet temporary requirements of programmer,we can declare variables
inside a method directly,such type of variables are called local variable or temporary
variables.
⚽ Local variables will be created at the time of method execution and destroyed once
method completes.
⚽ Local variables of a method cannot be accessed from outside of method.

1) class Test:
2) def m1(self):
3) a=1000
4) print(a)
5) def m2(self):
6) b=2000
7) print(b)
8) t=Test()
9) t.m1()
10) t.m2()

Output
1000
2000

1) class Test:
2) def m1(self):
3) a=1000
4) print(a)
5) def m2(self):
6) b=2000
7) print(a) #NameError: name 'a' is not defined
8) print(b)
9) t=Test()
10) t.m1()
11) t.m2()

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Types of Methods:
Inside Python class 3 types of methods are allowed

1) Instance Methods
2) Class Methods
3) Static Methods

1) Instance Methods:
⚽ Inside method implementation if we are using instance variables then such type of
methods are called instance methods.
⚽ Inside instance method declaration, we have to pass self variable. def m1(self):
⚽ By using self variable inside method we can able to access instance variables.
⚽ Within the class we can call instance method by using self variable and from outside of
the class we can call by using object reference.

1) class Student:
2) def __init__(self,name,marks):
3) self.name=name
4) self.marks=marks
5) def display(self):
6) print('Hi',self.name)
7) print('Your Marks are:',self.marks)
8) def grade(self):
9) if self.marks>=60:
10) print('You got First Grade')
11) elif self.marks>=50:
12) print('Yout got Second Grade')
13) elif self.marks>=35:
14) print('You got Third Grade')
15) else:
16) print('You are Failed')
17) n=int(input('Enter number of students:'))
18) for i in range(n):
19) name=input('Enter Name:')
20) marks=int(input('Enter Marks:'))
21) s= Student(name,marks)
22) s.display()
23) s.grade()
24) print()

Ouput:
D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Enter number of students:2

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Enter Name:Durga
Enter Marks:90
Hi Durga
Your Marks are: 90
You got First Grade

Enter Name:Ravi
Enter Marks:12
Hi Ravi
Your Marks are: 12
You are Failed

Setter and Getter Methods:

We can set and get the values of instance variables by using getter and setter methods.

Setter Method:
setter methods can be used to set values to the instance variables. setter methods also
known as mutator methods.

Syntax:
def setVariable(self,variable):
self.variable=variable

Example:
def setName(self,name):
self.name=name

Getter Method:
Getter methods can be used to get values of the instance variables. Getter methods also
known as accessor methods.

Syntax:
def getVariable(self):
return self.variable

Example:
def getName(self):
return self.name

1) class Student:
2) def setName(self,name):
3) self.name=name
4)

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 5) def getName(self):
6) return self.name
7)
8) def setMarks(self,marks):
9) self.marks=marks
10)
11) def getMarks(self):
12) return self.marks
13)
14) n=int(input('Enter number of students:'))
15) for i in range(n):
16) s=Student()
17) name=input('Enter Name:')
18) s.setName(name)
19) marks=int(input('Enter Marks:'))
20) s.setMarks(marks)
21)
22) print('Hi',s.getName())
23) print('Your Marks are:',s.getMarks())
24) print()

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter number of students:2

Enter Name:Durga
Enter Marks:100
Hi Durga
Your Marks are: 100

Enter Name:Ravi
Enter Marks:80
Hi Ravi
Your Marks are: 80

2) Class Methods:
⚽ Inside method implementation if we are using only class variables (static variables),
then such type of methods we should declare as class method.
⚽ We can declare class method explicitly by using @classmethod decorator.
⚽ For class method we should provide cls variable at the time of declaration
⚽ We can call classmethod by using classname or object reference variable.

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 1) class Animal:
2) lEgs=4
3) @classmethod
4) def walk(cls,name):
5) print('{} walks with {} lEgs...'.format(name,cls.lEgs))
6) Animal.walk('Dog')
7) Animal.walk('Cat')

Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Dog walks with 4 lEgs...
Cat walks with 4 lEgs...

Program to track the Number of Objects created for a Class:

1) class Test:
2) count=0
3) def __init__(self):
4) Test.count =Test.count+1
5) @classmethod
6) def noOfObjects(cls):
7) print('The number of objects created for test class:',cls.count)
8)
9) t1=Test()
10) t2=Test()
11) Test.noOfObjects()
12) t3=Test()
13) t4=Test()
14) t5=Test()
15) Test.noOfObjects()

3) Static Methods:
⚽ In general these methods are general utility methods.
⚽ Inside these methods we won't use any instance or class variables.
⚽ Here we won't provide self or cls arguments at the time of declaration.
⚽ We can declare static method explicitly by using @staticmethod decorator
⚽ We can access static methods by using classname or object reference

1) class DurgaMath:
2)
3) @staticmethod
4) def add(x,y):
5) print('The Sum:',x+y)
6)
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 7) @staticmethod
8) def product(x,y):
9) print('The Product:',x*y)
10)
11) @staticmethod
12) def average(x,y):
13) print('The average:',(x+y)/2)
14)
15) DurgaMath.add(10,20)
16) DurgaMath.product(10,20)
17) DurgaMath.average(10,20)

Output
The Sum: 30
The Product: 200
The average: 15.0

Note:
 In general we can use only instance and static methods.Inside static method we can
access class level variables by using class name.
 Class methods are most rarely used methods in python.

Passing Members of One Class to Another Class:

We can access members of one class inside another class.

1) class Employee:
2) def __init__(self,eno,ename,esal):
3) self.eno=eno
4) self.ename=ename
5) self.esal=esal
6) def display(self):
7) print('Employee Number:',self.eno)
8) print('Employee Name:',self.ename)
9) print('Employee Salary:',self.esal)
10) class Test:
11) def modify(emp):
12) emp.esal=emp.esal+10000
13) emp.display()
14) e=Employee(100,'Durga',10000)
15) Test.modify(e)

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Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Employee Number: 100
Employee Name: Durga
Employee Salary: 20000

In the above application, Employee class members are available to Test class.

Inner Classes
Sometimes we can declare a class inside another class, such type of classes are called
inner classes.

Without existing one type of object if there is no chance of existing another type of object,
then we should go for inner classes.

Example: Without existing Car object there is no chance of existing Engine object. Hence
Engine class should be part of Car class.

class Car:
.....
class Engine:
......

Example: Without existing university object there is no chance of existing Department

object

class University:
.....
class Department:
......

Example: Without existing Human there is no chance of existin Head. Hence Head
should be part of Human.

class Human:
class Head:

Note: Without existing outer class object there is no chance of existing inner class object.
Hence inner class object is always associated with outer class object.

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Demo Program-1:

1) class Outer:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print("outer class object creation")
4) class Inner:
5) def __init__(self):
6) print("inner class object creation")
7) def m1(self):
8) print("inner class method")
9) o=Outer()
10) i=o.Inner()
11) i.m1()

Output
outer class object creation
inner class object creation
inner class method

Note: The following are various possible syntaxes for calling inner class method

1) o = Outer()
i = o.Inner()
i.m1()

2) i = Outer().Inner()
i.m1()

3) Outer().Inner().m1()

Demo Program-2:

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self):
3) self.name='durga'
4) self.db=self.Dob()
5) def display(self):
6) print('Name:',self.name)
7) class Dob:
8) def __init__(self):
9) self.dd=10
10) self.mm=5
11) self.yy=1947
12) def display(self):
13) print('Dob={}/{}/{}'.format(self.dd,self.mm,self.yy))
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 14) p=Person()
15) p.display()
16) x=p.db
17) x.display()

Output
Name: durga
Dob=10/5/1947

Demo Program-3:
Inside a class we can declare any number of inner classes.

1) class Human:
2)
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.name = 'Sunny'
5) self.head = self.Head()
6) self.brain = self.Brain()
7) def display(self):
8) print("Hello..",self.name)
9)
10) class Head:
11) def talk(self):
12) print('Talking...')
13)
14) class Brain:
15) def think(self):
16) print('Thinking...')
17)
18) h=Human()
19) h.display()
20) h.head.talk()
21) h.brain.think()

Output
Hello.. Sunny
Talking...
Thinking...

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 Garbage Collection
⚽ In old languages like C++, programmer is responsible for both creation and destruction
of objects.Usually programmer taking very much care while creating object, but
nEglecting destruction of useless objects. Because of his nEglectance, total memory
can be filled with useless objects which creates memory problems and total
application will be down with Out of memory error.

⚽ But in Python, We have some assistant which is always running in the background to
destroy useless objects.Because this assistant the chance of failing Python program
with memory problems is very less. This assistant is nothing but Garbage Collector.
⚽ Hence the main objective of Garbage Collector is to destroy useless objects.

⚽ If an object does not have any reference variable then that object eligible for Garbage
Collection.

How to enable and disable Garbage Collector in our

Program:
By default Gargbage collector is enabled, but we can disable based on our requirement. In
this context we can use the following functions of gc module.

1) gc.isenabled()  Returns True if GC enabled

2) gc.disable() To disable GC explicitly

3) gc.enable() To enable GC explicitly

1) import gc
2) print(gc.isenabled())
3) gc.disable()
4) print(gc.isenabled())
5) gc.enable()
6) print(gc.isenabled())

Output
True
False
True

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Destructors:
⚽ Destructor is a special method and the name should be __del__
⚽ Just before destroying an object Garbage Collector always calls destructor to perform
clean up activities (Resource deallocation activities like close database connection etc).
⚽ Once destructor execution completed then Garbage Collector automatically destroys
that object.

Note: The job of destructor is not to destroy object and it is just to perform clean up
activities.

1) import time
2) class Test:
3) def __init__(self):
4) print("Object Initialization...")
5) def __del__(self):
6) print("Fulfilling Last Wish and performing clean up activities...")
7)
8) t1=Test()
9) t1=None
10) time.sleep(5)
11) print("End of application")

Output
Object Initialization...
Fulfilling Last Wish and performing clean up activities...
End of application

Note: If the object does not contain any reference variable then only it is eligible fo GC. ie
if the reference count is zero then only object eligible for GC.

1) import time
2) class Test:
3) def __init__(self):
4) print("Constructor Execution...")
5) def __del__(self):
6) print("Destructor Execution...")
7)
8) t1=Test()
9) t2=t1
10) t3=t2
11) del t1
12) time.sleep(5)
13) print("object not yet destroyed after deleting t1")
14) del t2

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 15) time.sleep(5)
16) print("object not yet destroyed even after deleting t2")
17) print("I am trying to delete last reference variable...")
18) del t3

Example:

1) import time
2) class Test:
3) def __init__(self):
4) print("Constructor Execution...")
5) def __del__(self):
6) print("Destructor Execution...")
7)
8) list=[Test(),Test(),Test()]
9) del list
10) time.sleep(5)
11) print("End of application")

Output
Constructor Execution...
Constructor Execution...
Constructor Execution...
Destructor Execution...
Destructor Execution...
Destructor Execution...
End of application

How to find the Number of References of an Object:

sys module contains getrefcount() function for this purpose.
sys.getrefcount (objectreference)

1) import sys
2) class Test:
3) pass
4) t1=Test()
5) t2=t1
6) t3=t1
7) t4=t1
8) print(sys.getrefcount(t1))

Output 5

Note: For every object, Python internally maintains one default reference variable self.

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OOP’s
Part - 2
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Agenda

 Inheritance
 Has-A Relationship
 IS-A Relationship
 IS-A vs HAS-A Relationship
 Composition vs Aggregation

 Types of Inheritance
 Single Inheritance
 Multi Level Inheritance
 Hierarchical Inheritance
 Multiple Inheritance
 Hybrid Inheritance
 Cyclic Inheritance

 Method Resolution Order (MRO)

 super() Method

Using Members of One Class inside Another Class:

We can use members of one class inside another class by using the following ways

1) By Composition (Has-A Relationship)

2) By Inheritance (IS-A Relationship)

1) By Composition (Has-A Relationship):

 By using Class Name or by creating object we can access members of one class inside
another class is nothing but composition (Has-A Relationship).
 The main advantage of Has-A Relationship is Code Reusability.

Demo Program-1:

1) class Engine:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) def m1(self):

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 6) print('Engine Specific Functionality')
7) class Car:
8) def __init__(self):
9) self.engine=Engine()
10) def m2(self):
11) print('Car using Engine Class Functionality')
12) print(self.engine.a)
13) print(self.engine.b)
14) self.engine.m1()
15) c=Car()
16) c.m2()

Output:
Car using Engine Class Functionality
10
20
Engine Specific Functionality

Demo Program-2:

1) class Car:
2) def __init__(self,name,model,color):
3) self.name=name
4) self.model=model
5) self.color=color
6) def getinfo(self):
7) print("Car Name:{} , Model:{} and Color:{}".format(self.name,self.model,self.c
olor))
8)
9) class Employee:
10) def __init__(self,ename,eno,car):
11) self.ename=ename
12) self.eno=eno
13) self.car=car
14) def empinfo(self):
15) print("Employee Name:",self.ename)
16) print("Employee Number:",self.eno)
17) print("Employee Car Info:")
18) self.car.getinfo()
19) c=Car("Innova","2.5V","Grey")
20) e=Employee('Durga',10000,c)
21) e.empinfo()

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Output:
Employee Name: Durga
Employee Number: 10000
Employee Car Info:
Car Name: Innova, Model: 2.5V and Color:Grey

In the above program Employee class Has-A Car reference and hence Employee class can
access all members of Car class.

Demo Program-3:

1) class X:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) def m1(self):
6) print("m1 method of X class")
7)
8) class Y:
9) c=30
10) def __init__(self):
11) self.d=40
12) def m2(self):
13) print("m2 method of Y class")
14)
15) def m3(self):
16) x1=X()
17) print(x1.a)
18) print(x1.b)
19) x1.m1()
20) print(Y.c)
21) print(self.d)
22) self.m2()
23) print("m3 method of Y class")
24) y1=Y()
25) y1.m3()

Output:
10
20
m1 method of X class
30
40
m2 method of Y class
m3 method of Y class

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2) By Inheritance (IS-A Relationship):
What ever variables, methods and constructors available in the parent class by default
available to the child classes and we are not required to rewrite. Hence the main
advantage of inheritance is Code Reusability and we can extend existing functionality
with some more extra functionality.

Syntax: class childclass(parentclass)

1) class P:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=10
5) def m1(self):
6) print('Parent instance method')
7) @classmethod
8) def m2(cls):
9) print('Parent class method')
10) @staticmethod
11) def m3():
12) print('Parent static method')
13)
14) class C(P):
15) pass
16)
17) c=C()
18) print(c.a)
19) print(c.b)
20) c.m1()
21) c.m2()
22) c.m3()

Output:
10
10
Parent instance method
Parent class method
Parent static method

1) class P:
2) 10 methods
3) class C(P):
4) 5 methods

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In the above example Parent class contains 10 methods and these methods automatically
available to the child class and we are not required to rewrite those methods(Code
Reusability)
Hence child class contains 15 methods.

Note: What ever members present in Parent class are by default available to the child
class through inheritance.

1) class P:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent class method")
4) class C(P):
5) def m2(self):
6) print("Child class method")
7)
8) c=C();
9) c.m1()
10) c.m2()

Output:
Parent class method
Child class method

What ever methods present in Parent class are automatically available to the child class
and hence on the child class reference we can call both parent class methods and child
class methods.

Similarly variables also

1) class P:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5) class C(P):
6) c=30
7) def __init__(self):
8) super().__init__()===>Line-1
9) self.d=30
10)
11) c1=C()
12) print(c1.a,c1.b,c1.c,c1.d)

If we comment Line-1 then variable b is not available to the child class.

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Demo program for Inheritance:

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5) def eatndrink(self):
6) print('Eat Biryani and Drink Beer')
7)
8) class Employee(Person):
9) def __init__(self,name,age,eno,esal):
10) super().__init__(name,age)
11) self.eno=eno
12) self.esal=esal
13)
14) def work(self):
15) print("Coding Python is very easy just like drinking Chilled Beer")
16) def empinfo(self):
17) print("Employee Name:",self.name)
18) print("Employee Age:",self.age)
19) print("Employee Number:",self.eno)
20) print("Employee Salary:",self.esal)
21)
22) e=Employee('Durga', 48, 100, 10000)
23) e.eatndrink()
24) e.work()
25) e.empinfo()

Output:
Eat Biryani and Drink Beer
Coding Python is very easy just like drinking Chilled Beer
Employee Name: Durga
Employee Age: 48
Employee Number: 100
Employee Salary: 10000

IS-A vs HAS-A Relationship:

 If we want to extend existing functionality with some more extra functionality then we
should go for IS-A Relationship.
 If we dont want to extend and just we have to use existing functionality then we
should go for HAS-A Relationship.
 Eg: Employee class extends Person class Functionality But Employee class just uses Car
functionality but not extending

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 Person

IS - A

HAS - A
Employee Car

1) class Car:
2) def __init__(self,name,model,color):
3) self.name=name
4) self.model=model
5) self.color=color
6) def getinfo(self):
7) print("\tCar Name:{} \n\t Model:{} \n\t Color:{}".format(self.name,self.model,
self.color))
8)
9) class Person:
10) def __init__(self,name,age):
11) self.name=name
12) self.age=age
13) def eatndrink(self):
14) print('Eat Biryani and Drink Beer')
15)
16) class Employee(Person):
17) def __init__(self,name,age,eno,esal,car):
18) super().__init__(name,age)
19) self.eno=eno
20) self.esal=esal
21) self.car=car
22) def work(self):
23) print("Coding Python is very easy just like drinking Chilled Beer")
24) def empinfo(self):
25) print("Employee Name:",self.name)
26) print("Employee Age:",self.age)
27) print("Employee Number:",self.eno)
28) print("Employee Salary:",self.esal)
29) print("Employee Car Info:")
30) self.car.getinfo()
31)
32) c=Car("Innova","2.5V","Grey")
33) e=Employee('Durga',48,100,10000,c)
34) e.eatndrink()

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 35) e.work()
36) e.empinfo()

Output:
Eat Biryani and Drink Beer
Coding Python is very easy just like drinking Chilled Beer
Employee Name: Durga
Employee Age: 48
Employee Number: 100
Employee Salary: 10000
Employee Car Info:
Car Name:Innova
Model:2.5V
Color:Grey

In the above example Employee class extends Person class functionality but just uses Car
class functionality.

Composition vs Aggregation:

Composition:
Without existing container object if there is no chance of existing contained object then
the container and contained objects are strongly associated and that strong association is
nothing but Composition.

Eg: University contains several Departments and without existing university object there
is no chance of existing Department object. Hence University and Department objects are
strongly associated and this strong association is nothing but Composition.

Department Object
(Contained Object)

University Object
(Container Object)

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Aggregation:
Without existing container object if there is a chance of existing contained object then the
container and contained objects are weakly associated and that weak association is
nothing but Aggregation.

Eg: Department contains several Professors. Without existing Department still there may
be a chance of existing Professor. Hence Department and Professor Objects are weakly
associated, which is nothing but Aggregation.

(Contained Object)
Professor Object
x
x
: :
: :
: :
x

Department Object
(Container Object)

Coding Example:

1) class Student:
2) collegeName='DURGASOFT'
3) def __init__(self,name):
4) self.name=name
5) print(Student.collegeName)
6) s=Student('Durga')
7) print(s.name)

Output:
DURGASOFT
Durga

In the above example without existing Student object there is no chance of existing his
name. Hence Student Object and his name are strongly associated which is nothing but
Composition.

But without existing Student object there may be a chance of existing collegeName. Hence
Student object and collegeName are weakly associated which is nothing but Aggregation.

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Conclusion:
The relation between object and its instance variables is always Composition where as the
relation between object and static variables is Aggregation.

Note: Whenever we are creating child class object then child class constructor will be
executed. If the child class does not contain constructor then parent class constructor will
be executed, but parent object won't be created.

1) class P:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print(id(self))
4) class C(P):
5) pass
6) c=C()
7) print(id(c))

Output:
6207088
6207088

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5) class Student(Person):
6) def __init__(self,name,age,rollno,marks):
7) super().__init__(name,age)
8) self.rollno=rollno
9) self.marks=marks
10) def __str__(self):
11) return 'Name={}\nAge={}\nRollno={}\nMarks={}'.format(self.name,self.age,sel
f.rollno,self.marks)
12) s1=Student('durga',48,101,90)
13) print(s1)

Output:
Name=durga
Age=48
Rollno=101
Marks=90

Note: In the above example when ever we are creating child class object both parent and
child class constructors got executed to perform initialization of child object.

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Types of Inheritance:
1) Single Inheritance:
The concept of inheriting the properties from one class to another class is known as
single inheritance.

1) class P:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent Method")
4) class C(P):
5) def m2(self):
6) print("Child Method")
7) c=C()
8) c.m1()
9) c.m2()

Output:
Parent Method
Child Method

Single Inheritance

2) Multi Level Inheritance:

The concept of inheriting the properties from multiple classes to single class with the
concept of one after another is known as multilevel inheritance.

1) class P:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent Method")
4) class C(P):
5) def m2(self):
6) print("Child Method")
7) class CC(C):
8) def m3(self):
9) print("Sub Child Method")
10) c=CC()
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 11) c.m1()
12) c.m2()
13) c.m3()

Output:
Parent Method
Child Method
Sub Child Method

C Multi – Level Inheritance

CC

3) Hierarchical Inheritance:
The concept of inheriting properties from one class into multiple classes which are
present at same level is known as Hierarchical Inheritance

C1 C2

Hierarchical
Inheritance

1) class P:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent Method")
4) class C1(P):

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 5) def m2(self):
6) print("Child1 Method")
7) class C2(P):
8) def m3(self):
9) print("Child2 Method")
10) c1=C1()
11) c1.m1()
12) c1.m2()
13) c2=C2()
14) c2.m1()
15) c2.m3()

Output:
Parent Method
Child1 Method
Parent Method
Child2 Method

4) Multiple Inheritance:
The concept of inheriting the properties from multiple classes into a single class at a
time, is known as multiple inheritance.

P1 P2

Multiple
Inheritance

1) class P1:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent1 Method")
4) class P2:
5) def m2(self):
6) print("Parent2 Method")
7) class C(P1,P2):
8) def m3(self):
9) print("Child2 Method")

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 10) c=C()
11) c.m1()
12) c.m2()
13) c.m3()

Output:
Parent1 Method
Parent2 Method
Child2 Method

If the same method is inherited from both parent classes, then Python will always
consider the order of Parent classes in the declaration of the child class.

class C(P1, P2):  P1 method will be considered

class C(P2, P1):  P2 method will be considered

1) class P1:
2) def m1(self):
3) print("Parent1 Method")
4) class P2:
5) def m1(self):
6) print("Parent2 Method")
7) class C(P1,P2):
8) def m2(self):
9) print("Child Method")
10) c=C()
11) c.m1()
12) c.m2()

Output:
Parent1 Method
Child Method

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5) Hybrid Inheritance:
Combination of Single, Multi level, multiple and Hierarchical inheritance is known as
Hybrid Inheritance.

A B C

G H

6) Cyclic Inheritance:
The concept of inheriting properties from one class to another class in cyclic way, is
called Cyclic inheritance.Python won't support for Cyclic Inheritance of course it is
really not required.
Eg - 1: class A(A):pass
NameError: name 'A' is not defined

Eg - 2:

1) class A(B):
2) pass
3) class B(A):
4) pass

NameError: name 'B' is not defined

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 A

Method Resolution Order (MRO):

 In Hybrid Inheritance the method resolution order is decided based on MRO
algorithm.
 This algorithm is also known as C3 algorithm.
 Samuele Pedroni proposed this algorithm.
 It follows DLR (Depth First Left to Right) i.e Child will get more priority than Parent.
 Left Parent will get more priority than Right Parent.
 MRO(X) = X+Merge(MRO(P1),MRO(P2),...,ParentList)

Head Element vs Tail Terminology:

 Assume C1,C2,C3,...are classes.
 In the list: C1C2C3C4C5....
 C1 is considered as Head Element and remaining is considered as Tail.

How to find Merge:

 Take the head of first list
 If the head is not in the tail part of any other list, then add this head to the result and
remove it from the lists in the merge.
 If the head is present in the tail part of any other list, then consider the head element
of the next list and continue the same process.

Note: We can find MRO of any class by using mro() function.

print(ClassName.mro())

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Demo Program-1 for Method Resolution Order:

B C

D
mro(A) = A, object
mro(B) = B, A, object
mro(C) = C, A, object
mro(D) = D, B, C, A, object

test.py

1) class A:pass
2) class B(A):pass
3) class C(A):pass
4) class D(B,C):pass
5) print(A.mro())
6) print(B.mro())
7) print(C.mro())
8) print(D.mro())

Output:
[<class '__main__.A'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.D'>, <class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.A'>,
<class 'object'>]

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Demo Program-2 for Method Resolution Order:

Object

A B C

X Y

mro(A)=A,object P
mro(B)=B,object
mro(C)=C,object
mro(X)=X,A,B,object
mro(Y)=Y,B,C,object
mro(P)=P,X,A,Y,B,C,object

Finding mro(P) by using C3 Algorithm:

Formula: MRO(X) = X+Merge(MRO(P1),MRO(P2),...,ParentList)
mro(p) = P+Merge(mro(X),mro(Y),mro(C),XYC)
= P+Merge(XABO,YBCO,CO,XYC)
= P+X+Merge(ABO,YBCO,CO,YC)
= P+X+A+Merge(BO,YBCO,CO,YC)
= P+X+A+Y+Merge(BO,BCO,CO,C)
= P+X+A+Y+B+Merge(O,CO,CO,C)
= P+X+A+Y+B+C+Merge(O,O,O)
= P+X+A+Y+B+C+O

test.py

1) class A:pass
2) class B:pass
3) class C:pass
4) class X(A,B):pass
5) class Y(B,C):pass
6) class P(X,Y,C):pass
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 7) print(A.mro())#AO
8) print(X.mro())#XABO
9) print(Y.mro())#YBCO
10) print(P.mro())#PXAYBCO

Output:
[<class '__main__.A'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.X'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class '__main__.B'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.Y'>, <class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.C'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.P'>, <class '__main__.X'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class '__main__.Y'>,
<class '__main__.B'>,
<class '__main__.C'>, <class 'object'>]

test.py

1) class A:
2) def m1(self):
3) print('A class Method')
4) class B:
5) def m1(self):
6) print('B class Method')
7) class C:
8) def m1(self):
9) print('C class Method')
10) class X(A,B):
11) def m1(self):
12) print('X class Method')
13) class Y(B,C):
14) def m1(self):
15) print('Y class Method')
16) class P(X,Y,C):
17) def m1(self):
18) print('P class Method')
19) p=P()
20) p.m1()

Output: P class Method

In the above example P class m1() method will be considered.If P class does not contain
m1() method then as per MRO, X class method will be considered. If X class does not
contain then A class method will be considered and this process will be continued.

The method resolution in the following order: PXAYBCO

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Demo Program-3 for Method Resolution Order:

Object

D E F

B C

mro(o) = object
mro(D) = D,object
mro(E) = E,object
mro(F) = F,object
mro(B) = B,D,E,object
mro(C) = C,D,F,object
mro(A) = A+Merge(mro(B),mro(C),BC)
= A+Merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
= A+B+Merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
= A+B+C+Merge(DEO,DFO)
= A+B+C+D+Merge(EO,FO)
= A+B+C+D+E+Merge(O,FO)
= A+B+C+D+E+F+Merge(O,O)
= A+B+C+D+E+F+O

test.py

1) class D:pass
2) class E:pass
3) class F:pass
4) class B(D,E):pass
5) class C(D,F):pass
6) class A(B,C):pass
7) print(D.mro())
8) print(B.mro())

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 9) print(C.mro())
10) print(A.mro())

Output:
[<class '__main__.D'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.D'>, <class '__main__.E'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.D'>, <class '__main__.F'>, <class 'object'>]
[<class '__main__.A'>, <class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.D'>,
<class '__main__.E'>,
<class '__main__.F'>, <class 'object'>]

super() Method:
super() is a built-in method which is useful to call the super class constructors,variables
and methods from the child class.

Demo Program-1 for super():

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5) def display(self):
6) print('Name:',self.name)
7) print('Age:',self.age)
8)
9) class Student(Person):
10) def __init__(self,name,age,rollno,marks):
11) super().__init__(name,age)
12) self.rollno=rollno
13) self.marks=marks
14)
15) def display(self):
16) super().display()
17) print('Roll No:',self.rollno)
18) print('Marks:',self.marks)
19)
20) s1=Student('Durga',22,101,90)
21) s1.display()

Output:
Name: Durga
Age: 22
Roll No: 101
Marks: 90

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In the above program we are using super() method to call parent class constructor and
display() method

Demo Program-2 for super():

1) class P:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=10
5) def m1(self):
6) print('Parent instance method')
7) @classmethod
8) def m2(cls):
9) print('Parent class method')
10) @staticmethod
11) def m3():
12) print('Parent static method')
13)
14) class C(P):
15) a=888
16) def __init__(self):
17) self.b=999
18) super().__init__()
19) print(super().a)
20) super().m1()
21) super().m2()
22) super().m3()
23)
24) c=C()

Output:
10
Parent instance method
Parent class method
Parent static method

In the above example we are using super() to call various members of Parent class.

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How to Call Method of a Particular Super Class:
We can use the following approaches

1) super(D, self).m1()
It will call m1() method of super class of D.

2) A.m1(self)
It will call A class m1() method

1) class A:
2) def m1(self):
3) print('A class Method')
4) class B(A):
5) def m1(self):
6) print('B class Method')
7) class C(B):
8) def m1(self):
9) print('C class Method')
10) class D(C):
11) def m1(self):
12) print('D class Method')
13) class E(D):
14) def m1(self):
15) A.m1(self)
16)
17) e=E()
18) e.m1()

Output: A class Method

Various Important Points about super():

Case-1: From child class we are not allowed to access parent class instance variables by
using super(), Compulsory we should use self only.
But we can access parent class static variables by using super().

1) class P:
2) a=10
3) def __init__(self):
4) self.b=20
5)
6) class C(P):
7) def m1(self):

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 8) print(super().a)#valid
9) print(self.b)#valid
10) print(super().b)#invalid
11) c=C()
12) c.m1()

Output:
10
20
AttributeError: 'super' object has no attribute 'b'

Case-2: From child class constructor and instance method, we can access parent class
instance method, static method and class method by using super()

1) class P:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('Parent Constructor')
4) def m1(self):
5) print('Parent instance method')
6) @classmethod
7) def m2(cls):
8) print('Parent class method')
9) @staticmethod
10) def m3():
11) print('Parent static method')
12)
13) class C(P):
14) def __init__(self):
15) super().__init__()
16) super().m1()
17) super().m2()
18) super().m3()
19)
20) def m1(self):
21) super().__init__()
22) super().m1()
23) super().m2()
24) super().m3()
25)
26) c=C()
27) c.m1()

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Output:
Parent Constructor
Parent instance method
Parent class method
Parent static method
Parent Constructor
Parent instance method
Parent class method
Parent static method

Case-3: From child class, class method we cannot access parent class instance methods
and constructors by using super() directly(but indirectly possible). But we can access
parent class static and class methods.

1) class P:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('Parent Constructor')
4) def m1(self):
5) print('Parent instance method')
6) @classmethod
7) def m2(cls):
8) print('Parent class method')
9) @staticmethod
10) def m3():
11) print('Parent static method')
12)
13) class C(P):
14) @classmethod
15) def m1(cls):
16) #super().__init__()--->invalid
17) #super().m1()--->invalid
18) super().m2()
19) super().m3()
20)
21) C.m1()

Output:
Parent class method
Parent static method

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From Class Method of Child Class, how to call Parent Class Instance Methods
and Constructors:

1) class A:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('Parent constructor')
4)
5) def m1(self):
6) print('Parent instance method')
7)
8) class B(A):
9) @classmethod
10) def m2(cls):
11) super(B,cls).__init__(cls)
12) super(B,cls).m1(cls)
13)
14) B.m2()

Output:
Parent constructor
Parent instance method

Case-4: In child class static method we are not allowed to use super() generally (But in
special way we can use)

1) class P:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('Parent Constructor')
4) def m1(self):
5) print('Parent instance method')
6) @classmethod
7) def m2(cls):
8) print('Parent class method')
9) @staticmethod
10) def m3():
11) print('Parent static method')
12)
13) class C(P):
14) @staticmethod
15) def m1():
16) super().m1()-->invalid
17) super().m2()--->invalid
18) super().m3()--->invalid
19)
20) C.m1()
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RuntimeError: super(): no arguments

How to Call Parent Class Static Method from Child Class Static
Method by using super():
1) class A:
2)
3) @staticmethod
4) def m1():
5) print('Parent static method')
6)
7) class B(A):
8) @staticmethod
9) def m2():
10) super(B,B).m1()
11)
12) B.m2()

Output: Parent static method

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OOP’s
Part - 3
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 POLYMORPHISM
poly means many. Morphs means forms.
Polymorphism means 'Many Forms'.

Eg1: Yourself is best example of polymorphism.In front of Your parents You will have one
type of behaviour and with friends another type of behaviour.Same person but different
behaviours at different places,which is nothing but polymorphism.

Eg2: + operator acts as concatenation and arithmetic addition

Eg3: * operator acts as multiplication and repetition operator

Eg4: The Same method with different implementations in Parent class and child
classes.(overriding)

Related to Polymorphism the following 4 topics are important

1) Duck Typing Philosophy of Python

2) Overloading
1) Operator Overloading
2) Method Overloading
3) Constructor Overloading

3) Overriding
1) Method Overriding
2) Constructor Overriding

1) Duck Typing Philosophy of Python:

In Python we cannot specify the type explicitly. Based on provided value at
runtime the type will be considered automatically. Hence Python is considered as
Dynamically Typed Programming Language.

def f1(obj):
obj.talk()

What is the Type of obj? We cannot decide at the Beginning. At Runtime we

can Pass any Type. Then how we can decide the Type?
At runtime if 'it walks like a duck and talks like a duck,it must be duck'. Python follows this
principle. This is called Duck Typing Philosophy of Python.

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 1) class Duck:
2) def talk(self):
3) print('Quack.. Quack..')
4)
5) class Dog:
6) def talk(self):
7) print('Bow Bow..')
8)
9) class Cat:
10) def talk(self):
11) print('Moew Moew ..')
12)
13) class Goat:
14) def talk(self):
15) print('Myaah Myaah ..')
16)
17) def f1(obj):
18) obj.talk()
19)
20) l=[Duck(),Cat(),Dog(),Goat()]
21) for obj in l:
22) f1(obj)

Output:
Quack.. Quack..
Moew Moew ..
Bow Bow..
Myaah Myaah ..

The problem in this approach is if obj does not contain talk() method then we will get
AttributeError.

1) class Duck:
2) def talk(self):
3) print('Quack.. Quack..')
4)
5) class Dog:
6) def bark(self):
7) print('Bow Bow..')
8) def f1(obj):
9) obj.talk()
10)
11) d=Duck()
12) f1(d)
13)

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 14) d=Dog()
15) f1(d)

Output:
D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Quack.. Quack..
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 22, in <module>
f1(d)
File "test.py", line 13, in f1
obj.talk()
AttributeError: 'Dog' object has no attribute 'talk'

But we can solve this problem by using hasattr() function.

hasattr(obj,'attributename')  attributename can be Method Name OR Variable Name

Demo Program with hasattr() Function:

1) class Duck:
2) def talk(self):
3) print('Quack.. Quack..')
4)
5) class Human:
6) def talk(self):
7) print('Hello Hi...')
8)
9) class Dog:
10) def bark(self):
11) print('Bow Bow..')
12)
13) def f1(obj):
14) if hasattr(obj,'talk'):
15) obj.talk()
16) elif hasattr(obj,'bark'):
17) obj.bark()
18)
19) d=Duck()
20) f1(d)
21)
22) h=Human()
23) f1(h)
24)
25) d=Dog()
26) f1(d)
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 27) Myaah Myaah Myaah...

2) Overloading
We can use same operator or methods for different purposes.

Eg 1: + operator can be used for Arithmetic addition and String concatenation

print(10+20)#30
print('durga'+'soft')#durgasoft

Eg 2: * operator can be used for multiplication and string repetition purposes.

print(10*20)#200
print('durga'*3)#durgadurgadurga

Eg 3: We can use deposit() method to deposit cash or cheque or dd

deposit(cash)
deposit(cheque)
deposit(dd)

There are 3 types of Overloading

1) Operator Overloading
2) Method Overloading
3) Constructor Overloading

1) Operator Overloading:
 We can use the same operator for multiple purposes, which is nothing but operator
overloading.
 Python supports operator overloading.

Eg 1: + operator can be used for Arithmetic addition and String concatenation

print(10+20)#30
print('durga'+'soft')#durgasoft

Eg 2: * operator can be used for multiplication and string repetition purposes.

print(10*20)#200
print('durga'*3)#durgadurgadurga

Demo program to use + operator for our class objects:

1) class Book:
2) def __init__(self,pages):
3) self.pages=pages
4)
5) b1=Book(100)

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 6) b2=Book(200)
7) print(b1+b2)

D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 7, in <module>
print(b1+b2)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'Book' and 'Book'

⚽ We can overload + operator to work with Book objects also. i.e Python supports
Operator Overloading.
⚽ For every operator Magic Methods are available. To overload any operator we have to
override that Method in our class.
⚽ Internally + operator is implemented by using __add__() method.This method is called
magic method for + operator. We have to override this method in our class.

Demo Program to Overload + Operator for Our Book Class Objects:

1) class Book:
2) def __init__(self,pages):
3) self.pages=pages
4)
5) def __add__(self,other):
6) return self.pages+other.pages
7)
8) b1=Book(100)
9) b2=Book(200)
10) print('The Total Number of Pages:',b1+b2)

Output: The Total Number of Pages: 300

The following is the list of operators and corresponding magic methods.

1) +  object.__add__(self,other)
2) -  object.__sub__(self,other)
3) *  object.__mul__(self,other)
4) /  object.__div__(self,other)
5) //  object.__floordiv__(self,other)
 object.__mod__(self,other)
6) %

7) ** object.__pow__(self,other)

8) += object.__iadd__(self,other)

9) -=  object.__isub__(self,other)
10) *=  object.__imul__(self,other)
11) /=  object.__idiv__(self,other)
12) //=  object.__ifloordiv__(self,other)
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 13) %=  object.__imod__(self,other)
14) **=  object.__ipow__(self,other)
15) < 
object.__lt__(self,other)
16) <= 
 object.__le__(self,other)
17) > object.__gt__(self,other)

18) >= object.__ge__(self,other)

19) ==  object.__eq__(self,other)
20) !=  object.__ne__(self,other)

Overloading > and <= Operators for Student Class Objects:

1) class Student:
2) def __init__(self,name,marks):
3) self.name=name
4) self.marks=marks
5) def __gt__(self,other):
6) return self.marks>other.marks
7) def __le__(self,other):
8) return self.marks<=other.marks
9)
10) print("10>20 =",10>20)
11) s1=Student("Durga",100)
12) s2=Student("Ravi",200)
13) print("s1>s2=",s1>s2)
14) print("s1<s2=",s1<s2)
15) print("s1<=s2=",s1<=s2)
16) print("s1>=s2=",s1>=s2)

Output
10>20 = False
s1>s2= False
s1<s2= True
s1<=s2= True
s1>=s2= False

Program to Overload Multiplication Operator to Work on Employee Objects:

1) class Employee:
2) def __init__(self,name,salary):
3) self.name=name
4) self.salary=salary
5) def __mul__(self,other):
6) return self.salary*other.days
7)

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 8) class TimeSheet:
9) def __init__(self,name,days):
10) self.name=name
11) self.days=days
12)
13) e=Employee('Durga',500)
14) t=TimeSheet('Durga',25)
15) print('This Month Salary:',e*t)

Output: This Month Salary: 12500

2) Method Overloading:
 If 2 methods having same name but different type of arguments then those methods
are said to be overloaded methods.
Eg: m1(int a)
m1(double d)

 But in Python Method overloading is not possible.

 If we are trying to declare multiple methods with same name and different number of
arguments then Python will always consider only last method.

Demo Program:
1) class Test:
2) def m1(self):
3) print('no-arg method')
4) def m1(self,a):
5) print('one-arg method')
6) def m1(self,a,b):
7) print('two-arg method')
8)
9) t=Test()
10) #t.m1()
11) #t.m1(10)
12) t.m1(10,20)

Output: two-arg method

In the above program python will consider only last method.

How we can handle Overloaded Method Requirements in Python:

Most of the times, if method with variable number of arguments required then we can
handle with default arguments or with variable number of argument methods.

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Demo Program with Default Arguments:
1) class Test:
2) def sum(self,a=None,b=None,c=None):
3) if a!=None and b!= None and c!= None:
4) print('The Sum of 3 Numbers:',a+b+c)
5) elif a!=None and b!= None:
6) print('The Sum of 2 Numbers:',a+b)
7) else:
8) print('Please provide 2 or 3 arguments')
9) t=Test()
10) t.sum(10,20)
11) t.sum(10,20,30)
12) t.sum(10)

Output
The Sum of 2 Numbers: 30
The Sum of 3 Numbers: 60
Please provide 2 or 3 arguments

Demo Program with Variable Number of Arguments:

1) class Test:
2) def sum(self,*a):
3) total=0
4) for x in a:
5) total=total+x
6) print('The Sum:',total)
7)
8) t=Test()
9) t.sum(10,20)
10) t.sum(10,20,30)
11) t.sum(10)
12) t.sum()

3) Constructor Overloading:
⚽ Constructor overloading is not possible in Python.
⚽ If we define multiple constructors then the last constructor will be considered.

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('No-Arg Constructor')
4)

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 5) def __init__(self,a):
6) print('One-Arg constructor')
7)
8) def __init__(self,a,b):
9) print('Two-Arg constructor')
10) #t1=Test()
11) #t1=Test(10)
12) t1=Test(10,20)

Output: Two-Arg constructor

 In the above program only Two-Arg Constructor is available.

 But based on our requirement we can declare constructor with default arguments and
variable number of arguments.

Constructor with Default Arguments:

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self,a=None,b=None,c=None):
3) print('Constructor with 0|1|2|3 number of arguments')
4)
5) t1=Test()
6) t2=Test(10)
7) t3=Test(10,20)
8) t4=Test(10,20,30)

Output
Constructor with 0|1|2|3 number of arguments
Constructor with 0|1|2|3 number of arguments
Constructor with 0|1|2|3 number of arguments
Constructor with 0|1|2|3 number of arguments

Constructor with Variable Number of Arguments:

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self,*a):
3) print('Constructor with variable number of arguments')
4)
5) t1=Test()
6) t2=Test(10)
7) t3=Test(10,20)
8) t4=Test(10,20,30)
9) t5=Test(10,20,30,40,50,60)

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Output:
Constructor with variable number of arguments
Constructor with variable number of arguments
Constructor with variable number of arguments
Constructor with variable number of arguments
Constructor with variable number of arguments

3) Overriding

Method Overriding
⚽ What ever members available in the parent class are bydefault available to the child
class through inheritance. If the child class not satisfied with parent class
implementation then child class is allowed to redefine that method in the child class
based on its requirement. This concept is called overriding.
⚽ Overriding concept applicable for both methods and constructors.

Demo Program for Method Overriding:

1) class P:
2) def property(self):
3) print('Gold+Land+Cash+Power')
4) def marry(self):
5) print('Appalamma')
6) class C(P):
7) def marry(self):
8) print('Katrina Kaif')
9)
10) c=C()
11) c.property()
12) c.marry()

Output
Gold+Land+Cash+Power
Katrina Kaif

From Overriding method of child class,we can call parent class method also by using
super() method.

1) class P:
2) def property(self):
3) print('Gold+Land+Cash+Power')

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 4) def marry(self):
5) print('Appalamma')
6) class C(P):
7) def marry(self):
8) super().marry()
9) print('Katrina Kaif')
10)
11) c=C()
12) c.property()
13) c.marry()

Output
Gold+Land+Cash+Power
Appalamma
Katrina Kaif

Demo Program for Constructor Overriding:

1) class P:
2) def __init__(self):
3) print('Parent Constructor')
4)
5) class C(P):
6) def __init__(self):
7) print('Child Constructor')
8)
9) c=C()

Output: Child Constructor

In the above example,if child class does not contain constructor then parent class
constructor will be executed

From child class constuctor we can call parent class constructor by using super() method.

Demo Program to call Parent Class Constructor by using super():

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5)
6) class Employee(Person):
7) def __init__(self,name,age,eno,esal):
8) super().__init__(name,age)

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 9) self.eno=eno
10) self.esal=esal
11)
12) def display(self):
13) print('Employee Name:',self.name)
14) print('Employee Age:',self.age)
15) print('Employee Number:',self.eno)
16) print('Employee Salary:',self.esal)
17)
18) e1=Employee('Durga',48,872425,26000)
19) e1.display()
20) e2=Employee('Sunny',39,872426,36000)
21) e2.display()

Output
Employee Name: Durga
Employee Age: 48
Employee Number: 872425
Employee Salary: 26000

Employee Name: Sunny

Employee Age: 39
Employee Number: 872426
Employee Salary: 36000

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OOP’s
Part - 4
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Agenda
1) Abstract Method
2) Abstract class
3) Interface
4) Public,Private and Protected Members
5) __str__() Method
6) Difference between str() and repr() functions
7) Small Banking Application

Abstract Method:
 Sometimes we don't know about implementation, still we can declare a method. Such
types of methods are called abstract methods.i.e abstract method has only declaration
but not implementation.
 In python we can declare abstract method by using @abstractmethod decorator as
follows.

 @abstractmethod
 def m1(self): pass

 @abstractmethod decorator present in abc module. Hence compulsory we should

import abc module,otherwise we will get error.
 abc  abstract base class module

1) class Test:
2) @abstractmethod
3) def m1(self):
4) pass

NameError: name 'abstractmethod' is not defined

Eg:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test:
3) @abstractmethod
4) def m1(self):
5) pass

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Eg:

1) from abc import *

2) class Fruit:
3) @abstractmethod
4) def taste(self):
5) pass

Child classes are responsible to provide implemention for parent class abstract methods.

Abstract class:
Some times implementation of a class is not complete,such type of partially
implementation classes are called abstract classes. Every abstract class in Python should
be derived from ABC class which is present in abc module.

Case-1:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test:
3) pass
4)
5) t=Test()

In the above code we can create object for Test class b'z it is concrete class and it does not
conatin any abstract method.

Case-2:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test(ABC):
3) pass
4)
5) t=Test()

In the above code we can create object, even it is derived from ABC class,b'z it does not
contain any abstract method.

Case-3:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def m1(self):
5) pass

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 6)
7) t=Test()

TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Test with abstract methods m1

Case-4:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test:
3) @abstractmethod
4) def m1(self):
5) pass
6)
7) t=Test()

We can create object even class contains abstract method b'z we are not extending ABC
class.

Case-5:

1) from abc import *

2) class Test:
3) @abstractmethod
4) def m1(self):
5) print('Hello')
6)
7) t=Test()
8) t.m1()

Output: Hello

Conclusion: If a class contains atleast one abstract method and if we are extending ABC
class then instantiation is not possible.

"abstract class with abstract method instantiation is not possible"

Parent class abstract methods should be implemented in the child classes. Otherwise we
cannot instantiate child class.If we are not creating child class object then we won't get
any error.

Case-1:

1) from abc import *

2) class Vehicle(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod

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 4) def noofwheels(self):
5) pass
6)
7) class Bus(Vehicle): pass

It is valid because we are not creating Child class object.

Case-2:

1) from abc import *

2) class Vehicle(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def noofwheels(self):
5) pass
6)
7) class Bus(Vehicle): pass
8) b=Bus()

TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Bus with abstract methods noofwheels

Note: If we are extending abstract class and does not override its abstract method then
child class is also abstract and instantiation is not possible.

1) from abc import *

2) class Vehicle(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def noofwheels(self):
5) pass
6)
7) class Bus(Vehicle):
8) def noofwheels(self):
9) return 7
10)
11) class Auto(Vehicle):
12) def noofwheels(self):
13) return 3
14) b=Bus()
15) print(b.noofwheels())#7
16)
17) a=Auto()
18) print(a.noofwheels())#3

Note: Abstract class can contain both abstract and non-abstract methods also.

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Interfaces In Python:
In general if an abstract class contains only abstract methods such type of abstract class is
considered as interface.

1) from abc import *

2) class DBInterface(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def connect(self):pass
5)
6) @abstractmethod
7) def disconnect(self):pass
8)
9) class Oracle(DBInterface):
10) def connect(self):
11) print('Connecting to Oracle Database...')
12) def disconnect(self):
13) print('Disconnecting to Oracle Database...')
14)
15) class Sybase(DBInterface):
16) def connect(self):
17) print('Connecting to Sybase Database...')
18) def disconnect(self):
19) print('Disconnecting to Sybase Database...')
20)
21) dbname=input('Enter Database Name:')
22) classname=globals()[dbname]
23) x=classname()
24) x.connect()
25) x.disconnect()

D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Enter Database Name:Oracle
Connecting to Oracle Database...
Disconnecting to Oracle Database...

D:\durga_classes>py test.py
Enter Database Name:Sybase
Connecting to Sybase Database...
Disconnecting to Sybase Database...

Note: The inbuilt function globals()[str] converts the string 'str' into a class name and
returns the classname.

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Demo Program-2: Reading class name from the file

config.txt
EPSON

test.py

1) from abc import *

2) class Printer(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def printit(self,text):pass
5)
6) @abstractmethod
7) def disconnect(self):pass
8)
9) class EPSON(Printer):
10) def printit(self,text):
11) print('Printing from EPSON Printer...')
12) print(text)
13) def disconnect(self):
14) print('Printing completed on EPSON Printer...')
15)
16) class HP(Printer):
17) def printit(self,text):
18) print('Printing from HP Printer...')
19) print(text)
20) def disconnect(self):
21) print('Printing completed on HP Printer...')
22)
23) with open('config.txt','r') as f:
24) pname=f.readline()
25)
26) classname=globals()[pname]
27) x=classname()
28) x.printit('This data has to print...')
29) x.disconnect()

Output:
Printing from EPSON Printer...
This data has to print...
Printing completed on EPSON Printer...

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Concreate class vs Abstract Class vs Inteface:
1) If we dont know anything about implementation just we have requirement
specification then we should go for interface.
2) If we are talking about implementation but not completely then we should go for
abstract class. (partially implemented class).
3) If we are talking about implementation completely and ready to provide service then
we should go for concrete class.

1) from abc import *

2) class CollegeAutomation(ABC):
3) @abstractmethod
4) def m1(self): pass
5) @abstractmethod
6) def m2(self): pass
7) @abstractmethod
8) def m3(self): pass
9) class AbsCls(CollegeAutomation):
10) def m1(self):
11) print('m1 method implementation')
12) def m2(self):
13) print('m2 method implementation')
14)
15) class ConcreteCls(AbsCls):
16) def m3(self):
17) print('m3 method implemnentation')
18)
19) c=ConcreteCls()
20) c.m1()
21) c.m2()
22) c.m3()

Public, Protected and Private Attributes:

By default every attribute is public. We can access from anywhere either within the class
or from outside of the class.
Eg: name = 'durga'

Protected attributes can be accessed within the class anywhere but from outside of the
class only in child classes. We can specify an attribute as protected by prefexing with _
symbol.

Syntax: _variablename = value

Eg: _name='durga'

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But is is just convention and in reality does not exists protected attributes.

private attributes can be accessed only within the class.i.e from outside of the class we
cannot access. We can declare a variable as private explicitly by prefexing with 2
underscore symbols.

syntax: __variablename=value

Eg: __name='durga'

1) class Test:
2) x=10
3) _y=20
4) __z=30
5) def m1(self):
6) print(Test.x)
7) print(Test._y)
8) print(Test.__z)
9)
10) t=Test()
11) t.m1()
12) print(Test.x)
13) print(Test._y)
14) print(Test.__z)

Output:
10
20
30
10
20
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 14, in <module>
print(Test.__z)
AttributeError: type object 'Test' has no attribute '__z'

How to Access Private Variables from Outside of the Class:

We cannot access private variables directly from outside of the class.
But we can access indirectly as follows objectreference._classname__variablename

1) class Test:
2) def __init__(self):
3) self.__x=10
4)

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 5) t=Test()
6) print(t._Test__x)#10

__str__() method:
 Whenever we are printing any object reference internally __str__() method will be
called which is returns string in the following format
<__main__.classname object at 0x022144B0>

 To return meaningful string representation we have to override __str__() method.

1) class Student:
2) def __init__(self,name,rollno):
3) self.name=name
4) self.rollno=rollno
5)
6) def __str__(self):
7) return 'This is Student with Name:{} and Rollno:{}'.format(self.name,self.rollno)
8)
9) s1=Student('Durga',101)
10) s2=Student('Ravi',102)
11) print(s1)
12) print(s2)

Output without Overriding str():

<__main__.Student object at 0x022144B0>
<__main__.Student object at 0x022144D0>

Output with Overriding str():

This is Student with Name: Durga and Rollno: 101
This is Student with Name: Ravi and Rollno: 102

Difference between str() and repr()

OR
Difference between __str__() and __repr__()
 str() internally calls __str__() function and hence functionality of both is same.
 Similarly,repr() internally calls __repr__() function and hence functionality of both is
same.
 str() returns a string containing a nicely printable representation object.
 The main purpose of str() is for readability.It may not possible to convert result string
to original object.

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 1) import datetime
2) today=datetime.datetime.now()
3) s=str(today)#converting datetime object to str
4) print(s)
5) d=eval(s)#converting str object to datetime

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
2018-05-18 22:48:19.890888
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 5, in <module>
d=eval(s)#converting str object to datetime
File "<string>", line 1
2018-05-18 22:48:19.890888
^
SyntaxError: invalid token

But repr() returns a string containing a printable representation of object.

The main goal of repr() is unambigouous. We can convert result string to original object by
using eval() function,which may not possible in str() function.

1) import datetime
2) today=datetime.datetime.now()
3) s=repr(today)#converting datetime object to str
4) print(s)
5) d=eval(s)#converting str object to datetime
6) print(d)

Output:
datetime.datetime(2018, 5, 18, 22, 51, 10, 875838)
2018-05-18 22:51:10.875838

Note: It is recommended to use repr() instead of str()

Mini Project: Banking Application

1) class Account:
2) def __init__(self,name,balance,min_balance):
3) self.name=name
4) self.balance=balance
5) self.min_balance=min_balance
6)
7) def deposit(self,amount):
8) self.balance +=amount
9)
10) def withdraw(self,amount):
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 11) if self.balance-amount >= self.min_balance:
12) self.balance -=amount
13) else:
14) print("Sorry, Insufficient Funds")
15)
16) def printStatement(self):
17) print("Account Balance:",self.balance)
18)
19) class Current(Account):
20) def __init__(self,name,balance):
21) super().__init__(name,balance,min_balance=-1000)
22) def __str__(self):
23) return "{}'s Current Account with Balance :{}".format(self.name,self.balance)
24)
25) class Savings(Account):
26) def __init__(self,name,balance):
27) super().__init__(name,balance,min_balance=0)
28) def __str__(self):
29) return "{}'s Savings Account with Balance :{}".format(self.name,self.balance)
30)
31) c=Savings("Durga",10000)
32) print(c)
33) c.deposit(5000)
34) c.printStatement()
35) c.withdraw(16000)
36) c.withdraw(15000)
37) print(c)
38)
39) c2=Current('Ravi',20000)
40) c2.deposit(6000)
41) print(c2)
42) c2.withdraw(27000)
43) print(c2)

Output:
D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Durga's Savings Account with Balance :10000
Account Balance: 15000
Sorry, Insufficient Funds
Durga's Savings Account with Balance :0
Ravi's Current Account with Balance :26000
Ravi's Current Account with Balance :-1000

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EXCEPTION
HANDLING

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In any programming language there are 2 types of errors are possible.

1) Syntax Errors
2) Runtime Errors

1) Syntax Errors:
The errors which occur because of invalid syntax are called syntax errors.

Eg 1:
x = 10
if x == 10
print("Hello")

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Eg 2:
print "Hello"
SyntaxError: Missing parentheses in call to 'print'

Note: Programmer is responsible to correct these syntax errors. Once all syntax errors
are corrected then only program execution will be started.

2) Runtime Errors:
 Also known as exceptions.
 While executing the program if something goes wrong because of end user input or
programming logic or memory problems etc then we will get Runtime Errors.

Eg:
1) print(10/0)  ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
2) print(10/"ten")  TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'int' and 'str'

3) x = int(input("Enter Number:"))
print(x)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Number:ten
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'

Note: Exception Handling concept applicable for Runtime Errors but not for syntax errors

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What is Exception?
An unwanted and unexpected event that disturbs normal flow of program is called
exception.

Eg:
 ZeroDivisionError
 TypeError
 ValueError
 FileNotFoundError
 EOFError
 SleepingError
 TyrePuncturedError

It is highly recommended to handle exceptions. The main objective of exception handling

is Graceful Termination of the program (i.e we should not block our resources and we
should not miss anything)

Exception handling does not mean repairing exception. We have to define alternative way
to continue rest of the program normally.

Eg: For example our programming requirement is reading data from remote file locating
at London. At runtime if London file is not available then the program should not be
terminated abnormally. We have to provide local file to continue rest of the program
normally. This way of defining alternative is nothing but exception handling.

try:
Read Data from Remote File locating at London.
except FileNotFoundError:
use local file and continue rest of the program normally

Q. What is an Exception?
Q. What is the purpose of Exception Handling?
Q. What is the meaning of Exception Handling?

Default Exception Handing in Python:

 Every exception in Python is an object. For every exception type the corresponding
classes are available.
 Whevever an exception occurs PVM will create the corresponding exception object
and will check for handling code. If handling code is not available then Python
interpreter terminates the program abnormally and prints corresponding exception
information to the console.
 The rest of the program won't be executed.

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 1) print("Hello")
2) print(10/0)
3) print("Hi")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Hello
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 2, in <module>
print(10/0)
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Python's Exception Hierarchy

BaseException

Exception SystemExit GeneratorExit KeyboardInterrupt

Attribute Arithmetic EOF Name Lookup OS Type Value

Error Error Error Error Error Error Error Error

ZeroDivision Index FileNotFound

Error Error Error

FloatingPoint Key Interrupted

Error Error Error

Overflow Permission
Error Error

TimeOut
Error
 Every Exception in Python is a class.
 All exception classes are child classes of BaseException.i.e every exception class
extends BaseException either directly or indirectly. Hence BaseException acts as root
for Python Exception Hierarchy.
 Most of the times being a programmer we have to concentrate Exception and its child
classes.

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Customized Exception Handling by using try-except:
 It is highly recommended to handle exceptions.
 The code which may raise exception is called risky code and we have to take risky code
inside try block. The corresponding handling code we have to take inside except block.
try:
Risky Code
except XXX:
Handling code/Alternative Code

Without try-except:

1) print("stmt-1")
2) print(10/0)
3) print("stmt-3")

Output
stmt-1
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
Abnormal termination/Non-Graceful Termination

With try-except:

1) print("stmt-1")
2) try:
3) print(10/0)
4) except ZeroDivisionError:
5) print(10/2)
6) print("stmt-3")

Output
stmt-1
5.0
stmt-3
Normal termination/Graceful Termination

Control Flow in try-except:

try:
stmt-1
stmt-2
stmt-3
except XXX:
stmt-4
stmt-5

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Case-1: If there is no exception
1,2,3,5 and Normal Termination

Case-2: If an exception raised at stmt-2 and corresponding except block matched

1,4,5 Normal Termination

Case-3: If an exception rose at stmt-2 and corresponding except block not matched
1, Abnormal Termination

Case-4: If an exception rose at stmt-4 or at stmt-5 then it is always abnormal

termination.

Conclusions:
1) Within the try block if anywhere exception raised then rest of the try block won’t be
executed eventhough we handled that exception. Hence we have to take only risky
code inside try block and length of the try block should be as less as possible.
2) In addition to try block, there may be a chance of raising exceptions inside except and
finally blocks also.
3) If any statement which is not part of try block raises an exception then it is always
abnormal termination.

How to Print Exception Information:

try:

1) print(10/0)
2) except ZeroDivisionError as msg:
3) print("exception raised and its description is:",msg)

Output exception raised and its description is: division by zero

try with Multiple except Blocks:

The way of handling exception is varied from exception to exception.Hence for every
exception type a seperate except block we have to provide. i.e try with multiple except
blocks is possible and recommended to use.

Eg:
try:
-------
-------
-------
except ZeroDivisionError:
perform alternative arithmetic operations

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except FileNotFoundError:
use local file instead of remote file

If try with multiple except blocks available then based on raised exception the
corresponding except block will be executed.

1) try:
2) x=int(input("Enter First Number: "))
3) y=int(input("Enter Second Number: "))
4) print(x/y)
5) except ZeroDivisionError :
6) print("Can't Divide with Zero")
7) except ValueError:
8) print("please provide int value only")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: 2
5.0

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: 0
Can't Divide with Zero

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: ten
please provide int value only

If try with multiple except blocks available then the order of these except blocks is
important .Python interpreter will always consider from top to bottom until matched
except block identified.

1) try:
2) x=int(input("Enter First Number: "))
3) y=int(input("Enter Second Number: "))
4) print(x/y)
5) except ArithmeticError :
6) print("ArithmeticError")
7) except ZeroDivisionError:
8) print("ZeroDivisionError")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10

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Enter Second Number: 0
ArithmeticError

Single except Block that can handle Multiple Exceptions:

We can write a single except block that can handle multiple different types of exceptions.

except (Exception1,Exception2,exception3,..): OR
except (Exception1,Exception2,exception3,..) as msg :

Parentheses are mandatory and this group of exceptions internally considered as tuple.

1) try:
2) x=int(input("Enter First Number: "))
3) y=int(input("Enter Second Number: "))
4) print(x/y)
5) except (ZeroDivisionError,ValueError) as msg:
6) print("Plz Provide valid numbers only and problem is: ",msg)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: 0
Plz Provide valid numbers only and problem is: division by zero

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: ten
Plz Provide valid numbers only and problem is: invalid literal for int() with b are 10: 'ten'

Default except Block:

We can use default except block to handle any type of exceptions.
In default except block generally we can print normal error messages.

Syntax:
except:
statements

1) try:
2) x=int(input("Enter First Number: "))
3) y=int(input("Enter Second Number: "))
4) print(x/y)
5) except ZeroDivisionError:
6) print("ZeroDivisionError:Can't divide with zero")
7) except:
8) print("Default Except:Plz provide valid input only")

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D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: 0
ZeroDivisionError:Can't divide with zero

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number: 10
Enter Second Number: ten
Default Except:Plz provide valid input only

***Note: If try with multiple except blocks available then default except block should be
last, otherwise we will get SyntaxError.

1) try:
2) print(10/0)
3) except:
4) print("Default Except")
5) except ZeroDivisionError:
6) print("ZeroDivisionError")

SyntaxError: default 'except:' must be last

Note: The following are various possible combinations of except blocks

1) except ZeroDivisionError:
2) except ZeroDivisionError as msg:
3) except (ZeroDivisionError,ValueError) :
4) except (ZeroDivisionError,ValueError) as msg:
5) except :

finally Block:
☕ It is not recommended to maintain clean up code(Resource Deallocating Code or
Resource Releasing code) inside try block because there is no guarentee for the
execution of every statement inside try block always.
☕ It is not recommended to maintain clean up code inside except block, because if there
is no exception then except block won't be executed.
☕ Hence we required some place to maintain clean up code which should be executed
always irrespective of whether exception raised or not raised and whether exception
handled or not handled. Such type of best place is nothing but finally block.
☕ Hence the main purpose of finally block is to maintain clean up code.

try:
Risky Code
except:
Handling Code
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finally:
Cleanup code

The speciality of finally block is it will be executed always whether exception raised or not
raised and whether exception handled or not handled.

Case-1: If there is no exception

1) try:
2) print("try")
3) except:
4) print("except")
5) finally:
6) print("finally")

Output
try
finally

Case-2: If there is an exception raised but handled

1) try:
2) print("try")
3) print(10/0)
4) except ZeroDivisionError:
5) print("except")
6) finally:
7) print("finally")

Output
try
except
finally

Case-3: If there is an exception raised but not handled

1) try:
2) print("try")
3) print(10/0)
4) except NameError:
5) print("except")
6) finally:
7) print("finally")

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Output
try
finally
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero(Abnormal Termination)

*** Note: There is only one situation where finally block won't be executed ie whenever
we are using os._exit(0) function.

Whenever we are using os._exit(0) function then Python Virtual Machine itself will be
shutdown.In this particular case finally won't be executed.

1) imports
2) try:
3) print("try")
4) os._exit(0)
5) except NameError:
6) print("except")
7) finally:
8) print("finally")

Output: try

Note:
os._exit(0)
Where 0 represents status code and it indicates normal termination
There are multiple status codes are possible.

Control Flow in try-except-finally:

try:
stmt-1
stmt-2
stmt-3
except:
stmt-4
finally:
stmt-5
stmt-6

Case-1: If there is no exception

1,2,3,5,6 Normal Termination

Case-2: If an exception raised at stmt2 and the corresponding except block matched
1,4,5,6 Normal Termination

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Case-3: If an exception raised at stmt2 but the corresponding except block not matched
1,5 Abnormal Termination

Case-4:If an exception raised at stmt4 then it is always abnormal termination but before
that finally block will be executed.

Case-5: If an exception raised at stmt-5 or at stmt-6 then it is always abnormal

termination

Nested try-except-finally Blocks:

We can take try-except-finally blocks inside try or except or finally blocks.i.e nesting of try-
except-finally is possible.
try:
----------
----------
----------
try:
-------------
--------------
--------------
except:
--------------
--------------
--------------
------------
except:
-----------
-----------
-----------

General Risky code we have to take inside outer try block and too much risky code we
have to take inside inner try block. Inside Inner try block if an exception raised then inner
except block is responsible to handle. If it is unable to handle then outer except block is
responsible to handle.

1) try:
2) print("outer try block")
3) try:
4) print("Inner try block")
5) print(10/0)
6) except ZeroDivisionError:
7) print("Inner except block")
8) finally:
9) print("Inner finally block")

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 10) except:
11) print("outer except block")
12) finally:
13) print("outer finally block")

Output
outer try block
Inner try block
Inner except block
Inner finally block
outer finally block

Control Flow in nested try-except-finally:

try:
stmt-1
stmt-2
stmt-3
try:
stmt-4
stmt-5
stmt-6
except X:
stmt-7
finally:
stmt-8
stmt-9
except Y:
stmt-10
finally:
stmt-11
stmt-12

Case-1: If there is no exception

1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,11,12 Normal Termination

Case-2: If an exception raised at stmt-2 and the corresponding except block matched
1,10,11,12 Normal Termination

Case-3: If an exceptiion raised at stmt-2 and the corresponding except block not matched
1,11,Abnormal Termination

Case-4: If an exception raised at stmt-5 and inner except block matched

1,2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12 Normal Termination

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Case-5: If an exception raised at stmt-5 and inner except block not matched but outer
except block matched 1,2,3,4,8,10,11,12,Normal Termination

Case-6:If an exception raised at stmt-5 and both inner and outer except blocks are not
matched 1,2,3,4,8,11,Abnormal Termination

Case-7: If an exception raised at stmt-7 and corresponding except block matched

1,2,3,.,.,.,8,10,11,12,Normal Termination

Case-8: If an exception raised at stmt-7 and corresponding except block not matched
1,2,3,.,.,.,8,11,Abnormal Termination

Case-9: If an exception raised at stmt-8 and corresponding except block matched

1,2,3,.,.,.,.,10,11,12 Normal Termination

Case-10: If an exception raised at stmt-8 and corresponding except block not matched
1,2,3,.,.,.,.,11,Abnormal Termination

Case-11: If an exception raised at stmt-9 and corresponding except block matched

1,2,3,.,.,.,.,8,10,11,12,Normal Termination

Case-12: If an exception raised at stmt-9 and corresponding except block not matched
1,2,3,.,.,.,.,8,11,Abnormal Termination

Case-13: If an exception raised at stmt-10 then it is always abonormal termination but

before abnormal termination finally block(stmt-11) will be executed.

Case-14: If an exception raised at stmt-11 or stmt-12 then it is always abnormal

termination.

Note: If the control entered into try block then compulsary finally block will be executed.
If the control not entered into try block then finally block won't be executed.

else Block with try-except-finally:

We can use else block with try-except-finally blocks.
else block will be executed if and only if there are no exceptions inside try block.

try:
Risky Code
except:
will be executed if exception inside try

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else:
will be executed if there is no exception inside try
finally:
will be executed whether exception raised or not raised and handled or not
handled

Eg:
try:
print("try")
print(10/0)  1
except:
print("except")
else:
print("else")
finally:
print("finally")

If we comment line-1 then else block will be executed b'z there is no exception inside try.
In this case the output is:
try
else
finally

If we are not commenting line-1 then else block won't be executed b'z there is exception
inside try block. In this case output is:
try
except
finally

Various possible Combinations of try-except-else-finally:

1) Whenever we are writing try block, compulsory we should write except or finally
block.i.e without except or finally block we cannot write try block.
2) Wheneever we are writing except block, compulsory we should write try block. i.e
except without try is always invalid.
3) Whenever we are writing finally block, compulsory we should write try block. i.e
finally without try is always invalid.
4) We can write multiple except blocks for the same try,but we cannot write multiple
finally blocks for the same try
5) Whenever we are writing else block compulsory except block should be there. i.e
without except we cannot write else block.
6) In try-except-else-finally order is important.
7) We can define try-except-else-finally inside try, except, else and finally blocks. i.e
nesting of try-except-else-finally is always possible.

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 try:
1
print("try") 
except:
2
print("Hello") 
else:
3
print("Hello") 
finally:
4
print("Hello") 
try:
print("try")
5
except: √
print("except")
try:
print("try")
6
finally: √
print("finally")
try:
print("try")
except:
7
print("except") √
else:
print("else")
try:
print("try")
8
else: 
print("else")
try:
print("try")
else:
9
print("else") 
finally:
print("finally")
try:
print("try")
except XXX:
10
print("except-1") √
except YYY:
print("except-2")
try:
print("try")
11
except : 
print("except-1")

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328
 else:
print("else")
else:
print("else")
try:
print("try")
except :
print("except-1")
12
finally: 
print("finally")
finally:
print("finally")
try:
print("try")
13 print("Hello") 
except:
print("except")
try:
print("try")
except:
14 print("except") 
print("Hello")
except:
print("except")
try:
print("try")
except:
15 print("except") 
print("Hello")
finally:
print("finally")
try:
print("try")
except:
16 print("except") 
print("Hello")
else:
print("else")
try:
print("try")
except:
17
print("except") √
try:
print("try")

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 except:
print("except")
try:
print("try")
except:
print("except")
18
try: √
print("try")
finally:
print("finally")
try:
print("try")
except:
print("except")
19
if 10>20: √
print("if")
else:
print("else")
try:
print("try")
try:
print("inner try")
except:
20
print("inner except block") √
finally:
print("inner finally block")
except:
print("except")
try:
print("try")

except:
print("except")
21 try:
print("inner try")
√
except:
print("inner except block")
finally:
print("inner finally block")
try:
print("try")
22 except:
print("except")
√
finally:

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 try:
print("inner try")
except:
print("inner except block")
finally:
print("inner finally block")
try:
print("try")
except:
print("except")
23
try: 
print("try")
else:
print("else")
try:
print("try")
try:
24
print("inner try") 
except:
print("except")
try:
print("try")
else:
print("else")
25
except: 
print("except")
finally:
print("finally")

Types of Exceptions:
In Python there are 2 types of exceptions are possible.
1) Predefined Exceptions
2) User Definded Exceptions

1) Predefined Exceptions:
 Also known as inbuilt exceptions.
 The exceptions which are raised automatically by Python virtual machine whenver a
particular event occurs are called pre defined exceptions.

Eg 1: Whenever we are trying to perform Division by zero, automatically Python will

raise ZeroDivisionError.
print(10/0)

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 Eg 2: Whenever we are trying to convert input value to int type and if input value is
not int value then Python will raise ValueError automatically
x=int("ten")  ValueError

2) User Defined Exceptions:

 Also known as Customized Exceptions or Programatic Exceptions
 Some time we have to define and raise exceptions explicitly to indicate that something
goes wrong, such type of exceptions are called User Defined Exceptions or Customized
Exceptions
 Programmer is responsible to define these exceptions and Python not having any idea
about these. Hence we have to raise explicitly based on our requirement by using
"raise" keyword.
Eg:
 InSufficientFundsException
 InvalidInputException
 TooYoungException
 TooOldException

How to Define and Raise Customized Exceptions:

Every exception in Python is a class that extends Exception class either directly or
indirectly.

Syntax:
class classname(predefined exception class name):
def __init__(self,arg):
self.msg=arg

1) class TooYoungException(Exception):
2) def __init__(self,arg):
3) self.msg=arg

TooYoungException is our class name which is the child class of Exception

We can raise exception by using raise keyword as follows

raise TooYoungException("message")

1) class TooYoungException(Exception):
2) def __init__(self,arg):
3) self.msg=arg
4)
5) class TooOldException(Exception):
6) def __init__(self,arg):
7) self.msg=arg
8)
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332
 9) age=int(input("Enter Age:"))
10) if age>60:
11) raise TooYoungException("Plz wait some more time you will get best match soon!!!")
12) elif age<18:
13) raise TooOldException("Your age already crossed marriage age...no chance of
getting marriage")
14) else:
15) print("You will get match details soon by email!!!")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Age:90
__main__.TooYoungException: Plz wait some more time you will get best match soon!!!

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Age:12
__main__.TooOldException: Your age already crossed marriage age...no chance of g
etting marriage

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Age:27
You will get match details soon by email!!!

Note: raise keyword is best suitable for customized exceptions but not for pre defined
exceptions

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 FILE
HANDLING

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 As the part of programming requirement, we have to store our data permanently for
future purpose. For this requirement we should go for files.
 Files are very common permanent storage areas to store our data.

Types of Files:
There are 2 types of files

1) Text Files:
Usually we can use text files to store character data
Eg: abc.txt

2) Binary Files:
Usually we can use binary files to store binary data like images,video files, audio files
etc...

Opening a File:
 Before performing any operation (like read or write) on the file,first we have to open
that file.For this we should use Python's inbuilt function open()
 But at the time of open, we have to specify mode,which represents the purpose of
opening file.
f = open(filename, mode)

The allowed modes in Python are

1) r  open an existing file for read operation. The file pointer is positioned at the
beginning of the file.If the specified file does not exist then we will get
FileNotFoundError.This is default mode.

2) w  open an existing file for write operation. If the file already contains some data
then it will be overridden. If the specified file is not already avaialble then this mode will
create that file.

3) a  open an existing file for append operation. It won't override existing data.If the
specified file is not already avaialble then this mode will create a new file.

4) r+  To read and write data into the file. The previous data in the file will not be
deleted.The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file.
5) w+  To write and read data. It will override existing data.

6) a+  To append and read data from the file.It wont override existing data.

7) x  To open a file in exclusive creation mode for write operation. If the file already
exists then we will get FileExistsError.

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Note: All the above modes are applicable for text files. If the above modes suffixed with
'b' then these represents for binary files.

Eg: rb,wb,ab,r+b,w+b,a+b,xb

f = open("abc.txt","w")
We are opening abc.txt file for writing data.

Closing a File:
After completing our operations on the file, it is highly recommended to close the file.
For this we have to use close() function.
f.close()

Various Properties of File Object:

Once we opend a file and we got file object, we can get various details related to that file
by using its properties.
 name  Name of opened file
 mode  Mode in which the file is opened
 closed  Returns boolean value indicates that file is closed or not
 readable() Retruns boolean value indicates that whether file is readable or not
 writable() Returns boolean value indicates that whether file is writable or not.

1) f=open("abc.txt",'w')
2) print("File Name: ",f.name)
3) print("File Mode: ",f.mode)
4) print("Is File Readable: ",f.readable())
5) print("Is File Writable: ",f.writable())
6) print("Is File Closed : ",f.closed)
7) f.close()
8) print("Is File Closed : ",f.closed)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
File Name: abc.txt
File Mode: w
Is File Readable: False
Is File Writable: True
Is File Closed: False
Is File Closed: True

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Writing Data to Text Files:
We can write character data to the text files by using the following 2 methods.
1) write(str)
2) writelines(list of lines)

1) f=open("abcd.txt",'w')
2) f.write("Durga\n")
3) f.write("Software\n")
4) f.write("Solutions\n")
5) print("Data written to the file successfully")
6) f.close()

abcd.txt:
Durga
Software
Solutions

Note: In the above program, data present in the file will be overridden everytime if we
run the program. Instead of overriding if we want append operation then we should open
the file as follows.

f = open("abcd.txt","a")
Eg 2:

1) f=open("abcd.txt",'w')
2) list=["sunny\n","bunny\n","vinny\n","chinny"]
3) f.writelines(list)
4) print("List of lines written to the file successfully")
5) f.close()

abcd.txt:
sunny
bunny
vinny
chinny

Note: While writing data by using write() methods, compulsory we have to provide line
seperator(\n), otherwise total data should be written to a single line.

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Reading Character Data from Text Files:
We can read character data from text file by using the following read methods.

 read() To read total data from the file

 read(n)  To read 'n' characters from the file
 readline() To read only one line
 readlines() To read all lines into a list

Eg 1: To read total data from the file

1) f=open("abc.txt",'r')
2) data=f.read()
3) print(data)
4) f.close()

Output
sunny
bunny
chinny
vinny

Eg 2: To read only first 10 characters:

1) f=open("abc.txt",'r')
2) data=f.read(10)
3) print(data)
4) f.close()

Output
sunny
bunn

Eg 3: To read data line by line:

1) f=open("abc.txt",'r')
2) line1=f.readline()
3) print(line1,end='')
4) line2=f.readline()
5) print(line2,end='')
6) line3=f.readline()
7) print(line3,end='')
8) f.close()

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Output
sunny
bunny
chinny

Eg 4: To read all lines into list:

1) f=open("abc.txt",'r')
2) lines=f.readlines()
3) for line in lines:
4) print(line,end='')
5) f.close()

Output
sunny
bunny
chinny
vinny

Eg 5:

1) f=open("abc.txt","r")
2) print(f.read(3))
3) print(f.readline())
4) print(f.read(4))
5) print("Remaining data")
6) print(f.read())

Output
sun
ny

bunn
Remaining data
y
chinny
vinny

The with Statement:

 The with statement can be used while opening a file.We can use this to group file
operation statements within a block.
 The advantage of with statement is it will take care closing of file,after completing all
operations automatically even in the case of exceptions also, and we are not required
to close explicitly.

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 1) with open("abc.txt","w") as f:
2) f.write("Durga\n")
3) f.write("Software\n")
4) f.write("Solutions\n")
5) print("Is File Closed: ",f.closed)
6) print("Is File Closed: ",f.closed)

Output
Is File Closed: False
Is File Closed: True

The seek() and tell() Methods:

tell():
 We can use tell() method to return current position of the cursor(file pointer) from
beginning of the file. [ can you plese telll current cursor position]
 The position(index) of first character in files is zero just like string index.

1) f=open("abc.txt","r")
2) print(f.tell())
3) print(f.read(2))
4) print(f.tell())
5) print(f.read(3))
6) print(f.tell())

abc.txt:
sunny
bunny
chinny
vinny

Output:
0
su
2
nny
5

seek():
We can use seek() method to move cursor (file pointer) to specified location.
[Can you please seek the cursor to a particular location]
f.seek(offset, fromwhere)  offset represents the number of positions

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The allowed Values for 2nd Attribute (from where) are
0  From beginning of File (Default Value)
1  From Current Position
2  From end of the File

Note: Python 2 supports all 3 values but Python 3 supports only zero.

1) data="All Students are STUPIDS"

2) f=open("abc.txt","w")
3) f.write(data)
4) with open("abc.txt","r+") as f:
5) text=f.read()
6) print(text)
7) print("The Current Cursor Position: ",f.tell())
8) f.seek(17)
9) print("The Current Cursor Position: ",f.tell())
10) f.write("GEMS!!!")
11) f.seek(0)
12) text=f.read()
13) print("Data After Modification:")
14) print(text)

Output
All Students are STUPIDS
The Current Cursor Position: 24
The Current Cursor Position: 17
Data After Modification:
All Students are GEMS!!!

How to check a particular File exists OR not?

We can use os library to get information about files in our computer.
os module has path sub module,which contains isFile() function to check whether a
particular file exists or not?
os.path.isfile(fname)

Q) Write a Program to check whether the given File exists OR not. If it is

available then print its content?

1) import os,sys
2) fname=input("Enter File Name: ")
3) if os.path.isfile(fname):
4) print("File exists:",fname)
5) f=open(fname,"r")
6) else:

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 7) print("File does not exist:",fname)
8) sys.exit(0)
9) print("The content of file is:")
10) data=f.read()
11) print(data)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter File Name: durga.txt
File does not exist: durga.txt
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter File Name: abc.txt
File exists: abc.txt
The content of file is:
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!

Note:
sys.exit(0)  To exit system without executing rest of the program.
argument represents status code. 0 means normal termination and it is the default value.

Q) Program to print the Number of Lines, Words and Characters

present in the given File?
1) import os,sys
2) fname=input("Enter File Name: ")
3) if os.path.isfile(fname):
4) print("File exists:",fname)
5) f=open(fname,"r")
6) else:
7) print("File does not exist:",fname)
8) sys.exit(0)
9) lcount=wcount=ccount=0
10) for line in f:
11) lcount=lcount+1
12) ccount=ccount+len(line)
13) words=line.split()
14) wcount=wcount+len(words)
15) print("The number of Lines:",lcount)
16) print("The number of Words:",wcount)

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 17) print("The number of Characters:",ccount)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter File Name: durga.txt
File does not exist: durga.txt

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter File Name: abc.txt
File exists: abc.txt
The number of Lines: 6
The number of Words: 24
The number of Characters: 149

abc.txt
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!
All Students are GEMS!!!

Handling Binary Data:

It is very common requirement to read or write binary data like images,video files,audio
files etc.

Q) Program to read Image File and write to a New Image File?

1) f1=open("rossum.jpg","rb")
2) f2=open("newpic.jpg","wb")
3) bytes=f1.read()
4) f2.write(bytes)
5) print("New Image is available with the name: newpic.jpg")

Handling CSV Files:

⚽ CSV  Comma seperated values
⚽ As the part of programming, it is very common requirement to write and read data wrt
csv files. Python provides csv module to handle csv files.

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Writing Data to CSV File:
1) import csv
2) with open("emp.csv","w",newline='') as f:
3) w=csv.writer(f) # returns csv writer object
4) w.writerow(["ENO","ENAME","ESAL","EADDR"])
5) n=int(input("Enter Number of Employees:"))
6) for i in range(n):
7) eno=input("Enter Employee No:")
8) ename=input("Enter Employee Name:")
9) esal=input("Enter Employee Salary:")
10) eaddr=input("Enter Employee Address:")
11) w.writerow([eno,ename,esal,eaddr])
12) print("Total Employees data written to csv file successfully")

Note: Observe the difference with newline attribute and without

with open("emp.csv","w",newline='') as f:
with open("emp.csv","w") as f:

Note: If we are not using newline attribute then in the csv file blank lines will be included
between data. To prevent these blank lines, newline attribute is required in Python-3,but
in Python-2 just we can specify mode as 'wb' and we are not required to use newline
attribute.

Reading Data from CSV File:

1) import csv
2) f=open("emp.csv",'r')
3) r=csv.reader(f) #returns csv reader object
4) data=list(r)
5) #print(data)
6) for line in data:
7) for word in line:
8) print(word,"\t",end='')
9) print()

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py

ENO ENAME ESAL EADDR

100 Durga 1000 Hyd
200 Sachin 2000 Mumbai
300 Dhoni 3000 Ranchi

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Zipping and Unzipping Files:
It is very common requirement to zip and unzip files.

The main advantages are:

1) To improve memory utilization
2) We can reduce transport time
3) We can improve performance.

To perform zip and unzip operations, Python contains one in-bulit module zip file.
This module contains a class: ZipFile

To Create Zip File:

We have to create ZipFile class object with name of the zip file, mode and constant
ZIP_DEFLATED. This constant represents we are creating zip file.
f = ZipFile("files.zip","w","ZIP_DEFLATED")

Once we create ZipFile object,we can add files by using write() method.
f.write(filename)

1) from zipfile import *

2) f=ZipFile("files.zip",'w',ZIP_DEFLATED)
3) f.write("file1.txt")
4) f.write("file2.txt")
5) f.write("file3.txt")
6) f.close()
7) print("files.zip file created successfully")

To perform unzip Operation:

We have to create ZipFile object as follows
f = ZipFile("files.zip","r",ZIP_STORED)

ZIP_STORED represents unzip operation. This is default value and hence we are not
required to specify.
Once we created ZipFile object for unzip operation, we can get all file names present in
that zip file by using namelist() method.
names = f.namelist()

1) from zipfile import *

2) f=ZipFile("files.zip",'r',ZIP_STORED)
3) names=f.namelist()
4) for name in names:
5) print( "File Name: ",name)

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 6) print("The Content of this file is:")
7) f1=open(name,'r')
8) print(f1.read())
9) print()

Working with Directories:

It is very common requirement to perform operations for directories like
1) To know current working directory
2) To create a new directory
3) To remove an existing directory
4) To rename a directory
5) To list contents of the directory
etc...
To perform these operations, Python provides inbuilt module os,which contains several
functions to perform directory related operations.

Q1) To Know Current Working Directory

import os
cwd = os.getcwd()
print("Current Working Directory:",cwd)

Q2) To Create a Sub Directory in the Current Working Directory

import os
os.mkdir("mysub")
print("mysub directory created in cwd")

Q3) To Create a Sub Directory in mysub Directory

cwd
|-mysub
|-mysub2

import os
os.mkdir("mysub/mysub2")
print("mysub2 created inside mysub")

Note: Assume mysub already present in cwd.

Q4) To Create Multiple Directories like sub1 in that sub2 in that

sub3
import os
os.makedirs("sub1/sub2/sub3")
print("sub1 and in that sub2 and in that sub3 directories created")

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Q5) To Remove a Directory
import os
os.rmdir("mysub/mysub2")
print("mysub2 directory deleted")

Q6) To Remove Multiple Directories in the Path

import os
os.removedirs("sub1/sub2/sub3")
print("All 3 directories sub1,sub2 and sub3 removed")

Q7) To Rename a Directory

import os
os.rename("mysub","newdir")
print("mysub directory renamed to newdir")

Q8) To know Contents of Directory

OS Module provides listdir() to list out the contents of the specified directory. It
won't display the contents of sub directory.

1) import os
2) print(os.listdir("."))

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['abc.py', 'abc.txt', 'abcd.txt', 'com', 'demo.py', 'durgamath.py', 'emp.csv', '
file1.txt', 'file2.txt', 'file3.txt', 'files.zip', 'log.txt', 'module1.py', 'myl
og.txt', 'newdir', 'newpic.jpg', 'pack1', 'rossum.jpg', 'test.py', '__pycache__']

 The above program display contents of current working directory but not contents of
sub directories.
 If we want the contents of a directory including sub directories then we should go for
walk() function.

Q9) To Know Contents of Directory including Sub Directories

 We have to use walk() function
 [Can you please walk in the directory so that we can aware all contents of that
directory]
 os.walk(path, topdown = True, onerror = None, followlinks = False)
 It returns an Iterator object whose contents can be displayed by using for loop

 path  Directory Path. cwd means .

 topdown = True  Travel from top to bottom

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  onerror = None  On error detected which function has to execute.
 followlinks = True  To visit directories pointed by symbolic links

Eg: To display all contents of Current working directory including sub directories:

1) import os
2) for dirpath,dirnames,filenames in os.walk('.'):
3) print("Current Directory Path:",dirpath)
4) print("Directories:",dirnames)
5) print("Files:",filenames)
6) print()

Output
Current Directory Path: .
Directories: ['com', 'newdir', 'pack1', '__pycache__']
Files: ['abc.txt', 'abcd.txt', 'demo.py', 'durgamath.py', 'emp.csv', 'file1.txt', 'file2.txt', 'file3.
txt', 'files.zip', 'log.txt', 'module1.py', 'mylog.txt', 'newpic.jpg', 'rossum.jpg', 'test.py']

Current Directory Path: .\com

Directories: ['durgasoft', '__pycache__']
Files: ['module1.py', '__init__.py']
...

Note: To display contents of particular directory, we have to provide that directory name
as argument to walk() function.
os.walk("directoryname")

Q) What is the difference between listdir() and walk() Functions?

In the case of listdir(), we will get contents of specified directory but not sub directory
contents. But in the case of walk() function we will get contents of specified directory
and its sub directories also.

Running Other Programs from Python Program:

OS Module contains system() function to run programs and commands.
It is exactly same as system() function in C language.

os.system("commad string")
The argument is any command which is executing from DOS.

Eg:
import os
os.system("dir *.py")
os.system("py abc.py")

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How to get Information about a File:
We can get statistics of a file like size, last accessed time,last modified time etc by using
stat() function of os module.
stats = os.stat("abc.txt")

The statistics of a file includes the following parameters:

1) st_mode  Protection Bits

2) st_ino  Inode number
3) st_dev  Device
4) st_nlink  Number of Hard Links
5) st_uid  User id of Owner
6) st_gid  Group id of Owner
7) st_size  Size of File in Bytes
8) st_atime  Time of Most Recent Access
9) st_mtime  Time of Most Recent Modification
10) st_ctime  Time of Most Recent Meta Data Change

Note: st_atime, st_mtime and st_ctime returns the time as number of milli seconds since
Jan 1st 1970, 12:00 AM. By using datetime module from timestamp() function, we can get
exact date and time.

Q) To Print all Statistics of File abc.txt

1) import os
2) stats=os.stat("abc.txt")
3) print(stats)

Output
os.stat_result(st_mode=33206, st_ino=844424930132788, st_dev=2657980798, st_nlin
k=1, st_uid=0, st_gid=0, st_size=22410, st_atime=1505451446, st_mtime=1505538999
, st_ctime=1505451446)

Q) To Print specified Properties

1) import os
2) from datetime import *
3) stats=os.stat("abc.txt")
4) print("File Size in Bytes:",stats.st_size)
5) print("File Last Accessed Time:",datetime.fromtimestamp(stats.st_atime))
6) print("File Last Modified Time:",datetime.fromtimestamp(stats.st_mtime))

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Output
File Size in Bytes: 22410
File Last Accessed Time: 2017-09-15 10:27:26.599490
File Last Modified Time: 2017-09-16 10:46:39.245394

Pickling and Unpickling of Objects:

 Sometimes we have to write total state of object to the file and we have to read total
object from the file.
 The process of writing state of object to the file is called pickling and the process of
reading state of an object from the file is called unpickling.
 We can implement pickling and unpickling by using pickle module of Python.
 pickle module contains dump() function to perform pickling. pickle.dump(object,file)
 pickle module contains load() function to perform unpickling obj=pickle.load(file)

pickling
pickle.dump
eno: 100 (e1, f)
ename: Durga
esal: 10000
eaddr: HYD
e1 eno: 100
ename: Durga
esal: 10000
eaddr: HYD

eno: 100 abc.txt

ename: Durga pickle load (f)
esal: 10000
eaddr: HYD unpickling
e2

Writing and Reading State of Object by using pickle Module:

1) import pickle
2) class Employee:
3) def __init__(self,eno,ename,esal,eaddr):
4) self.eno=eno;
5) self.ename=ename;
6) self.esal=esal;
7) self.eaddr=eaddr;
8) def display(self):
9) print(self.eno,"\t",self.ename,"\t",self.esal,"\t",self.eaddr)
10) with open("emp.dat","wb") as f:
11) e=Employee(100,"Durga",1000,"Hyd")
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 12) pickle.dump(e,f)
13) print("Pickling of Employee Object completed...")
14)
15) with open("emp.dat","rb") as f:
16) obj=pickle.load(f)
17) print("Printing Employee Information after unpickling")
18) obj.display()

Writing Multiple Employee Objects to the File:

emp.py:

1) class Employee:
2) def __init__(self,eno,ename,esal,eaddr):
3) self.eno=eno;
4) self.ename=ename;
5) self.esal=esal;
6) self.eaddr=eaddr;
7) def display(self):
8)
9) print(self.eno,"\t",self.ename,"\t",self.esal,"\t",self.eaddr)

pick.py:

1) import emp,pickle
2) f=open("emp.dat","wb")
3) n=int(input("Enter The number of Employees:"))
4) for i in range(n):
5) eno=int(input("Enter Employee Number:"))
6) ename=input("Enter Employee Name:")
7) esal=float(input("Enter Employee Salary:"))
8) eaddr=input("Enter Employee Address:")
9) e=emp.Employee(eno,ename,esal,eaddr)
10) pickle.dump(e,f)
11) print("Employee Objects pickled successfully")

unpick.py:

1) import emp,pickle
2) f=open("emp.dat","rb")
3) print("Employee Details:")
4) while True:
5) try:
6) obj=pickle.load(f)

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7) obj.display()
8) except EOFError:
9) print("All employees Completed")
10) break
11) f.close()

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MULTI
THREADING

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Multi Tasking:
Executing several tasks simultaneously is the concept of multitasking.

There are 2 types of Multi Tasking

1) Process based Multi Tasking
2) Thread based Multi Tasking

1) Process based Multi Tasking:

Executing several tasks simmultaneously where each task is a seperate independent
process is called process based multi tasking.
Eg: while typing python program in the editor we can listen mp3 audio songs from the
same system. At the same time we can download a file from the internet. All these
taks are executing simultaneously and independent of each other. Hence it is process
based multi tasking.

This type of multi tasking is best suitable at operating system level.

2) Thread based MultiTasking:

 Executing several tasks simultaneously where each task is a seperate independent part
of the same program, is called Thread based multi tasking, and each independent part
is called a Thread.
 This type of multi tasking is best suitable at programmatic level.

Note: Whether it is process based or thread based, the main advantage of multi tasking is
to improve performance of the system by reducing response time.

The main important application areas of multi threading are:

1) To implement Multimedia graphics
2) To develop animations
3) To develop video games
4) To develop web and application servers
etc...

Note: Where ever a group of independent jobs are available, then it is highly
recommended to execute simultaneously instead of executing one by one.For such type of
cases we should go for Multi Threading.
 Python provides one inbuilt module "threading" to provide support for developing
threads. Hence developing multi threaded Programs is very easy in python.
 Every Python Program by default contains one thread which is nothing but
MainThread.

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Q) Program to print Name of Current executing Thread
1) import threading
2) print("Current Executing Thread:",threading.current_thread().getName())

Output: Current Executing Thread: MainThread

Note: threading module contains function current_thread() which returns the current
executing Thread object. On this object if we call getName() method then we will get
current executing thread name.

The ways of Creating Thread in Python:

We can create a thread in Python by using 3 ways
1) Creating a Thread without using any class
2) Creating a Thread by extending Thread class
3) Creating a Thread without extending Thread class

1) Creating a Thread without using any Class

1) from threading import *
2) def display():
3) for i in range(1,11):
4) print("Child Thread")
5) t=Thread(target=display) #creating Thread object
6) t.start() #starting of Thread
7) for i in range(1,11):
8) print("Main Thread")

If multiple threads present in our program, then we cannot expect execution order and
hence we cannot expect exact output for the multi threaded programs. B'z of this we
cannot provide exact output for the above program.It is varied from machine to machine
and run to run.

Note: Thread is a pre defined class present in threading module which can be used to
create our own Threads.

2) Creating a Thread by extending Thread Class

We have to create child class for Thread class. In that child class we have to override
run() method with our required job. Whenever we call start() method then
automatically run() method will be executed and performs our job.

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 1) from threading import *
2) class MyThread(Thread):
3) def run(self):
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Child Thread-1")
6) t=MyThread()
7) t.start()
8) for i in range(10):
9) print("Main Thread-1")

3) Creating a Thread without extending Thread Class

1) from threading import *
2) class Test:
3) def display(self):
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Child Thread-2")
6) obj=Test()
7) t=Thread(target=obj.display)
8) t.start()
9) for i in range(10):
10) print("Main Thread-2")

Without Multi Threading

1) from threading import *
2) import time
3) def doubles(numbers):
4) for n in numbers:
5) time.sleep(1)
6) print("Double:",2*n)
7) def squares(numbers):
8) for n in numbers:
9) time.sleep(1)
10) print("Square:",n*n)
11) numbers=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
12) begintime=time.time()
13) doubles(numbers)
14) squares(numbers)
15) print("The total time taken:",time.time()-begintime)

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With Multi Threading
1) from threading import *
2) import time
3) def doubles(numbers):
4) for n in numbers:
5) time.sleep(1)
6) print("Double:",2*n)
7) def squares(numbers):
8) for n in numbers:
9) time.sleep(1)
10) print("Square:",n*n)
11)
12) numbers=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
13) begintime=time.time()
14) t1=Thread(target=doubles,args=(numbers,))
15) t2=Thread(target=squares,args=(numbers,))
16) t1.start()
17) t2.start()
18) t1.join()
19) t2.join()
20) print("The total time taken:",time.time()-begintime)

Setting and Getting Name of a Thread:

Every thread in python has name. It may be default name generated by Python or
Customized Name provided by programmer.

We can get and set name of thread by using the following Thread class methods.
t.getName()  Returns Name of Thread
t.setName(newName)  To set our own name

Note: Every Thread has implicit variable "name" to represent name of Thread.

1) from threading import *

2) print(current_thread().getName())
3) current_thread().setName("Pawan Kalyan")
4) print(current_thread().getName())
5) print(current_thread().name)

Output
MainThread
Pawan Kalyan
Pawan Kalyan

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Thread Identification Number (ident):
For every thread internally a unique identification number is available. We can access this
id by using implicit variable "ident"

1) from threading import *

2) def test():
3) print("Child Thread")
4) t=Thread(target=test)
5) t.start()
6) print("Main Thread Identification Number:",current_thread().ident)
7) print("Child Thread Identification Number:",t.ident)

Output:
Child Thread
Main Thread Identification Number: 2492
Child Thread Identification Number: 2768

active_count():
This function returns the number of active threads currently running.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def display():
4) print(current_thread().getName(),"...started")
5) time.sleep(3)
6) print(current_thread().getName(),"...ended")
7) print("The Number of active Threads:",active_count())
8) t1=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread1")
9) t2=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread2")
10) t3=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread3")
11) t1.start()
12) t2.start()
13) t3.start()
14) print("The Number of active Threads:",active_count())
15) time.sleep(5)
16) print("The Number of active Threads:",active_count())

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
The Number of active Threads: 1
ChildThread1 ...started
ChildThread2 ...started
ChildThread3 ...started
The Number of active Threads: 4

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ChildThread1 ...ended
ChildThread2 ...ended
ChildThread3 ...ended
The Number of active Threads: 1

enumerate() Function:
This function returns a list of all active threads currently running.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def display():
4) print(current_thread().getName(),"...started")
5) time.sleep(3)
6) print(current_thread().getName(),"...ended")
7) t1=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread1")
8) t2=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread2")
9) t3=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread3")
10) t1.start()
11) t2.start()
12) t3.start()
13) l=enumerate()
14) for t in l:
15) print("Thread Name:",t.name)
16) time.sleep(5)
17) l=enumerate()
18) for t in l:
19) print("Thread Name:",t.name)

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
ChildThread1 ...started
ChildThread2 ...started
ChildThread3 ...started
Thread Name: MainThread
Thread Name: ChildThread1
Thread Name: ChildThread2
Thread Name: ChildThread3
ChildThread1 ...ended
ChildThread2 ...ended
ChildThread3 ...ended
Thread Name: MainThread

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isAlive() Method:
isAlive() method checks whether a thread is still executing or not.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def display():
4) print(current_thread().getName(),"...started")
5) time.sleep(3)
6) print(current_thread().getName(),"...ended")
7) t1=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread1")
8) t2=Thread(target=display,name="ChildThread2")
9) t1.start()
10) t2.start()
11)
12) print(t1.name,"is Alive :",t1.isAlive())
13) print(t2.name,"is Alive :",t2.isAlive())
14) time.sleep(5)
15) print(t1.name,"is Alive :",t1.isAlive())
16) print(t2.name,"is Alive :",t2.isAlive())

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
ChildThread1 ...started
ChildThread2 ...started
ChildThread1 is Alive : True
ChildThread2 is Alive : True
ChildThread1 ...ended
ChildThread2 ...ended
ChildThread1 is Alive : False
ChildThread2 is Alive : False

join() Method:
If a thread wants to wait until completing some other thread then we should go for join()
method.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def display():
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Seetha Thread")
6) time.sleep(2)
7)
8) t=Thread(target=display)
9) t.start()

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 10) t.join()#This Line executed by Main Thread
11) for i in range(10):
12) print("Rama Thread")

In the above example Main Thread waited until completing child thread. In this case
output is:
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread

Note: We can call join() method with time period also.

t.join(seconds)
In this case thread will wait only specified amount of time.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def display():
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Seetha Thread")
6) time.sleep(2)
7)
8) t=Thread(target=display)
9) t.start()
10) t.join(5)#This Line executed by Main Thread
11) for i in range(10):
12) print("Rama Thread")

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In this case Main Thread waited only 5 seconds.

Output
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Rama Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread
Seetha Thread

Summary of all methods related to threading module and Thread

Daemon Threads:
 The threads which are running in the background are called Daemon Threads.
 The main objective of Daemon Threads is to provide support for Non Daemon
Threads( like main thread)
Eg: Garbage Collector
 Whenever Main Thread runs with low memory, immediately PVM runs Garbage
Collector to destroy useless objects and to provide free memory,so that Main Thread
can continue its execution without having any memory problems.
 We can check whether thread is Daemon or not by using t.isDaemon() method of
Thread class or by using daemon property.

1) from threading import *

2) print(current_thread().isDaemon()) #False
3) print(current_thread().daemon) #False

 We can change Daemon nature by using setDaemon() method of Thread class.

t.setDaemon(True)

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 But we can use this method before starting of Thread.i.e once thread started,we
cannot change its Daemon nature,otherwise we will get
 RuntimeException:cannot set daemon status of active thread.

1) from threading import *

2) print(current_thread().isDaemon())
3) current_thread().setDaemon(True)

RuntimeError: cannot set daemon status of active thread

Default Nature:
By default Main Thread is always non-daemon.But for the remaining threads Daemon
nature will be inherited from parent to child.i.e if the Parent Thread is Daemon then child
thread is also Daemon and if the Parent Thread is Non Daemon then ChildThread is also
Non Daemon.

1) from threading import *

2) def job():
3) print("Child Thread")
4) t=Thread(target=job)
5) print(t.isDaemon())#False
6) t.setDaemon(True)
7) print(t.isDaemon()) #True

Note: Main Thread is always Non-Daemon and we cannot change its Daemon Nature b'z
it is already started at the beginning only.

Whenever the last Non-Daemon Thread terminates automatically all Daemon Threads will
be terminated.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def job():
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Lazy Thread")
6) time.sleep(2)
7)
8) t=Thread(target=job)
9) #t.setDaemon(True)===>Line-1
10) t.start()
11) time.sleep(5)
12) print("End Of Main Thread")

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In the above program if we comment Line-1 then both Main Thread and Child Threads are
Non Daemon and hence both will be executed until their completion.
In this case output is:

Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
End Of Main Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread

If we are not commenting Line-1 then Main Thread is Non-Daemon and Child Thread is
Daemon. Hence whenever MainThread terminates automatically child thread will be
terminated. In this case output is

Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
Lazy Thread
End of Main Thread

Synchronization:
If multiple threads are executing simultaneously then there may be a chance of data
inconsistency problems.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def wish(name):
4) for i in range(10):
5) print("Good Evening:",end='')
6) time.sleep(2)
7) print(name)
8) t1=Thread(target=wish,args=("Dhoni",))
9) t2=Thread(target=wish,args=("Yuvraj",))
10) t1.start()
11) t2.start()

Output
Good Evening:Good Evening:Yuvraj
Dhoni

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Good Evening:Good Evening:Yuvraj
Dhoni
....

 We are getting irregular output b'z both threads are executing simultaneously wish()
function.
 To overcome this problem we should go for synchronization.
 In synchronization the threads will be executed one by one so that we can overcome
data inconsistency problems.
 Synchronization means at a time only one Thread

The main application areas of synchronization are

1) Online Reservation system
2) Funds Transfer from joint accounts
etc

In Python, we can implement synchronization by using the following

1) Lock
2) RLock
3) Semaphore

Synchronization By using Lock Concept:

 Locks are the most fundamental synchronization mechanism provided by threading
module.
 We can create Lock object as follows l = Lock()
 The Lock object can be hold by only one thread at a time.If any other thread required
the same lock then it will wait until thread releases lock. (Similar to common wash
rooms, public telephone booth etc)
 A Thread can acquire the lock by using acquire() Method l.acquire()
 A Thread can release the lock by using release() Method l.release()

Note: To call release() method compulsory thread should be owner of that lock.i.e thread
should has the lock already,otherwise we will get Runtime Exception saying
RuntimeError: release unlocked lock.

1) from threading import *

2) l=Lock()
3) #l.acquire()  1
4) l.release()

If we are commenting line-1 then we will get RuntimeError: release unlocked lock

1) from threading import *

2) import time

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 3) l=Lock()
4) def wish(name):
5) l.acquire()
6) for i in range(10):
7) print("Good Evening:",end='')
8) time.sleep(2)
9) print(name)
10) l.release()
11)
12) t1=Thread(target=wish,args=("Dhoni",))
13) t2=Thread(target=wish,args=("Yuvraj",))
14) t3=Thread(target=wish,args=("Kohli",))
15) t1.start()
16) t2.start()
17) t3.start()

In the above program at a time only one thread is allowed to execute wish() method and
hence we will get regular output.

Problem with Simple Lock:

The standard Lock object does not care which thread is currently holding that lock.If the
lock is held and any thread attempts to acquire lock, then it will be blocked,even the same
thread is already holding that lock.

1) from threading import *

2) l=Lock()
3) print("Main Thread trying to acquire Lock")
4) l.acquire()
5) print("Main Thread trying to acquire Lock Again")
6) l.acquire()

Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Main Thread trying to acquire Lock
Main Thread trying to acquire Lock Again
--
In the above Program main thread will be blocked b'z it is trying to acquire the lock second
time.

Note: To kill the blocking thread from windows command prompt we have to use
ctrl+break. Here ctrl+C won't work.

If the Thread calls recursive functions or nested access to resources,then the thread may
trying to acquire the same lock again and again,which may block our thread.

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Hence Traditional Locking mechanism won't work for executing recursive functions.

To overcome this problem, we should go for RLock(Reentrant Lock). Reentrant means the
thread can acquire the same lock again and again.If the lock is held by other threads then
only the thread will be blocked.

Reentrant facility is available only for owner thread but not for other threads.

1) from threading import *

2) l=RLock()
3) print("Main Thread trying to acquire Lock")
4) l.acquire()
5) print("Main Thread trying to acquire Lock Again")
6) l.acquire()

In this case Main Thread won't be Locked b'z thread can acquire the lock any number of
times.

This RLock keeps track of recursion level and hence for every acquire() call compulsory
release() call should be available. i.e the number of acquire() calls and release() calls
should be matched then only lock will be released.

Eg:
l=RLock()
l.acquire()
l.acquire()
l.release()
l.release()

After 2 release() calls only the Lock will be released.

Note:
1) Only owner thread can acquire the lock multiple times
2) The number of acquire() calls and release() calls should be matched.

Demo Program for Synchronization by using RLock:

1) from threading import *
2) import time
3) l=RLock()
4) def factorial(n):
5) l.acquire()
6) if n==0:
7) result=1

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 8) else:
9) result=n*factorial(n-1)
10) l.release()
11) return result
12)
13) def results(n):
14) print("The Factorial of",n,"is:",factorial(n))
15)
16) t1=Thread(target=results,args=(5,))
17) t2=Thread(target=results,args=(9,))
18) t1.start()
19) t2.start()

Output:
The Factorial of 5 is: 120
The Factorial of 9 is: 362880

In the above program instead of RLock if we use normal Lock then the thread will be
blocked.

Difference between Lock and RLock

Lock RLock
1) Lock object can be acquired by only one 1) RLock object can be acquired by only one
thread at a time.Even owner thread also thread at a time, but owner thread can
cannot acquire multiple times. acquire same lock object multiple times.
2) Not suitable to execute recursive 2) Best suitable to execute recursive
functions and nested access calls. functions and nested access calls.
3) In this case Lock object will takes care 3) In this case RLock object will takes care
only Locked or unlocked and it never takes whether Locked or unlocked and owner
care about owner thread and recursion thread information, recursiion level.
level.

Synchronization by using Semaphore:

☕ In the case of Lock and RLock, at a time only one thread is allowed to execute.
☕ Sometimes our requirement is at a time a particular number of threads are allowed to
access(like at a time 10 memebers are allowed to access database server,4 members
are allowed to access Network connection etc).To handle this requirement we cannot
use Lock and RLock concepts and we should go for Semaphore concept.
☕ Semaphore can be used to limit the access to the shared resources with limited
capacity.
☕ Semaphore is advanced Synchronization Mechanism.

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☕ We can create Semaphore object as follows s = Semaphore(counter)
☕ Here counter represents the maximum number of threads are allowed to access
simultaneously. The default value of counter is 1.
☕ Whenever thread executes acquire() method,then the counter value will be
decremented by 1 and if thread executes release() method then the counter value will
be incremented by 1.
☕ i.e for every acquire() call counter value will be decremented and for every release()
call counter value will be incremented.

Case-1: s = Semaphore()
In this case counter value is 1 and at a time only one thread is allowed to access. It is
exactly same as Lock concept.

Case-2: s = Semaphore(3)
In this case Semaphore object can be accessed by 3 threads at a time.The remaining
threads have to wait until releasing the semaphore.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) s=Semaphore(2)
4) def wish(name):
5) s.acquire()
6) for i in range(10):
7) print("Good Evening:",end='')
8) time.sleep(2)
9) print(name)
10) s.release()
11)
12) t1=Thread(target=wish,args=("Dhoni",))
13) t2=Thread(target=wish,args=("Yuvraj",))
14) t3=Thread(target=wish,args=("Kohli",))
15) t4=Thread(target=wish,args=("Rohit",))
16) t5=Thread(target=wish,args=("Pandya",))
17) t1.start()
18) t2.start()
19) t3.start()
20) t4.start()
21) t5.start()

In the above program at a time 2 threads are allowed to access semaphore and hence 2
threads are allowed to execute wish() function.

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Bounded Semaphore:
Normal Semaphore is an unlimited semaphore which allows us to call release() method
any number of times to increment counter.The number of release() calls can exceed the
number of acquire() calls also.

1) from threading import *

2) s=Semaphore(2)
3) s.acquire()
4) s.acquire()
5) s.release()
6) s.release()
7) s.release()
8) s.release()
9) print("End")

☕ It is valid because in normal semaphore we can call release() any number of times.
☕ BounedSemaphore is exactly same as Semaphore except that the number of release()
calls should not exceed the number of acquire() calls,otherwise we will get
ValueError: Semaphore released too many times

1) from threading import *

2) s=BoundedSemaphore(2)
3) s.acquire()
4) s.acquire()
5) s.release()
6) s.release()
7) s.release()
8) s.release()
9) print("End")

ValueError: Semaphore released too many times

It is invalid b'z the number of release() calls should not exceed the number of acquire()
calls in BoundedSemaphore.

Note: To prevent simple programming mistakes, it is recommended to use

BoundedSemaphore over normal Semaphore.

Difference between Lock and Semaphore:

At a time Lock object can be acquired by only one thread, but Semaphore object can be
acquired by fixed number of threads specified by counter value.

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Conclusion:
The main advantage of synchronization is we can overcome data inconsistency
problems.But the main disadvantage of synchronization is it increases waiting time of
threads and creates performance problems. Hence if there is no specific requirement then
it is not recommended to use synchronization.

Inter Thread Communication:

☕ Some times as the part of programming requirement, threads are required to
communicate with each other. This concept is nothing but interthread communication.
☕ Eg: After producing items Producer thread has to communicate with Consumer thread
to notify about new item.Then consumer thread can consume that new item.
☕ In Python, we can implement interthread communication by using the following ways
1) Event
2) Condition
3) Queue
etc

Inter Thread Communication by using Event Objects:

☕ Event object is the simplest communication mechanism between the threads. One
thread signals an event and other thereds wait for it.
☕ We can create Event object as follows...
☕ event = threading.Event()
☕ Event manages an internal flag that can set() or clear()
☕ Threads can wait until event set.

Methods of Event Class:

1) set()  internal flag value will become True and it represents GREEN signal for all
waiting threads.
2) clear()  inernal flag value will become False and it represents RED signal for all
waiting threads.
3) isSet()  This method can be used whether the event is set or not
4) wait()|wait(seconds)  Thread can wait until event is set

Pseudo Code:
event = threading.Event()
#consumer thread has to wait until event is set
event.wait()
#producer thread can set or clear event
event.set()
event.clear()

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Demo Program-1:

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def producer():
4) time.sleep(5)
5) print("Producer thread producing items:")
6) print("Producer thread giving notification by setting event")
7) event.set()
8) def consumer():
9) print("Consumer thread is waiting for updation")
10) event.wait()
11) print("Consumer thread got notification and consuming items")
12)
13) event=Event()
14) t1=Thread(target=producer)
15) t2=Thread(target=consumer)
16) t1.start()
17) t2.start()

Output:
Consumer thread is waiting for updation
Producer thread producing items
Producer thread giving notification by setting event
Consumer thread got notification and consuming items

Demo Program-2:

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) def trafficpolice():
4) while True:
5) time.sleep(10)
6) print("Traffic Police Giving GREEN Signal")
7) event.set()
8) time.sleep(20)
9) print("Traffic Police Giving RED Signal")
10) event.clear()
11) def driver():
12) num=0
13) while True:
14) print("Drivers waiting for GREEN Signal")
15) event.wait()
16) print("Traffic Signal is GREEN...Vehicles can move")
17) while event.isSet():
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 18) num=num+1
19) print("Vehicle No:",num,"Crossing the Signal")
20) time.sleep(2)
21) print("Traffic Signal is RED...Drivers have to wait")
22) event=Event()
23) t1=Thread(target=trafficpolice)
24) t2=Thread(target=driver)
25) t1.start()
26) t2.start()

In the above program driver thread has to wait until Trafficpolice thread sets event.ie until
giving GREEN signal.Once Traffic police thread sets event(giving GREEN signal),vehicles can
cross the signal. Once traffic police thread clears event (giving RED Signal)then the driver
thread has to wait.

Inter Thread Communication by using Condition Object:

☕ Condition is the more advanced version of Event object for interthread
communication.A condition represents some kind of state change in the application
like producing item or consuming item. Threads can wait for that condition and
threads can be notified once condition happend.i.e Condition object allows one or
more threads to wait until notified by another thread.
☕ Condition is always associated with a lock (ReentrantLock).
☕ A condition has acquire() and release() methods that call the corresponding methods
of the associated lock.
☕ We can create Condition object as follows condition = threading.Condition()

Methods of Condition:
1) acquire()  To acquire Condition object before producing or consuming items.i.e
thread acquiring internal lock.

2) release()  To release Condition object after producing or consuming items. i.e thread
releases internal lock

3) wait()|wait(time)  To wait until getting Notification or time expired

4) notify()  To give notification for one waiting thread

5) notifyAll()  To give notification for all waiting threads

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Case Study:
The producing thread needs to acquire the Condition before producing item to the
resource and notifying the consumers.

#Producer Thread
...generate item..
condition.acquire()
...add item to the resource...
condition.notify()#signal that a new item is available(notifyAll())
condition.release()

The Consumer must acquire the Condition and then it can consume items from the
resource

#Consumer Thread
condition.acquire()
condition.wait()
consume item
condition.release()

Demo Program-1:

1) from threading import *

2) def consume(c):
3) c.acquire()
4) print("Consumer waiting for updation")
5) c.wait()
6) print("Consumer got notification & consuming the item")
7) c.release()
8)
9) def produce(c):
10) c.acquire()
11) print("Producer Producing Items")
12) print("Producer giving Notification")
13) c.notify()
14) c.release()
15)
16) c=Condition()
17) t1=Thread(target=consume,args=(c,))
18) t2=Thread(target=produce,args=(c,))
19) t1.start()
20) t2.start()

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Output
Consumer waiting for updation
Producer Producing Items
Producer giving Notification
Consumer got notification & consuming the item

Demo Program-2:

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) import random
4) items=[]
5) def produce(c):
6) while True:
7) c.acquire()
8) item=random.randint(1,100)
9) print("Producer Producing Item:",item)
10) items.append(item)
11) print("Producer giving Notification")
12) c.notify()
13) c.release()
14) time.sleep(5)
15)
16) def consume(c):
17) while True:
18) c.acquire()
19) print("Consumer waiting for updation")
20) c.wait()
21) print("Consumer consumed the item",items.pop())
22) c.release()
23) time.sleep(5)
24)
25) c=Condition()
26) t1=Thread(target=consume,args=(c,))
27) t2=Thread(target=produce,args=(c,))
28) t1.start()
29) t2.start()

Output
Consumer waiting for updation
Producer Producing Item: 49
Producer giving Notification
Consumer consumed the item 49
.....

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In the above program Consumer thread expecting updation and hence it is responsible to
call wait() method on Condition object.
Producer thread performing updation and hence it is responsible to call notify() or
notifyAll() on Condition object.

Inter Tread Communication by using Queue:

☕ Queues Concept is the most enhanced Mechanism for interthread communication and
to share data between threads.
☕ Queue internally has Condition and that Condition has Lock.Hence whenever we are
using Queue we are not required to worry about Synchronization.
☕ If we want to use Queues first we should import queue module import queue
☕ We can create Queue object as follows q = queue.Queue()

Important Methods of Queue:

1) put(): Put an item into the queue.
2) get(): Remove and return an item from the queue.

Producer Thread uses put() method to insert data in the queue. Internally this method has
logic to acquire the lock before inserting data into queue. After inserting data lock will be
released automatically.

put() method also checks whether the queue is full or not and if queue is full then the
Producer thread will entered in to waiting state by calling wait() method internally.

Consumer Thread uses get() method to remove and get data from the queue. Internally
this method has logic to acquire the lock before removing data from the queue.Once
removal completed then the lock will be released automatically.

If the queue is empty then consumer thread will entered into waiting state by calling
wait() method internally.Once queue updated with data then the thread will be notified
automatically.

Note: The Queue Module takes care of locking for us which is a great Advantage.

1) from threading import *

2) import time
3) import random
4) import queue
5) def produce(q):
6) while True:
7) item=random.randint(1,100)
8) print("Producer Producing Item:",item)
9) q.put(item)

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 10) print("Producer giving Notification")
11) time.sleep(5)
12) def consume(q):
13) while True:
14) print("Consumer waiting for updation")
15) print("Consumer consumed the item:",q.get())
16) time.sleep(5)
17)
18) q=queue.Queue()
19) t1=Thread(target=consume,args=(q,))
20) t2=Thread(target=produce,args=(q,))
21) t1.start()
22) t2.start()

Output
Consumer waiting for updation
Producer Producing Item: 58
Producer giving Notification
Consumer consumed the item: 58

Types of Queues:
Python Supports 3 Types of Queues.

1) FIFO Queue:
q = queue.Queue()
This is Default Behaviour. In which order we put items in the queue, in the same order
the items will come out (FIFO-First In First Out).

1) import queue
2) q=queue.Queue()
3) q.put(10)
4) q.put(5)
5) q.put(20)
6) q.put(15)
7) while not q.empty():
8) print(q.get(),end=' ')

Output: 10 5 20 15

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2) LIFO Queue:
The removal will be happend in the reverse order of Insertion (Last In First Out)

1) import queue
2) q=queue.LifoQueue()
3) q.put(10)
4) q.put(5)
5) q.put(20)
6) q.put(15)
7) while not q.empty():
8) print(q.get(),end=' ')

Output: 15 20 5 10

3) Priority Queue:
The elements will be inserted based on some priority order.

1) import queue
2) q=queue.PriorityQueue()
3) q.put(10)
4) q.put(5)
5) q.put(20)
6) q.put(15)
7) while not q.empty():
8) print(q.get(),end=' ')

Output: 5 10 15 20

Eg 2: If the data is non-numeric, then we have to provide our data in the form of tuple.
(x,y)
x is priority
y is our element

1) import queue
2) q=queue.PriorityQueue()
3) q.put((1,"AAA"))
4) q.put((3,"CCC"))
5) q.put((2,"BBB"))
6) q.put((4,"DDD"))
7) while not q.empty():
8) print(q.get()[1],end=' ')

Output: AAA BBB CCC DDD

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Good Programming Practices with usage of Locks:
Case-1:
It is highly recommended to write code of releasing locks inside finally block.The
advantage is lock will be released always whether exception raised or not raised and
whether handled or not handled.

l = threading.Lock()
l.acquire()
try:
perform required safe operations
finally:
l.release()

Demo Program:
1) from threading import *
2) import time
3) l=Lock()
4) def wish(name):
5) l.acquire()
6) try:
7) for i in range(10):
8) print("Good Evening:",end='')
9) time.sleep(2)
10) print(name)
11) finally:
12) l.release()
13)
14) t1=Thread(target=wish,args=("Dhoni",))
15) t2=Thread(target=wish,args=("Yuvraj",))
16) t3=Thread(target=wish,args=("Kohli",))
17) t1.start()
18) t2.start()
19) t3.start()

Case-2:
 It is highly recommended to acquire lock by using with statement. The main advantage
of with statement is the lock will be released automatically once control reaches end
of with block and we are not required to release explicitly.
 This is exactly same as usage of with statement for files.

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Example for File:
with open('demo.txt','w') as f:
f.write("Hello...")

Example for Lock:

lock = threading.Lock()
with lock:
perform required safe operations
lock will be released automatically

Demo Program:
1) from threading import *
2) import time
3) lock=Lock()
4) def wish(name):
5) with lock:
6) for i in range(10):
7) print("Good Evening:",end='')
8) time.sleep(2)
9) print(name)
10) t1=Thread(target=wish,args=("Dhoni",))
11) t2=Thread(target=wish,args=("Yuvraj",))
12) t3=Thread(target=wish,args=("Kohli",))
13) t1.start()
14) t2.start()
15) t3.start()

Q) What is the Advantage of using with Statement to acquire a Lock in

Threading?
Lock will be released automatically once control reaches end of with block and we are not
required to release explicitly.

Note: We can use with statement in multithreading for the following cases:

1) Lock
2) RLock
3) Semaphore
4) Condition

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PYTHON
DATABASE
PROGRAMMING

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Storage Areas
As the Part of our Applications, we required to store our Data like Customers Information,
Billing Information, Calls Information etc.

To store this Data, we required Storage Areas. There are 2 types of Storage Areas.

1) Temporary Storage Areas

2) Permanent Storage Areas

1) Temporary Storage Areas:

 These are the Memory Areas where Data will be stored temporarily.
Eg: Python objects like List, Tuple, Dictionary.
 Once Python program completes its execution then these objects will be destroyed
automatically and data will be lost.

2) Permanent Storage Areas:

 Also known as Persistent Storage Areas. Here we can store Data permanently.
Eg: File Systems, Databases, Data warehouses, Big Data Technologies etc

File Systems:
File Systems can be provided by Local operating System. File Systems are best suitable to
store very less Amount of Information.

Limitations:
1) We cannot store huge Amount of Information.
2) There is no Query Language support and hence operations will become very complex.
3) There is no Security for Data.
4) There is no Mechanism to prevent duplicate Data. Hence there may be a chance of Data
Inconsistency Problems.

To overcome the above Problems of File Systems, we should go for Databases.

Databases:
1) We can store Huge Amount of Information in the Databases.
2) Query Language Support is available for every Database and hence we can perform
Database Operations very easily.
3) To access Data present in the Database, compulsory username and pwd must be
required. Hence Data is secured.
4) Inside Database Data will be stored in the form of Tables. While developing Database
Table Schemas, Database Admin follow various Normalization Techniques and can
implement various Constraints like Unique Key Constrains, Primary Key Constraints etc
which prevent Data Duplication. Hence there is no chance of Data Inconsistency Problems.
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Limitations of Databases:
1) Database cannot hold very Huge Amount of Information like Terabytes of Data.
2) Database can provide support only for Structured Data (Tabular Data OR Relational
Data) and cannot provide support for Semi Structured Data (like XML Files) and
Unstructured Data (like Video Files, Audio Files, Images etc)

To overcome these Problems we should go for more Advanced Storage Areas like Big Data
Technologies, Data warehouses etc.

Python Database Programming:

 Sometimes as the part of Programming requirement we have to connect to the
database and we have to perform several operations like creating tables, inserting
data, updating data, deleting data, selecting data etc.
 We can use SQL Language to talk to the database and we can use Python to send those
SQL commands to the database.
 Python provides inbuilt support for several databases like Oracle, MySql, SqlServer,
GadFly, sqlite, etc.
 Python has seperate module for each database.
Eg: cx_Oralce module for communicating with Oracle database
pymssql module for communicating with Microsoft Sql Server

Standard Steps for Python database Programming:

1) Import database specific module
Eg: import cx_Oracle

2) Establish Connection between Python Program and database.

We can create this Connection object by using connect() function of the module.
con = cx_Oracle.connect(datbase information)
Eg: con = cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')

3) To execute our sql queries and to hold results some special object is required, which is
nothing but Cursor object. We can create Cursor object by using cursor() method.
cursor = con.cursor()

4) Execute SQL Queries By using Cursor object. For this we can use the following methods
⚽ execute(sqlquery)  To execute a Single SQL Query
⚽ executescript(sqlqueries)  To execute a String of SQL Queries seperated by semi-
colon ';'
⚽ executemany()  To execute a Parameterized Query.
Eg: cursor.execute("select * from employees")

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5) Commit OR Rollback changes based on our requirement in the case of DML Queries
(insert|update|delete)

commit()  Saves the changes to the database

rollback()  rolls all temporary changes back

6) Fetch the result from the Cursor object in the case of select queries
fetchone()  To fetch only one row
fetchall()  To fetch all rows and it returns a list of rows
fecthmany(n)  To fetch first n rows

Eg 1: data = cursor.fetchone()
print(data)

Eg 2: data = cursor.fetchall()
for row in data:
print(row)

7) Close the Resources

After completing our operations it is highly recommended to close the resources in the
reverse order of their opening by using close() methods.
cursor.close()
con.close()

Note: The following is the list of all important methods which can be used for python
database programming.

⚽ connect()
⚽ cursor()
⚽ execute()
⚽ executescript()
⚽ executemany()
⚽ commit()
⚽ rollback()
⚽ fetchone()
⚽ fetchall()
⚽ fetchmany(n)
⚽ fetch
⚽ close()

These methods won't be changed from database to database and same for all databases.

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Working with Oracle Database:
From Python Program if we want to communicate with any database, some translator
must be required to translate Python calls into Database specific calls and Database
specific calls into Python calls.This translator is nothing but Driver/Connector.

Diagram

For Oracle database the name of driver needed is cx_Oracle.

cx_Oracle is a Python extension module that enables access to Oracle Database.It can be
used for both Python2 and Python3. It can work with any version of Oracle database like
9,10,11 and 12.

Installing cx_Oracle:
From Normal Command Prompt (But not from Python console) execute the following
command

D:\python_classes>pip install cx_Oracle

Collecting cx_Oracle
Downloading cx_Oracle-6.0.2-cp36-cp36m-win32.whl (100kB)
100% |-----------| 102kB 256kB/s
Installing collected packages: cx-Oracle
Successfully installed cx-Oracle-6.0.2

How to Test Installation:

From python console execute the following command:
>>> help("modules")

In the output we can see cx_Oracle

....
_multiprocessing crypt ntpath timeit
_opcode csv nturl2path tkinter
_operator csvr numbers token
_osx_support csvw opcode tokenize
_overlapped ctypes operator trace
_pickle curses optparse traceback
_pydecimal custexcept os tracemalloc
_pyio cx_Oracle parser try
_random data pathlib tty
_sha1 datetime pdb turtle
_sha256 dbm pick turtledemo
_sha3 decimal pickle types
_sha512 demo pickletools typing

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_signal difflib pip unicodedata
_sitebuiltins dis pipes unittest
_socket distutils pkg_resources unpick
_sqlite3 doctest pkgutil update
_sre dummy_threading platform urllib
_ssl durgamath plistlib uu
_stat easy_install polymorph uuid
.....

App 1) Program to Connect with Oracle Database and print

its Version
1) import cx_Oracle
2) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
3) print(con.version)
4) con.close()

Output
D:\python_classes>py db1.py
11.2.0.2.0

App 2) Write a Program to Create Employees Table in the

Oracle Database
employees(eno,ename,esal,eaddr)

1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("create table employees(eno number,ename varchar2(10),esal n
umber(10,2),eaddr varchar2(10))")
6) print("Table created successfully")
7) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
8) if con:
9) con.rollback()
10) print("There is a problem with sql",e)
11) finally:
12) if cursor:
13) cursor.close()
14) if con:
15) con.close()

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App 3) Write a Program to Drop Employees Table from
Oracle Database?
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("drop table employees")
6) print("Table dropped successfully")
7) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
8) if con:
9) con.rollback()
10) print("There is a problem with sql",e)
11) finally:
12) if cursor:
13) cursor.close()
14) if con:
15) con.close()

App 3) Write a Program to Insert a Single Row in the

Employees Table
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("insert into employees values(100,'Durga',1000,'Hyd')")
6) con.commit()
7) print("Record Inserted Successfully")
8) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
9) if con:
10) con.rollback()
11) print("There is a problem with sql",e)
12) finally:
13) if cursor:
14) cursor.close()
15) if con:
16) con.close()

Note: While performing DML Operations (insert|update|delte), compulsory we have to

use commit() method,then only the results will be reflected in the database.

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App 4) Write a Program to Insert Multiple Rows in the
Employees Table by using executemany() Method
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) sql="insert into employees values(:eno,:ename,:esal,:eaddr)"
6) records=[(200,'Sunny',2000,'Mumbai'),
7) (300,'Chinny',3000,'Hyd'),
8) (400,'Bunny',4000,'Hyd')]
9) cursor.executemany(sql,records)
10) con.commit()
11) print("Records Inserted Successfully")
12) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
13) if con:
14) con.rollback()
15) print("There is a problem with sql",e)
16) finally:
17) if cursor:
18) cursor.close()
19) if con:
20) con.close()

App 5) Write a Program to Insert Multiple Rows in the Employees

Table with Dynamic Input from the Keyboard?
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) while True:
6) eno=int(input("Enter Employee Number:"))
7) ename=input("Enter Employee Name:")
8) esal=float(input("Enter Employee Salary:"))
9) eaddr=input("Enter Employee Address:")
10) sql="insert into employees values(%d,'%s',%f,'%s')"
11) cursor.execute(sql %(eno,ename,esal,eaddr))
12) print("Record Inserted Successfully")
13) option=input("Do you want to insert one more record[Yes|No] :")
14) if option=="No":
15) con.commit()
16) break

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 17) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
18) if con:
19) con.rollback()
20) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
21) finally:
22) if cursor:
23) cursor.close()
24) if con:
25) con.close()

App 6) Write a Program to Update Employee Salaries with

Increment for the certain Range with Dynamic Input
Eg: Increment all employee salaries by 500 whose salary < 5000

1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) increment=float(input("Enter Increment Salary:"))
6) salrange=float(input("Enter Salary Range:"))
7) sql="update employees set esal=esal+%f where esal<%f"
8) cursor.execute(sql %(increment,salrange))
9) print("Records Updated Successfully")
10) con.commit()
11) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
12) if con:
13) con.rollback()
14) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
15) finally:
16) if cursor:
17) cursor.close()
18) if con:
19) con.close()

App 7) Write a Program to Delete Employees whose Salary

Greater provided Salary as Dynamic Input?
Eg: delete all employees whose salary > 5000

1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cutoffsalary=float(input("Enter CutOff Salary:"))

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 6) sql="delete from employees where esal>%f"
7) cursor.execute(sql %(cutoffsalary))
8) print("Records Deleted Successfully")
9) con.commit()
10) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
11) if con:
12) con.rollback()
13) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
14) finally:
15) if cursor:
16) cursor.close()
17) if con:
18) con.close()

App 8) Write a Program to Select all Employees info by

using fetchone() Method?
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("select * from employees")
6) row=cursor.fetchone()
7) while row is not None:
8) print(row)
9) row=cursor.fetchone()
10) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
11) if con:
12) con.rollback()
13) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
14) finally:
15) if cursor:
16) cursor.close()
17) if con:
18) con.close()

App 9) Write a Program to select all Employees info by using

fetchall() Method?
1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()

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 5) cursor.execute("select * from employees")
6) data=cursor.fetchall()
7) for row in data:
8) print("Employee Number:",row[0])
9) print("Employee Name:",row[1])
10) print("Employee Salary:",row[2])
11) print("Employee Address:",row[3])
12) print()
13) print()
14) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
15) if con:
16) con.rollback()
17) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
18) finally:
19) if cursor:
20) cursor.close()
21) if con:
22) con.close()

App 10) Write a Program to select Employees info by using fetchmany()

Method and the required Number of Rows will be provided as
Dynamic Input?

1) import cx_Oracle
2) try:
3) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("select * from employees")
6) n=int(input("Enter the number of required rows:"))
7) data=cursor.fetchmany(n)
8) for row in data:
9) print(row)
10) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:
11) if con:
12) con.rollback()
13) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
14) finally:
15) if cursor:
16) cursor.close()
17) if con:
18) con.close()

nd
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Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter the number of required rows:3
(100, 'Durga', 1500.0, 'Hyd')
(200, 'Sunny', 2500.0, 'Mumbai')
(300, 'Chinny', 3500.0, 'Hyd')

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter the number of required rows:4
(100, 'Durga', 1500.0, 'Hyd')
(200, 'Sunny', 2500.0, 'Mumbai')
(300, 'Chinny', 3500.0, 'Hyd')
(400, 'Bunny', 4500.0, 'Hyd')

Working with MySQL Database:

Current version: 5.7.19
Vendor: SUN Micro Systems/Oracle Corporation
Open Source and Freeware
Default Port: 3306
Default user: root

Note: In MySQL, everything we have to work with our own databases, which are also
known as Logical Databases.

The following are 4 Default Databases available in MySQL.

 information_schema
 mysql
 performance_schema
 test

In the above diagram only one physical database is available and 4 logical databases are
available.

Commonly used Commands in MySQL:

1) To Know Available Databases
mysql> show databases;

2) To Create Our Own Logical Database

mysql> create database durgadb;

3) To Drop Our Own Database

mysql> drop database durgadb;

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4) To Use a Particular Logical Database
mysql> use durgadb; OR mysql> connect durgadb;

5) To Create a Table
create table employees(eno int(5) primary key,ename varchar(10),esal double(10,2),
eaddr varchar(10));

6) To Insert Data
insert into employees values(100,'Durga',1000,'Hyd');
insert into employees values(200,'Ravi',2000,'Mumbai');

In MySQL instead of single quotes we can use double quotes also.

Driver/Connector Information:
From Python program if we want to communicates with MySql database, compulsory
some translator is required to convert python specific calls into mysql database specific
calls and mysql database specific calls into python specific calls. This translator is nothing
but Driver or Connector.

We have to download connector seperately from mysql database.

https://dev.mysql.com/downloads/connector/python/2.1.html

How to Check Installation:

From python console we have to use help("modules")
In the list of modules, compulsory MySQL should be there.

Note: In the case of Python3.4 we have to set PATH and PYTHONPATH explicitly

PATH=C:\Python34
PYTHONPATH=C:\Python34\Lib\site-packages

Q) Write a Program to Create Table, Insert Data and display

Data by using MySQL Database
1) import mysql.connector
2) try:
3) con=mysql.connector.connect(host='localhost',database='durgadb',user='root',p
assword='root')
4) cursor=con.cursor()
5) cursor.execute("create table employees(eno int(5) primary key,ename varchar(1
0),esal double(10,2),eaddr varchar(10))")

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 6) print("Table Created...")
7)
8) sql = "insert into employees(eno, ename, esal, eaddr) VALUES(%s, %s, %s, %s)"
9) records=[(100,'Sachin',1000,'Mumbai'),
10) (200,'Dhoni',2000,'Ranchi'),
11) (300,'Kohli',3000,'Delhi')]
12) cursor.executemany(sql,records)
13) con.commit()
14) print("Records Inserted Successfully...")
15) cursor.execute("select * from employees")
16) data=cursor.fetchall()
17) for row in data:
18) print("Employee Number:",row[0])
19) print("Employee Name:",row[1])
20) print("Employee Salary:",row[2])
21) print("Employee Address:",row[3])
22) print()
23) print()
24) except mysql.connector.DatabaseError as e:
25) if con:
26) con.rollback()
27) print("There is a problem with sql :",e)
28) finally:
29) if cursor:
30) cursor.close()
31) if con:
32) con.close()

Q) Write a Program to Copy Data present in Employees

Table of MySQL Database into Oracle Database
1) import mysql.connector
2) import cx_Oracle
3) try:
4) con=mysql.connector.connect(host='localhost',database='durgadb',user='root',p
assword='root')
5) cursor=con.cursor()
6) cursor.execute("select * from employees")
7) data=cursor.fetchall()
8) list=[]
9) for row in data:
10) t=(row[0],row[1],row[2],row[3])
11) list.append(t)
12) except mysql.connector.DatabaseError as e:

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 13) if con:
14) con.rollback()
15) print("There is a problem with MySql :",e)
16) finally:
17) if cursor:
18) cursor.close()
19) if con:
20) con.close()
21)
22) try:
23) con=cx_Oracle.connect('scott/tiger@localhost')
24) cursor=con.cursor()
25) sql="insert into employees values(:eno,:ename,:esal,:eaddr)"
26) cursor.executemany(sql,list)
27) con.commit()
28) print("Records Copied from MySQL Database to Oracle Database Successfully")

29) except cx_Oracle.DatabaseError as e:

30) if con:
31) con.rollback()
32) print("There is a problem with sql",e)
33) finally:
34) if cursor:
35) cursor.close()
36) if con:
37) con.close()

https://dev.mysql.com/downloads/connector/python/2.1.html

1) create table employees(eno int(5) primary key,ename varchar(10),esal double(10,2

),eaddr varchar(10));
2) insert into employees values(100,'Durga',1000,'Hyd');
3) insert into employees values(200,'Ravi',2000,'Mumbai');
4) insert into employees values(300,'Shiva',3000,'Hyd');

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 REGULAR
EXPRESSIONS
&
WEB SCRAPING

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☕ If we want to represent a group of Strings according to a particular format/pattern
then we should go for Regular Expressions.
☕ i.e Regualr Expressions is a declarative mechanism to represent a group of Strings
accroding to particular format/pattern.
☕ Eg 1: We can write a regular expression to represent all mobile numbers
☕ Eg 2: We can write a regular expression to represent all mail ids.

☕ The main important application areas of Regular Expressions are

1) To develop validation frameworks/validation logic
2) To develop Pattern matching applications (ctrl-f in windows, grep in UNIX etc)
3) To develop Translators like compilers, interpreters etc
4) To develop digital circuits
5) To develop communication protocols like TCP/IP, UDP etc.

☕ We can develop Regular Expression Based applications by using python module: re

☕ This module contains several inbuilt functions to use Regular Expressions very easily in
our applications.

1) compile()
Returns Module contains compile() Function to compile a Pattern into RegexObject.
pattern = re.compile("ab")

2) finditer():
Returns an Iterator object which yields Match object for every Match
matcher = pattern.finditer("abaababa")

On Match object we can call the following methods.

1) start()  Returns start index of the match
2) end()  Returns end+1 index of the match
3) group()  Returns the matched string

1) import re count=0
2) pattern=re.compile("ab")
3) matcher=pattern.finditer("abaababa")
4) for match in matcher:
5) count+=1
6) print(match.start(),"...",match.end(),"...",match.group())
7) print("The number of occurrences: ",count)

Output:
0 ... 2 ... ab
3 ... 5 ... ab
5 ... 7 ... ab

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The number of occurrences: 3

Note: We can pass pattern directly as argument to finditer() function.

1) import re
2) count=0
3) matcher=re.finditer("ab","abaababa")
4) for match in matcher:
5) count+=1
6) print(match.start(),"...",match.end(),"...",match.group())
7) print("The number of occurrences: ",count)

Output:
0 ... 2 ... ab
3 ... 5 ... ab
5 ... 7 ... ab
The number of occurrences: 3

Character Classes:
We can use character classes to search a group of characters

1) [abc]  Either a OR b OR c
2) [^abc]  Except a and b and c
3) [a-z]  Any Lower case alphabet symbol
4) [A-Z]  Any upper case alphabet symbol
5) [a-zA-Z]  Any alphabet symbol
6) [0-9]  Any digit from 0 to 9
7) [a-zA-Z0-9]  Any alphanumeric character
8) [^a-zA-Z0-9] Except alphanumeric characters(Special Characters)

1) import re
2) matcher=re.finditer("x","a7b@k9z")
3) for match in matcher:
4) print(match.start(),"......",match.group())

x = [abc] x = [^abc] x = [a-z] x = [0-9] x = [a-zA-Z0-9] x = [^a-zA-Z0-9]

0 ...... a 1 ...... 7 0 ...... a 1 ...... 7 0 ...... a 3 ...... @
2 ...... b 3 ...... @ 2 ...... b 5 ...... 9 1 ...... 7
4 ...... k 4 ...... k 2 ...... b
5 ...... 9 6 ...... z 4 ...... k
6 ...... z 5 ...... 9
6 ...... z

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Pre defined Character Classes:
1) \s  Space character
2) \S  Any character except space character
3) \d  Any digit from 0 to 9
4) \D  Any character except digit
5) \w  Any word character [a-zA-Z0-9]
6) \W  Any character except word character (Special Characters)
7) .  Any character including special characters

1) import re
2) matcher=re.finditer("x","a7b k@9z")
3) for match in matcher:
4) print(match.start(),"......",match.group())
x = \s: x = \S: x = \d: x = \D: x = \w: x = \W: x=.
3 ...... 0 ...... a 1 ...... 7 0 ...... a 0 ...... a 3 ...... 0 ...... a
1 ...... 7 6 ...... 9 2 ...... b 1 ...... 7 5 ...... @ 1 ...... 7
2 ...... b 3 ...... 2 ...... b 2 ...... b
4 ...... k 4 ...... k 4 ...... k 3 ......
5 ...... @ 5 ...... @ 6 ...... 9 4 ...... k
6 ...... 9 7 ...... z 7 ...... z 5 ...... @
7 ...... z 6 ...... 9
7 ...... z

Qunatifiers:
We can use quantifiers to specify the number of occurrences to match.
1) a  Exactly one 'a'
2) a+  Atleast one 'a'
3) a*  Any number of a's including zero number
4) a?  Atmost one 'a' ie either zero number or one number
5) a{m}  Exactly m number of a's
6) a{m,n}  Minimum m number of a's and Maximum n number of a's.

1) import re
2) matcher=re.finditer("x","abaabaaab")
3) for match in matcher:
4) print(match.start(),"......",match.group())
x = a?:
x = a*: 0 ...... a x = a{3}:
x = a: x = a+: x = a{2,4}:
0 ...... a 1 ......
0 ...... a 0 ...... a 5 ...... aaa 2 ...... aa
1 ...... 2 ...... a
2 ...... a 2 ...... aa 5 ...... aaa
2 ...... aa 3 ...... a
3 ...... a 5 ...... aaa
4 ...... 4 ......
5 ...... a
5 ...... aaa 5 ...... a
6 ...... a
8 ...... 6 ...... a
7 ...... a
9 ...... 7 ...... a
8 ......
9 ......
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Note:
1) ^x  It will check whether target string starts with x OR not.
2) x$  It will check whether target string ends with x OR not.

Important Functions of Remodule:

1) match()
2) fullmatch()
3) search()
4) findall()
5) finditer()
6) sub()
7) subn()
8) split()
9) compile()

1) match():
 We can use match function to check the given pattern at beginning of target string.
 If the match is available then we will get Match object, otherwise we will get None.

1) import re
2) s=input("Enter pattern to check: ")
3) m=re.match(s,"abcabdefg")
4) if m!= None:
5) print("Match is available at the beginning of the String")
6) print("Start Index:",m.start(), "and End Index:",m.end())
7) else:
8) print("Match is not available at the beginning of the String")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: abc
Match is available at the beginning of the String
Start Index: 0 and End Index: 3

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: bde
Match is not available at the beginning of the String

2) fullmatch():
 We can use fullmatch() function to match a pattern to all of target string. i.e complete
string should be matched according to given pattern.
 If complete string matched then this function returns Match object otherwise it
returns None.

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 1) import re
2) s=input("Enter pattern to check: ")
3) m=re.fullmatch(s,"ababab")
4) if m!= None:
5) print("Full String Matched")
6) else:
7) print("Full String not Matched")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: ab
Full String not Matched

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: ababab
Full String Matched

3) search():
 We can use search() function to search the given pattern in the target string.
 If the match is available then it returns the Match object which represents first
occurrence of the match.
 If the match is not available then it returns None

1) import re
2) s=input("Enter pattern to check: ")
3) m=re.search(s,"abaaaba")
4) if m!= None:
5) print("Match is available")
6) print("First Occurrence of match with start index:",m.start(),"and end index:",m.
end())
7) else:
8) print("Match is not available")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: aaa
Match is available
First Occurrence of match with start index: 2 and end index: 5

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter pattern to check: bbb
Match is not available

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4) findall():
 To find all occurrences of the match.
 This function returns a list object which contains all occurrences.

1) import re
2) l=re.findall("[0-9]","a7b9c5kz")
3) print(l)

Output: ['7', '9', '5']

5) finditer():
 Returns the iterator yielding a match object for each match.
 On each match object we can call start(), end() and group() functions.

1) import re
2) itr=re.finditer("[a-z]","a7b9c5k8z")
3) for m in itr:
4) print(m.start(),"...",m.end(),"...",m.group())

Output: D:\python_classes>py test.py

0 ... 1 ... a
2 ... 3 ... b
4 ... 5 ... c
6 ... 7 ... k
8 ... 9 ... z

6) sub():
 sub means substitution or replacement.
 re.sub(regex,replacement,targetstring)
 In the target string every matched pattern will be replaced with provided replacement.

1) import re
2) s=re.sub("[a-z]","#","a7b9c5k8z")
3) print(s)

Output: #7#9#5#8#
Every alphabet symbol is replaced with # symbol

7) subn():
 It is exactly same as sub except it can also returns the number of replacements.
 This function returns a tuple where first element is result string and second element is
number of replacements.
(resultstring, number of replacements)
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 1) import re
2) t=re.subn("[a-z]","#","a7b9c5k8z")
3) print(t)
4) print("The Result String:",t[0])
5) print("The number of replacements:",t[1])

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
('#7#9#5#8#', 5)
The Result String: #7#9#5#8#
The number of replacements: 5

8) split():
 If we want to split the given target string according to a particular pattern then we
should go for split() function.
 This function returns list of all tokens.

1) import re
2) l=re.split(",","sunny,bunny,chinny,vinny,pinny")
3) print(l)
4) for t in l:
5) print(t)

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
['sunny', 'bunny', 'chinny', 'vinny', 'pinny']
sunny
bunny
chinny
vinny
pinny

1) import re
2) l=re.split("\.","www.durgasoft.com")
3) for t in l:
4) print(t)

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
www
durgasoft
com

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9) ^ symbol:
 We can use ^ symbol to check whether the given target string starts with our provided
pattern or not.
 Eg: res = re.search("^Learn",s)
 If the target string starts with learn then it will return Match object,otherwise returns
None.

test.py

1) import re
2) s="Learning Python is Very Easy"
3) res=re.search("^Learn",s)
4) if res != None:
5) print("Target String starts with Learn")
6) else:
7) print("Target String Not starts with Learn")

Output: Target String starts with Learn

10) $ symbol:
 We can use $ symbol to check whether the given target string ends with our
provided pattern or not.
 Eg: res = re.search("Easy$",s)
 If the target string ends with Easy then it will return Match object,otherwise
returns None.

test.py

1) import re
2) s="Learning Python is Very Easy"
3) res=re.search("Easy$",s)
4) if res != None:
5) print("Target String ends with Easy")
6) else:
7) print("Target String Not ends with Easy")

Output: Target String ends with Easy

Note: If we want to ignore case then we have to pass 3rd argument re.IGNORECASE for
search() function.
Eg: res = re.search("easy$",s,re.IGNORECASE)

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test.py

1) import re
2) s="Learning Python is Very Easy"
3) res=re.search("easy$",s,re.IGNORECASE)
4) if res != None:
5) print("Target String ends with Easy by ignoring case")
6) else:
7) print("Target String Not ends with Easy by ignoring case")

Output: Target String ends with Easy by ignoring case

App 1) Write a Regular Expression to represent all Yava

Language Identifiers
Rules:
1) The allowed characters are a-z,A-Z,0-9,#
2) The first character should be a lower case alphabet symbol from a to k
3) The second character should be a digit divisible by 3
4) The length of identifier should be atleast 2.
[a-k][0369][a-zA-Z0-9#]*

App 2) Write a Python Program to check whether the given

String is Yava Language Identifier OR not?
1) import re
2) s=input("Enter Identifier:")
3) m=re.fullmatch("[a-k][0369][a-zA-Z0-9#]*",s)
4) if m!= None:
5) print(s,"is valid Yava Identifier")
6) else:
7) print(s,"is invalid Yava Identifier")

Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Identifier:a6kk9z##
a6kk9z## is valid Yava Identifier

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Identifier:k9b876
k9b876 is valid Yava Identifier
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Identifier:k7b9
k7b9 is invalid Yava Identifier
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App 3) Write a Regular Expression to represent all 10 Digit
Mobile Numbers
Rules:
1) Every Number should contains exactly 10 Digits
2) The 1st Digit should be 7 OR 8 OR 9

[7-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]
OR
[7-9][0-9]{9}
OR
[7-9]\d{9}

App 4) Write a Python Program to check whether the given

Number is valid Mobile Number OR not?
1) import re
2) n=input("Enter number:")
3) m=re.fullmatch("[7-9]\d{9}",n)
4) if m!= None:
5) print("Valid Mobile Number")
6) else:
7) print("Invalid Mobile Number")

Output
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter number:9898989898
Valid Mobile Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter number:6786786787
Invalid Mobile Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter number:898989
Invalid Mobile Number

App 5) Write a Python Program to extract all Mobile Numbers present in

input.txt where Numbers are mixed with Normal Text Data

1) import re
2) f1=open("input.txt","r")
3) f2=open("output.txt","w")

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 4) for line in f1:
5) list=re.findall("[7-9]\d{9}",line)
6) for n in list:
7) f2.write(n+"\n")
8) print("Extracted all Mobile Numbers into output.txt")
9) f1.close()
10) f2.close()

Web Scraping by using Regular Expressions

The process of collecting information from web pages is called web scraping. In web
scraping to match our required patterns like mail ids, mobile numbers we can use regular
expressions.

1) import re,urllib
2) import urllib.request
3) sites="google rediff".split()
4) print(sites)
5) for s in sites:
6) print("Searching...",s)
7) u=urllib.request.urlopen("http://"+s+".com")
8) text=u.read()
9) title=re.findall("<title>.*</title>",str(text),re.I)
10) print(title[0])

Program to get all Phone Numbers of redbus.in by using Web

Scraping and Regular Expressions
1) import re,urllib
2) import urllib.request
3) u=urllib.request.urlopen("https://www.redbus.in/info/contactus")
4) text=u.read()
5) numbers=re.findall("[0-9-]{7}[0-9-]+",str(text),re.I)
6) for n in numbers:
7) print(n)

Write a Python Program to check whether the given mail id is valid

gmail id OR not?
1) import re
2) s=input("Enter Mail id:")
3) m=re.fullmatch("\w[a-zA-Z0-9_.]*@gmail[.]com",s)
4) if m!=None:
5) print("Valid Mail Id");

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 6) else:
7) print("Invalid Mail id")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Mail id:durgatoc@gmail.com
Valid Mail Id

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Mail id:durgatoc
Invalid Mail id

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Mail id:durgatoc@yahoo.co.in
Invalid Mail id

Write a Python Program to check whether given Car Registration

Number is valid Telangana State Registration Number OR not?
1) import re
2) s=input("Enter Vehicle Registration Number:")
3) m=re.fullmatch("TS[012][0-9][A-Z]{2}\d{4}",s)
4) if m!=None:
5) print("Valid Vehicle Registration Number");
6) else:
7) print("Invalid Vehicle Registration Number")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Vehicle Registration Number:TS07EA7777
Valid Vehicle Registration Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Vehicle Registration Number:TS07KF0786
Valid Vehicle Registration Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter Vehicle Registration Number:AP07EA7898
Invalid Vehicle Registration Number

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Python Program to check whether the given Mobile Number is valid
OR not (10 Digit OR 11 Digit OR 12 Digit)
1) import re
2) s=input("Enter Mobile Number:")
3) m=re.fullmatch("(0|91)?[7-9][0-9]{9}",s)
4) if m!=None:
5) print("Valid Mobile Number");
6) else:
7) print("Invalid Mobile Number")

Summary Table and some more Examples.

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DECORATOR
FUNCTIONS

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Decorator is a function which can take a function as argument and extend its functionality
and returns modified function with extended functionality.

Input Function new(add some functionality)

Decorator
wish()
inner()

Input Function Decorator Output Function with

Function extended Functionality

The main objective of decorator functions is we can extend the functionality of existing
functions without modifies that function.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Hello",name,"Good Morning")

This function can always print same output for any name

Hello Durga Good Morning

Hello Ravi Good Morning
Hello Sunny Good Morning

But we want to modify this function to provide different message if name is Sunny.
We can do this without touching wish() function by using decorator.

1) def decor(func):
2) def inner(name):
3) if name=="Sunny":
4) print("Hello Sunny Bad Morning")
5) else:
6) func(name)
7) return inner
8)
9) @decor
10) def wish(name):
11) print("Hello",name,"Good Morning")
12)
13) wish("Durga")
14) wish("Ravi")
15) wish("Sunny")

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Ravi Good Morning

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Hello Sunny Bad Morning
In the above program whenever we call wish() function automatically decor function will
be executed.

How to call Same Function with Decorator and without Decorator:

We should not use @decor

1) def decor(func):
2) def inner(name):
3) if name=="Sunny":
4) print("Hello Sunny Bad Morning")
5) else:
6) func(name)
7) return inner
8)
9) def wish(name):
10) print("Hello",name,"Good Morning")
11)
12) decorfunction=decor(wish)
13)
14) wish("Durga") #decorator wont be executed
15) wish("Sunny") #decorator wont be executed
16)
17) decorfunction("Durga")#decorator will be executed
18) decorfunction("Sunny")#decorator will be executed

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Sunny Good Morning
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Sunny Bad Morning

1) def smart_division(func):
2) def inner(a,b):
3) print("We are dividing",a,"with",b)
4) if b==0:
5) print("OOPS...cannot divide")
6) return
7) else:
8) return func(a,b)
9) return inner
10)
11) @smart_division
12) def division(a,b):
13) return a/b
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 14) print(division(20,2))
15) print(division(20,0))

Without Decorator we will get Error. In this Case Output is:

10.0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 16, in <module>
print(division(20,0))
File "test.py", line 13, in division
return a/b
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

With Decorator we won't get any Error. In this Case Output is:
We are dividing 20 with 2
10.0
We are dividing 20 with 0
OOPS...cannot divide
None

1) def marriagedecor(func):
2) def inner():
3) print('Hair decoration...')
4) print('Face decoration with Platinum package')
5) print('Fair and Lovely etc..')
6) func()
7) return inner
8)
9) def getready():
10) print('Ready for the marriage')
11)
12) decorated_getready=marriagedecor(getready)
13)
14) decorated_getready()

Decorator Chaining
We can define multiple decorators for the same function and all these decorators will
form Decorator Chaining.
Eg:
@decor1
@decor
def num():

For num() function we are applying 2 decorator functions. First inner decorator will work
and then outer decorator.

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1) def decor1(func):
2) def inner():
3) x=func()
4) return x*x
5) return inner
6)
7) def decor(func):
8) def inner():
9) x=func()
10) return 2*x
11) return inner
12)
13) @decor1
14) @decor
15) def num():
16) return 10
17)
18) print(num())

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GENERATOR
FUNCTIONS

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Generator is a function which is responsible to generate a sequence of values.
We can write generator functions just like ordinary functions, but it uses yield keyword to
return values.

Generator A Sequence of Values

Function

yield

1) def mygen():
2) yield 'A'
3) yield 'B'
4) yield 'C'
5)
6) g=mygen()
7) print(type(g))
8)
9) print(next(g))
10) print(next(g))
11) print(next(g))
12) print(next(g))

Output
<class 'generator'>
A
B
C
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 12, in <module>
print(next(g))
StopIteration

1) def countdown(num):
2) print("Start Countdown")
3) while(num>0):
4) yield num
5) num=num-1
6) values=countdown(5)
7) for x in values:
8) print(x)

Output
Start Countdown
5

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4
3
2
1

Eg 3: To generate first n numbers

1) def firstn(num):
2) n=1
3) while n<=num:
4) yield n
5) n=n+1
6)
7) values=firstn(5)
8) for x in values:
9) print(x)

Output
1
2
3
4
5

We can convert generator into list as follows:

values = firstn(10)
l1 = list(values)
print(l1) #[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Eg 4: To generate Fibonacci Numbers...

The next is the sum of previous 2 numbers

Eg: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,...

1) def fib():
2) a,b=0,1
3) while True:
4) yield a
5) a,b=b,a+b
6) for f in fib():
7) if f>100:
8) break
9) print(f)

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Output
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
55
89

Advantages of Generator Functions:

1) When compared with Class Level Iterators, Generators are very easy to use.
2) Improves Memory Utilization and Performance.
3) Generators are best suitable for reading Data from Large Number of Large Files.
4) Generators work great for web scraping and crawling.

Generators vs Normal Collections wrt Performance:

1) import random
2) import time
3)
4) names = ['Sunny','Bunny','Chinny','Vinny']
5) subjects = ['Python','Java','Blockchain']
6)
7) def people_list(num_people):
8) results = []
9) for i in range(num_people):
10) person = {
11) 'id':i,
12) 'name': random.choice(names),
13) 'subject':random.choice(subjects)
14) }
15) results.append(person)
16) return results
17)
18) def people_generator(num_people):
19) for i in range(num_people):
20) person = {
21) 'id':i,
22) 'name': random.choice(names),
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 23) 'major':random.choice(subjects)
24) }
25) yield person
26)
27) '''''t1 = time.clock()
28) people = people_list(10000000)
29) t2 = time.clock()'''
30)
31) t1 = time.clock()
32) people = people_generator(10000000)
33) t2 = time.clock()
34)
35) print('Took {}'.format(t2-t1))

Note: In the above program observe the differnce wrt execution time by using list and
generators

Generators vs Normal Collections wrt Memory Utilization:

Normal Collection:
l=[x*x for x in range(10000000000000000)]
print(l[0])

We will get MemoryError in this case because all these values are required to store in the
memory.

Generators:
g=(x*x for x in range(10000000000000000))
print(next(g))

Output: 0

We won't get any MemoryError because the values won't be stored at the beginning

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ASSERTIONS

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Debugging Python Program by using assert Keyword:
☕ The process of identifying and fixing the bug is called debugging.
☕ Very common way of debugging is to use print() statement. But the problem with the
print() statement is after fixing the bug,compulsory we have to delete the extra added
print() statments,otherwise these will be executed at runtime which creates
performance problems and disturbs console output.
☕ To overcome this problem we should go for assert statement. The main advantage of
assert statement over print() statement is after fixing bug we are not required to
delete assert statements. Based on our requirement we can enable or disable assert
statements.
☕ Hence the main purpose of assertions is to perform debugging. Usully we can perform
debugging either in development or in test environments but not in production
environment. Hence assertions concept is applicable only for dev and test
environments but not for production environment.

Types of assert Statements:

There are 2 types of assert statements
1) Simple Version
2) Augmented Version

1) Simple Version:
assert conditional_expression

2) Augmented Version:
 assert conditional_expression, message
 conditional_expression will be evaluated and if it is true then the program will be
continued.
 If it is false then the program will be terminated by raising AssertionError.
 By seeing AssertionError, programmer can analyze the code and can fix the problem.

1) def squareIt(x):
2) return x**x
3) assert squareIt(2)==4,"The square of 2 should be 4"
4) assert squareIt(3)==9,"The square of 3 should be 9"
5) assert squareIt(4)==16,"The square of 4 should be 16"
6) print(squareIt(2))
7) print(squareIt(3))
8) print(squareIt(4))
9)
10) D:\Python_classes>py test.py
11) Traceback (most recent call last):
12) File "test.py", line 4, in <module>
13) assert squareIt(3)==9,"The square of 3 should be 9"

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 14) AssertionError: The square of 3 should be 9
15)
16) def squareIt(x):
17) return x*x
18) assert squareIt(2)==4,"The square of 2 should be 4"
19) assert squareIt(3)==9,"The square of 3 should be 9"
20) assert squareIt(4)==16,"The square of 4 should be 16"
21) print(squareIt(2))
22) print(squareIt(3))
23) print(squareIt(4))

Output
4
9
16

Exception Handling vs Assertions:

Assertions concept can be used to alert programmer to resolve development time errors.
Exception Handling can be used to handle runtime errors.

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PYTHON
LOGGING

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It is highly recommended to store complete application flow and exceptions information
to a file. This process is called logging.

The main advanatages of logging are:

1) We can use log files while performing debugging
2) We can provide statistics like number of requests per day etc

To implement logging, Python provides inbuilt module logging.

Logging Levels:
Depending on type of information, logging data is divided according to the following 6
levels in python

1) CRITICAL  50
Represents a very serious problem that needs high attention

2) ERROR  40
Represents a serious error

3) WARNING  30
Represents a warning message, some caution needed. It is alert to the programmer.

4) INFO  20
Represents a message with some important information

5) DEBUG  10
Represents a message with debugging information

6) NOTSET  0
Represents that level is not set

By default while executing Python program only WARNING and higher level messages will
be displayed.

How to implement Logging:

To perform logging, first we required to create a file to store messages and we have to
specify which level messages required to store.

We can do this by using basicConfig() function of logging module.

logging.basicConfig(filename='log.txt',level=logging.WARNING)

The above line will create a file log.txt and we can store either WARNING level or higher
level messages to that file.

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After creating log file, we can write messages to that file by using the following methods
☕ logging.debug(message)
☕ logging.info(message)
☕ logging.warning(message)
☕ logging.error(message)
☕ logging.critical(message)

Q) Write a Python Program to create a Log File and write WARNING and
Higher Level Messages?

1) import logging
2) logging.basicConfig(filename='log.txt',level=logging.WARNING)
3) print('Logging Demo')
4) logging.debug('Debug Information')
5) logging.info('info Information')
6) logging.warning('warning Information')
7) logging.error('error Information')
8) logging.critical('critical Information')

log.txt:
WARNING:root:warning Information
ERROR:root:error Information
CRITICAL:root:critical Information

Note: In the above program only WARNING and higher level messages will be written to
the log file. If we set level as DEBUG then all messages will be written to the log file.

test.py

1) import logging
2) logging.basicConfig(filename='log.txt',level=logging.DEBUG)
3) print('Logging Demo')
4) logging.debug('Debug Information')
5) logging.info('info Information')
6) logging.warning('warning Information')
7) logging.error('error Information')
8) logging.critical('critical Information')

log.txt
DEBUG:root:Debug Information
INFO:root:info Information
WARNING:root:warning Information
ERROR:root:error Information
CRITICAL:root:critical Information

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How to configure Log File in over writing Mode:
In the above program by default data will be appended to the log file.i.e append is the
default mode. Instead of appending if we want to over write data then we have to use
filemode property.

logging.basicConfig(filename='log786.txt',level=logging.WARNING)
Meant for appending

logging.basicConfig(filename='log786.txt',level=logging.WARNING,filemode='a')
Explicitly we are specifying appending.

logging.basicConfig(filename='log786.txt',level=logging.WARNING,filemode='w')
Meant for over writing of previous data.

Note:
logging.basicConfig(filename='log.txt',level=logging.DEBUG)
If we are not specifying level then the default level is WARNING(30)
If we are not specifying file name then the messages will be printed to the console.

test.py

1) import logging
2) logging.basicConfig()
3) print('Logging Demo')
4) logging.debug('Debug Information')
5) logging.info('info Information')
6) logging.warning('warning Information')
7) logging.error('error Information')
8) logging.critical('critical Information')

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Logging Demo
WARNING:root:warning Information
ERROR:root:error Information
CRITICAL:root:critical Information

How to Format Log Messages:

By using format keyword argument, we can format messages.

1) To display only level name: logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s')

Output
WARNING
ERROR
CRITICAL
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2) To display levelname and message:
logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s')
Output
WARNING:warning Information
ERROR:error Information
CRITICAL:critical Information

How to add Timestamp in the Log Messages:

logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s:%(levelname)s:%(message)s')

Output
2018-06-15 11:50:08,325:WARNING:warning Information
2018-06-15 11:50:08,372:ERROR:error Information
2018-06-15 11:50:08,372:CRITICAL:critical Information

How to Change Date and Time Format:

We have to use special keyword argument: datefmt

logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s:%(levelname)s:%(message)s',
datefmt='%d/%m/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
datefmt='%d/%m/%Y %I:%M:%S %p'  Case is important

Output
15/06/2018 12:04:31 PM:WARNING:warning Information
15/06/2018 12:04:31 PM:ERROR:error Information
15/06/2018 12:04:31 PM:CRITICAL:critical Information

Note:
%I  means 12 Hours time scale
%H  means 24 Hours time scale

Eg: logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s:%(levelname)s:%(message)s',
datefmt='%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')

Output:
15/06/2018 12:06:28:WARNING:warning Information
15/06/2018 12:06:28:ERROR:error Information
15/06/2018 12:06:28:CRITICAL:critical Information

https://docs.python.org/3/library/logging.html#logrecord-attributes
https://docs.python.org/3/library/time.html#time.strftime

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How to write Python Program Exceptions to the Log File:
By using the following function we can write exception information to the log file.
logging.exception(msg)

Q) Python Program to write Exception Information to the Log File

1) import logging
2) logging.basicConfig(filename='mylog.txt',level=logging.INFO,format='%(asctime)s:
%(levelname)s:%(message)s',datefmt='%d/%m/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
3) logging.info('A new Request Came')
4) try:
5) x=int(input('Enter First Number:'))
6) y=int(input('Enter Second Number:'))
7) print('The Result:',x/y)
8)
9) except ZeroDivisionError as msg:
10) print('cannot divide with zero')
11) logging.exception(msg)
12)
13) except ValueError as msg:
14) print('Please provide int values only')
15) logging.exception(msg)
16)
17) logging.info('Request Processing Completed')

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:2
The Result: 5.0

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter First Number:20
Enter Second Number:2
The Result: 10.0

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:0
cannot divide with zero

D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter First Number:ten
Please provide int values only

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mylog.txt
15/06/2018 12:30:51 PM:INFO:A new Request Came
15/06/2018 12:30:53 PM:INFO:Request Processing Completed
15/06/2018 12:30:55 PM:INFO:A new Request Came
15/06/2018 12:31:00 PM:INFO:Request Processing Completed
15/06/2018 12:31:02 PM:INFO:A new Request Came
15/06/2018 12:31:05 PM:ERROR:division by zero
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 7, in <module>
print('The Result:',x/y)
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
15/06/2018 12:31:05 PM:INFO:Request Processing Completed
15/06/2018 12:31:06 PM:INFO:A new Request Came
15/06/2018 12:31:10 PM:ERROR:invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 5, in <module>
x=int(input('Enter First Number:'))
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'
15/06/2018 12:31:10 PM:INFO:Request Processing Completed

Problems with Root Logger:

If we are not defining our own logger,then bydefault root logger will be considered.
Once we perform basic configuration to root logger then the configurations are fixed and
we cannot change.

Demo Application:
student.py:

1) import logging
2) logging.basicConfig(filename='student.log',level=logging.INFO)
3) logging.info('info message from student module')

test.py:

1) import logging
2) import student
3) logging.basicConfig(filename='test.log',level=logging.DEBUG)
4) logging.debug('debug message from test module')

student.log:
INFO: root:info message from student module

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In the above application the configurations performed in test module won't be reflected,
because root logger is already configured in student module.

Need of Our Own Customized Logger:

The problems with root logger are:

1) Once we set basic configuration then that configuration is final and we cannot change.
2) It will always work for only one handler at a time, either console or file, but not both
simultaneously.
3) It is not possible to configure logger with different configurations at different levels.
4) We cannot specify multiple log files for multiple modules/classes/methods.

To overcome these problems we should go for our own customized loggers

Advanced logging Module Features: Logger:

Logger is more advanced than basic logging.
It is highly recommended to use and it provides several extra features.

Steps for Advanced Logging:

1) Creation of Logger object and set log level.
logger = logging.getLogger('demologger')
logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)

2) Creation of Handler object and set log level.

3) There are several types of Handlers like StreamHandler, FileHandler etc.

consoleHandler = logging.StreamHandler()
consoleHandler.setLevel(logging.INFO)

Note: If we use StreamHandler then log messages will be printed to console.

4) Creation of Formatter Object.

formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s: %(message)s',
datefmt = '%d/%m/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')

5) Add Formatter to Handler  consoleHandler.setFormatter(formatter)

6) Add Handler to Logger  logger.addHandler(consoleHandler)

7) Write messages by using logger object and the following methods

logger.debug('debug message')
logger.info('info message')

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 logger.warn('warn message')
logger.error('error message')
logger.critical('critical message')

Note: Bydefault logger will set to WARNING level. But we can set our own level based on
our requirement.
logger = logging.getLogger('demologger')
logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)

logger log level by default available to console and file handlers. If we are not satisfied
with logger level, then we can set log level explicitly at console level and file levels.

consoleHandler = logging.StreamHandler()
consoleHandler.setLevel(logging.WARNING)

fileHandler = logging.FileHandler('abc.log',mode='a')
fileHandler.setLevel(logging.ERROR)

Note: console and file log levels should be supported by logger. i.e logger log level should
be lower than console and file levels. Otherwise only logger log level will be considered.

Eg:
logger  DEBUG console  INFO  Valid and INFO will be considered
logger  INFO console  DEBUG  Invalid and only INFO will be considered to the
console.

Demo Program for Console Handler:

1) import logging
2) class LoggerDemoConsole:
3)
4) def testLog(self):
5) logger = logging.getLogger('demologger')
6) logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
7)
8) consoleHandler = logging.StreamHandler()
9) consoleHandler.setLevel(logging.INFO)
10)
11) formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s -
%(levelname)s: %(message)s',
12) datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
13)
14) consoleHandler.setFormatter(formatter)
15) logger.addHandler(consoleHandler)

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 16) logger.debug('debug message')
17) logger.info('info message')
18) logger.warn('warn message')
19) logger.error('error message')
20) logger.critical('critical message')
21)
22) demo = LoggerDemoConsole()
23) demo.testLog()

D:\durgaclasses>py loggingdemo3.py
06/18/2018 12:14:15 PM - demologger - INFO: info message
06/18/2018 12:14:15 PM - demologger - WARNING: warn message
06/18/2018 12:14:15 PM - demologger - ERROR: error message
06/18/2018 12:14:15 PM - demologger - CRITICAL: critical message

Note: If we want to use class name as logger name then we have to create logger object
as follows logger = logging.getLogger(LoggerDemoConsole.__name__)

In this case output is:

D:\durgaclasses>py loggingdemo3.py
06/18/2018 12:21:00 PM - LoggerDemoConsole - INFO: info message
06/18/2018 12:21:00 PM - LoggerDemoConsole - WARNING: warn message
06/18/2018 12:21:00 PM - LoggerDemoConsole - ERROR: error message
06/18/2018 12:21:00 PM - LoggerDemoConsole - CRITICAL: critical message

Demo Program for File Handler:

1) import logging
2) class LoggerDemoConsole:
3)
4) def testLog(self):
5) logger = logging.getLogger('demologger')
6) logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
7)
8) fileHandler = logging.FileHandler('abc.log',mode='a')
9) fileHandler.setLevel(logging.INFO)
10)
11) formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s -
%(levelname)s: %(message)s',
12) datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
13)
14) fileHandler.setFormatter(formatter)
15) logger.addHandler(fileHandler)
16)
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 17) logger.debug('debug message')
18) logger.info('info message')
19) logger.warn('warn message')
20) logger.error('error message')
21) logger.critical('critical message')
22)
23) demo = LoggerDemoConsole()
24) demo.testLog()

abc.log:
07/05/2018 08:58:04 AM - demologger - INFO: info message
07/05/2018 08:58:04 AM - demologger - WARNING: warn message
07/05/2018 08:58:04 AM - demologger - ERROR: error message
07/05/2018 08:58:04 AM - demologger - CRITICAL: critical message

Logger with Configuration File:

In the above program, everything we hard coded in the python script. It is not a good
programming practice. We will configure all the required things inside a configuration file
and we can use this file directly in our program.

logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')
logger = logging.getLogger(LoggerDemoConf.__name__)

Note: The extension of the file need not be conf. We can use any extension like txt or
durga etc.

logging.conf
[loggers]
keys=root,LoggerDemoConf

[handlers]
keys=fileHandler

[formatters]
keys=simpleFormatter

[logger_root]
level=DEBUG
handlers=fileHandler

[logger_LoggerDemoConf]
level=DEBUG
handlers=fileHandler
qualname=demoLogger

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[handler_fileHandler]
class=FileHandler
level=DEBUG
formatter=simpleFormatter
args=('test.log', 'w')

[formatter_simpleFormatter]
format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s
datefmt=%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p

test.py

1) import logging
2) import logging.config
3) class LoggerDemoConf():
4) def testLog(self):
5) logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')
6) logger = logging.getLogger(LoggerDemoConf.__name__)
7)
8) logger.debug('debug message')
9) logger.info('info message')
10) logger.warn('warn message')
11) logger.error('error message')
12) logger.critical('critical message')
13)
14) demo = LoggerDemoConf()
15) demo.testLog()

test.log
06/18/2018 12:40:05 PM - LoggerDemoConf - DEBUG - debug message
06/18/2018 12:40:05 PM - LoggerDemoConf - INFO - info message
06/18/2018 12:40:05 PM - LoggerDemoConf - WARNING - warn message
06/18/2018 12:40:05 PM - LoggerDemoConf - ERROR - error message
06/18/2018 12:40:05 PM - LoggerDemoConf - CRITICAL - critical message

Case-1: To set log level as INFO

[handler_fileHandler]
class=FileHandler
level=INFO
formatter=simpleFormatter
args=('test.log', 'w')

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Case-2: To set Append Mode

[handler_fileHandler]
class=FileHandler
level=INFO
formatter=simpleFormatter
args=('test.log', 'a')

Creation of Custom Logger:

customlogger.py

1) import logging
2) import inspect
3) def getCustomLogger(level):
4) # Get Name of class/method from where this method called
5) loggername=inspect.stack()[1][3]
6) logger=logging.getLogger(loggername)
7) logger.setLevel(level)
8)
9) fileHandler=logging.FileHandler('abc.log',mode='a')
10) fileHandler.setLevel(level)
11)
12) formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s -
%(levelname)s: %(message)s',datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
13) fileHandler.setFormatter(formatter)
14) logger.addHandler(fileHandler)
15)
16) return logger

test.py

1) import logging
2) from customlogger import getCustomLogger
3) class LoggingDemo:
4) def m1(self):
5) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.DEBUG)
6) logger.debug('m1:debug message')
7) logger.info('m1:info message')
8) logger.warn('m1:warn message')
9) logger.error('m1:error message')
10) logger.critical('m1:critical message')
11) def m2(self):
12) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.WARNING)

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 13) logger.debug('m2:debug message')
14) logger.info('m2:info message')
15) logger.warn('m2:warn message')
16) logger.error('m2:error message')
17) logger.critical('m2:critical message')
18) def m3(self):
19) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.ERROR)
20) logger.debug('m3:debug message')
21) logger.info('m3:info message')
22) logger.warn('m3:warn message')
23) logger.error('m3:error message')
24) logger.critical('m3:critical message')
25)
26) l=LoggingDemo()
27) print('Custom Logger Demo')
28) l.m1()
29) l.m2()
30) l.m3()

abc.log:
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m1 - DEBUG: m1:debug message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m1 - INFO: m1:info message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m1 - WARNING: m1:warn message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m1 - ERROR: m1:error message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m1 - CRITICAL: m1:critical message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m2 - WARNING: m2:warn message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m2 - ERROR: m2:error message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m2 - CRITICAL: m2:critical message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m3 - ERROR: m3:error message
06/19/2018 12:17:19 PM - m3 - CRITICAL: m3:critical message

How to Create seperate Log File based on Caller:

1) import logging
2) import inspect
3) def getCustomLogger(level):
4) loggername=inspect.stack()[1][3]
5) logger=logging.getLogger(loggername)
6) logger.setLevel(level)
7)
8) fileHandler=logging.FileHandler('{}.log'.format(loggername),mode='a')
9) fileHandler.setLevel(level)
10)

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 11) formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s -
%(levelname)s: %(message)s',datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
12) fileHandler.setFormatter(formatter)
13) logger.addHandler(fileHandler)
14)
15) return logger

test.py:
#Same as previous

1) import logging
2) from customlogger import getCustomLogger
3) class LoggingDemo:
4) def m1(self):
5) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.DEBUG)
6) logger.debug('m1:debug message')
7) logger.info('m1:info message')
8) logger.warn('m1:warn message')
9) logger.error('m1:error message')
10) logger.critical('m1:critical message')
11) def m2(self):
12) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.WARNING)
13) logger.debug('m2:debug message')
14) logger.info('m2:info message')
15) logger.warn('m2:warn message')
16) logger.error('m2:error message')
17) logger.critical('m2:critical message')
18) def m3(self):
19) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.ERROR)
20) logger.debug('m3:debug message')
21) logger.info('m3:info message')
22) logger.warn('m3:warn message')
23) logger.error('m3:error message')
24) logger.critical('m3:critical message')
25)
26) l=LoggingDemo()
27) print('Logging Demo with Seperate Log File')
28) l.m1()
29) l.m2()
30) l.m3()

m1.log
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m1 - DEBUG: m1:debug message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m1 - INFO: m1:info message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m1 - WARNING: m1:warn message

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06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m1 - ERROR: m1:error message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m1 - CRITICAL: m1:critical message

m2.log
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m2 - WARNING: m2:warn message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m2 - ERROR: m2:error message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m2 - CRITICAL: m2:critical message

m3.log
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m3 - ERROR: m3:error message
06/19/2018 12:26:04 PM - m3 - CRITICAL: m3:critical message

Advantages of Customized Logger:

1) We can reuse same customlogger code where ever logger required.
2) For every caller we can able to create a seperate log file
3) For different handlers we can set different log levels.

Another Example for Custom Handler:

customlogger.py:

1) import logging
2) import inspect
3) def getCustomLogger(level):
4) loggername=inspect.stack()[1][3]
5)
6) logger=logging.getLogger(loggername)
7) logger.setLevel(level)
8) fileHandler=logging.FileHandler('test.log',mode='a')
9) fileHandler.setLevel(level)
10) formatter=logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s -
%(levelname)s: %(message)s',datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
11) fileHandler.setFormatter(formatter)
12) logger.addHandler(fileHandler)
13) return logger

test.py

1) import logging
2) from customlogger import getCustomLogger
3) class Test:
4) def logtest(self):
5) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.DEBUG)

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 6) logger.debug('debug message')
7) logger.info('info message')
8) logger.warning('warning message')
9) logger.error('error message')
10) logger.critical('critical message')
11) t=Test()
12) t.logtest()

student.py:

1) import logging
2) from customlogger import getCustomLogger
3) def studentfunction():
4) logger=getCustomLogger(logging.ERROR)
5) logger.debug('debug message')
6) logger.info('info message')
7) logger.warning('warning message')
8) logger.error('error message')
9) logger.critical('critical message')
10) studentfunction()

Note: we can disable a partcular level of logging as follows:

logging.disable(logging.CRITICAL)

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