Physics-2 Practical Handout

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ACTIVITY PAGE

1 Refractive Index of Glass
 To determine the refractive index of glass by aligning pins method 2
2 Speed of Sound
 To determine the speed of sound in air using a resonance tube and a variable 14
frequency source.
3 Diffraction Grating
 To determine the wavelength of the monochromatic light from a neon-light 23
laser.
4 Electromagnetic Induction
 To study input and output voltage in step-up and step-down transformer. 29
5 Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor
 To determine the resistance of a high resistance voltmeter using a capacitor. 37
6 Specific Heat Capacity
 To determine the specific heat capacity of water by electrical method. 45
7 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) – Part-1
 To set up a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. 51
 Using CRO as DC Voltmeter.
8 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) – Part-II

 To measure AC Voltage using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. 57
9 Boyle’s Law
 To determine the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at 60
constant temperature.
10 Photo Electric Effect
 Measuring and Calculating Planck’s constant, h. 71
DAS/PHYSICS/PHYS1211P Page 1 of 82
CHAPTER 1
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS
INTRODUCTION
Light is a form of energy. Light is electromagnetic wave having wavelength in the range ~ 340 to
680 nm. Most of the phenomenon, like reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
polarization can be explained using the wave nature of light. Phenomenon of polarization
establishes that light or electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. However, there are
certain phenomenon, e.g., Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Pair- production, etc., which
cannot be explained using the wave concept of light. To explain this phenomenon, light is
assumed to travel in the form of small energy packets called quantum or photon. Each quantum
or photon carries energy equal to hν, where ν is frequency of light and h is Plank’s constant.
It should be remembered at this stage that all the phenomena exhibited by light cannot be
explained by a single theory. Some of these are explained by using the wave concept while the
others are explained by the particle or quantum concept. One, therefore, often says that light
exhibits dual nature.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

However, to study the geometric optics, we can make use of the following important property of light
which is based on common experience:
Light travels in a straight line path in homogeneous medium (medium of uniform density) unless it strikes
a boundary separating the two media.
When a beam of light strikes such a boundary, it is either reflected in the same medium or
crosses the boundary and enters the second medium. There is also a possibility that the light is
partially reflected in the first medium and partially transmitted in the second medium.
Reflection of Light
If a ray of light traveling in a transparent medium strikes a boundary of the second medium and
returns back to the same medium, the phenomenon is called reflection.
A ray of light is represented by drawing a line in the direction of travel of light.
Fig. 1.1 Plane wave fronts traveling to the right. Rays are represented by
straight line normal to the wave fronts
In Fig.1.1, the ray of light approaching the surface is known as the incident ray (I). While the ray
of light which leaves the mirror is known as the reflected ray (labeled R in the diagram). At the
point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror, a line can be drawn perpendicular to the
surface of the mirror. This line is known as the normal (labeled N in the diagram). The normal
line divides the angle between the incident ray
Fig. 1.2 Reflection and refraction of a light
and the reflected ray into two equal angles. The angle between the incident ray and the normal
is known as the angle of incidence, and is denoted by i the angle between the reflected ray
and the normal is known as the angle of reflection and is represented by r. The direction in
which the reflected ray will travel is determined by certain rules, referred to as the laws of
reflection.
Fig. 1.3 Reflection of light
Laws of Reflection
When a ray of light reflects off a surface
1. The angle of incidence i is be equal to the angle of reflection r.
i = r
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie
in the same plane.
Types of Reflection
i. Specular Reflection
If the reflection takes place from a smooth surface then all the reflected rays will be parallel to
each other. Thus, the reflection of light from a smooth surface is called specular reflection.
Fig.1.4 Specular and diffuse reflections.
ii. Diffuse Reflection

However, the reflection from a rough surface is known as diffuse reflection. In such, reflections
different rays after reflection travel in different directions.
It should be noted that although the reflected rays are not parallel in the case of diffuse
reflection, yet the laws of reflection is obeyed in such cases too.
Why does a rough surface give diffused beam of light?

For each type of reflection, each individual ray follows the law of reflection. However, the
roughness of the material causes that each individual ray to strike a surface at a different
orientation. The normal line at the point of incidence is different for different rays.
Subsequently, when the individual rays reflect off the rough surface according to the law of
reflection, they scatter in different directions. The result is that the rays of light are incident
upon the surface in a concentrated bundle and are diffused upon reflection. The diagram below
(Fig.1.5) depicts this principle. Five incident parallel rays (labeled A, B, C, D, and E) approach a
surface. The normal line (approximated) at each point of incidence is shown in black and
labeled with an N. In each case, the law of reflection is followed, resulting in five reflected rays
(labeled A,, B,, C,, D,, and E,).
Fig.1.5 Explanation of diffuse reflection.
Retro-reflection
If the ray of light after reflection returns back to the same path as the incident ray, then such
type of reflection is called retro-reflection. Retro-reflection occurs when the incident rays fall
normally to the reflecting surface. In such case, i = r = 0o.
1.3 REFRACTION
In homogeneous medium, light travels along a straight path. When light travels from one
transparent medium to the other it bends at the boundary separating the two media.
The phenomenon of bending of light when it travels from one to another medium is called
refraction.
When the light passes from an optically rarer medium to a denser medium it bends towards the
normal and when it travels from a denser to a rarer medium it bends away from the normal as
shown in Fig.1.6.
Why does the bending of light occur?

Light bends when it passes from a substance of one density into a substance of a different
density. The bending occurs because of the change in speed in which light travels through a
substance depends on the substance's density. This change in speed causes the direction of the
light ray to change.
Fig. 1.6 Refraction of light (a) from rarer to denser and (b) from denser to rarer medium
In air, light travels with a speed of 3 x 108m per second but in water light travels only with a
speed of 2 x 108 m per second. Since light travels slower in water than in air, water is said to
have a greater optical density than air. If a beam of light traveling in air encounters a water
surface some of the light is reflected and some of the light passes into the water. Upon entering
the water, however, the speed of light decreases.
Example
If we dip a pencil in a glass of water (Fig. 1.7), the light from the pencil in the water is being
refracted, and the part of the pencil appears to be at a different location. The result is the illusion
of a broken (or distorted) pencil.
Fig.1.7 Example of refraction of light.
Partial reflection and partial refraction
If a beam of light falls on the

boundary separating the two
transparent media, then a part of the
incident light is reflected in the first
medium and a part of it travels in the
second medium (Fig.1.8). This is
known as partial reflection and
partial refraction
Fig.1.8 Partial reflection and refraction at the

boundary of two transparent media.
Laws of Refraction
The phenomenon of refraction takes place according to the following laws:
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the refracting surface at the
point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
constant for any two given media. This is known as Snell’s Law
Thus, the Snell's Law may be written as
sin i
n
sin  r
Where, n is a constant. n is often written as 1n2 and is called as the refractive index of
medium 2 with respect to the medium 1. The value of the refractive index (n) depends
on;
i. the nature of the pair of media 1 and 2
ii. the wavelength (color) of light. The refractive index of a medium is greater for violet
light (shorter wavelength) than that for the red light (longer wavelength).
If medium-1 is air or vacuum, then the refractive index of medium-2 is called absolute refractive
index of medium-2 and is represented by n or n2.
If a ray of light passes from medium-1(absolute refractive index n1) to medium-2 (absolute
refractive index n2), we may write
n2 sin 1

n1 sin  2
Or
n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2
The absolute refractive index of a medium can also be defined in terms of velocity of light as;
nc
v
Where: c and v are the velocities of light in air (or vacuum) and in medium respectively.
Thus, the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium1, in terms of velocity of
light is given by;
n2 v1

n1 v2
When the light travels from one medium to the other medium, its frequency does not change.
Therefore, because the relation v = f λ must be valid in both the media, and since f1 = f2, it is
clear that
v1  f1 and v2  f2
As v1 ≠ v2 , it follows that λ1 ≠ λ 2. From these equations, a relationship between refractive

index and wavelength can be obtained as;
1 v1 c / n1 n2
  
2 v2 c / n2 n1
which gives, 1n1  n22
INTRODUCTION:
When light passes from one medium, say air, to another, say glass, Fig. 2.1, a part of it is
reflected back into the first medium (air) and the rest passes into the second medium (glass)
with a slight change in its direction of travel. The light is said to be bent or refracted on entering
the second medium and the angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted ray OB with
the normal ON.
A
D
1 AIR
O
2 GLASS
γ
B
N
For two particular media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
is constant, i.e. sin i/sin r = a constant called the refractive index for light passing from the first
to the second medium. If the media containing the incident and the refracted rays are denoted
by “1” and “2” respectively, the refractive index is written as 1n2, that is:
sin i
1 n2 
sin r
If medium “1” is vacuum (or in practice, air) and medium “2” is glass, we refer to the above
constant as the absolute index of glass, denoted by ang or simply ng.
Because of refraction the depth of a pool of clear water, when viewed from above the surface,
appears to be less than its real depth. This depth is called apparent depth of the pool of water.
Therefore the actual position of an object under water is not where it seems to be an outside
observer. Similarly any object kept under glass also appears to be near to the observer.
In fig. 2.2 rays from a point O under a glass slab are bent away from the normal at the glass-air
boundary and appear to come from I, the image of the object at O. For refraction at B from
glass to air,
AIR
i
A . B
r
I .
i
r
.
O
FIG. 2.2
If the observer is directly above O, Ig and Ia are small, rays OB and IB are close to OA, thus
making OB≈OA and IB≈IA. Hence
Real depth, OA = reading of A – reading of O
Displacement of the point

OI (d) = reading of I – reading of O
The distance OI is called the displacement d of the object and if t is the real depth then
OA t
Refractive index of glass slab ( ng)) = 
OI t  d
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the refractive index of glass by aligning pins method.
SAFETY PRECAUSTIONS
1. As much as possible careful handling of the glass slab is necessary to prevent yourself
from being hurt.
2. Be careful with the sharp points of the pins. Avoid close contact of the sharp point pins
with the eyes, wear safety gloves while carrying out an experiment.
DIAGRAM
MATERIALS
QTY FOR
SN APPARATUS 1 SET HAZARD
1 Glass Slab 1 Caution Broken glass
2 Protractor 1
3 Paper Pins 4 Wear gloves
4 Plain Sheet of Paper 1
5 Ruler 1
SYMBOLS
Caution Broken glass
METHODS
1. Take a plain sheet of paper and place the glass slab on it. Draw the outline/boundary of
the slab. Mark it as ABCD. Remove the glass slab.
2. With AB as the base, draw ON perpendicular to AB using a protractor. Now draw ray OX
such that XON is 30º. This is the angle of incidence.
3. Take two paper pins and pierce them one behind the other into the sheet of paper on
the line OX and mark them as P1 and P2 as shown in the figure above.
4. Place the glass slab on the outline drawn. Now look at the image of the two pins from
the face CD of the slab.
5. Take two more pins and pierce them in to the paper such that they are aligned exactly
one behind the other and are in line with the image of pins P1 and P2. Let us call them P3
and P4.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw a line passing through P3 and P4. Name it O’Y. Let O’Y
touch CD at O’. Join O’ and O and also draw O’N’ perpendicular to CD.
7. Measure angle O’OQ. This is the angle of refraction.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Angle of Angle of
S.NO. Incidence Refraction Sin i Sin r
i r
1 30º
2 35º
3 40º
4 45º
5 50º
RESULT
Refractive index of glass (ng) was found to be ____________
QUESTIONS
FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1. The ray of light that strikes the boundary or the surface of two media is called
____________ ray.
2. The ray of light that travels through the second medium is called the ____________ ray.
3. The phenomenon of bending of light at the surface of separation of two media is called
______________ of light.
4. A ray of light falls on a glass window at an angle of 60º. Find angle of refraction if the
refractive index of glass is 3/2.
5. Why does any object kept in a bucket of water appear to be nearer to the observer?
6. In the experiment using the traveling microscope, is it possible to replace traveling

microscope by compound microscope? Why?
7. Differentiate between real depth and apparent depth.
CHAPTER 2
SPEED OF SOUND
INTRODUCTION:
Sound waves are longitudinal waves traveling through a medium. This section discusses the
production of sound waves and its characteristics. This further investigates the effects of sound
waves in the environment and how they are positively used.
PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES:

Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects. The tuning fork is a device which produces
pure musical notes. A tuning fork consists of two metal prongs or tines which vibrate when
struck
Fig. 1 Tuning fork

As the tines vibrate, they disturb the air near them forcing the molecules closer together. This
produces both a region of high molecular density and high air pressure called compression, and
a region of lower-than-normal density called rarefaction.
Fig. 2. (a) As the tuning fork vibrates a series of compressions and rarefactions
moves outward from the fork. (b) The crests of the wave correspond to
compression, and the troughs correspond to rarefaction.
A sinusoidal wave can be used to represent a sound wave.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves are longitudinal waves. The motion of the elements of the medium of sound
wave is back and forth along the direction of the travel of the wave.
Categories of Sound Waves
 Audible waves - lay within the normal range of hearing of the human ear
- normally between 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
 Infrasonic waves - frequencies are below the audible range (<20 Hz)
 Ultrasonic waves - frequencies are above the audible range (>20 kHz)
Frequency, Amplitude and Wavelength
Fig. 3. Traveling waves on a continuous string. Every segment, such as P

oscillates vertically with simple harmonic motion.
Frequency (f)- the number of oscillations per second. (1/s = Hz)
Amplitude (A) - the maximum distance the wave moves above or below the equilibrium value
Wavelength (λ) – the distance between two successive waves
To derive an expression for the speed of wave;

x
v ; Δx = λ ; Δt = T ; T = 1/f
t

v v=λf

THE SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound in a liquid depends on the liquid’s compressibility and inertia.
where: B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid

B
v ρ is the density of the liquid
 B
P
V V
The speed of sound in a solid rod depends on the rod’s compressibility and inertial properties
where: Y is the Young’s Modulus of the material

Y ρ is the density of the materials
v
 Y
FL
AL
Example:
A solid aluminum bar was struck at one end with a hammer. A longitudinal pulse propagates
through the bar. Find the speed of sound in the aluminum bar, which has a Young’s modulus of
7.0 x 1010 Pa and a density of 2.7 x 103 kg/m3.
Solution:
Given:
Y
Y = 7.0 x 1010 Pa v
Ρ = 2.7 x 103 kg/m3 
7.0 x1010
v
2.7 x10 3
v = 5.1 x 103 m/s

The speed of sound in air also depends on the temperature of the medium.
T where: 331 m/s is the speed of air at 0°

v  (331m / s)
273 K T is the absolute (Kelvin) temperature
In general, the speed of sound is higher in solids than in gases. The molecules in a solid interact
more strongly than in liquid.
The speed of sound is slower in liquids than in solids. Liquids are more compressible.
Table 1. Speeds of Sound in Various Media

Medium v (m/s) Medium v (m/s)
Air (0°C) 331 Aluminum 5 100
Air (100°C) 386 Copper 3 560
Hydrogen (0°C) 1 290 Iron 5 130
Oxygen (0°C) 317 Lead 1 320
Helium (0°C) 972 Vulcanized rubber 54
Water (25°C) 1 490
Methyl alcohol (25°C) 1 140
Sea water (25°C) 1 530
INTRODUCTION:
When a vibrating tuning fork is held over the

open end of a tube whose length can be
adjusted, it is found that for a certain lengths, a
resonance occurs, i.e. the sound is very much
louder.
When this occurs, the forced frequency ¼𝜆 L

produced by the tuning fork is equal to the
natural frequency of the air column in the tube.
In more simple terms resonance occurs when

the incident and reflected waves reinforce each
other.
The best resonance occurs when the air column

is ¼ of the wavelength of the sound wave
produced in the tube by the tuning fork as
shown in Fig. 8.1.
Hence, when resonance occurs:

 La
4
  4 f ( L  a)
The speed of sound ‘v’ is given by the equation: v  f , where ‘f’ is the tuning fork and the top
of the tube.
v  4 f ( L  a)
Where: ‘L’ is the length of the air column, and ‘a’ is the distance between the tuning fork
and the top of the tube.
TUNING FORKS & SIGNAL GENERATOR/SPEAKER
Tuning forks or a signal generator connected to a speaker are used to produce sound waves of
different frequency. The signal generator has three advantages, which are:
1) it produces sound wave continuously

2) the sound intensity can be increased
3) the frequency of the sound can be varied
When tuning forks are used, the choices of frequencies are:
A) 256 Hz E) 384 Hz
B) 288 Hz F) 426 Hz
C) 320 Hz G) 480 Hz
D) 341 Hz H) 512 Hz
DETERMINATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound in air can be obtained using one of

the following methods:
a) Using fixed frequency values and varying the

length of the air column for resonance.
b) Using fixed lengths of air column and varying the

frequency for resonance.
Signal generators can be used in (a) and (b) but tuning

forks apply only in (a).
Note:
When the equation v  4 f ( L  a) is used, the length ‘L’
must be the smallest value for a given frequency for
resonance. There are other values of ‘L’ also for which
resonance can occur.
DETERMINATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
OBJECTIVE
To determine the speed of sound in air using a resonance tube and a variable frequency source
(signal generator).
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Make sure that the sound level should not cross the threshold of pain which may lead to
some hearing problem.
2. Make sure that the power cable of the signal generator has a proper insulation to
prevent any electric shock.
3. Handle the glass wares carefully.
DIAGRAM:
BACKGROUND
In the experiment, the 1st Harmonic is determined, i.e. the first resonance position.
MATERIALS
SN Apparatus Quantity Hazard

for 1 set
1 Measuring Cylinder 250 ml/1000 ml 1 Caution broken glassware
2 Signal Generator 1 Electric Hazard
3 400 ml Beaker and Water Supply 1 Caution broken glassware
4 Retort Stand, Clamp and Boss 1each
5 Meter Ruler 1
6 Speaker 6 Noise Hazard
7 Connection Wires 2 Electric Hazard
SYMBOLS
Caution Broken glass
METHOD
1. Set up the apparatus as shown above with the speaker positioned just above the top of
the measuring cylinder.
2. Increase the frequency very slowly from 100Hz until you hear the first resonance.
Record the frequency.
Place you ear close to the top of the measuring cylinder for this and move the
speaker up and down slightly to get the best position for resonance.
3. Measure the distance ‘L’ and ‘a’ and record the value of (L + a). The value of the distance
‘a’ should be about 1 cm.
4. Increase the frequency and confirm the resonance occurs for higher frequencies and
then decrease the frequency to 100 Hz again.
5. Pour water into the measuring cylinder till it is approximately half full then, repeat
methods (2) to (4) again.
6. Complete the table of results and calculate the speed of sound in air in each case and
find the mean value.
OBSERVATIONS:
L+a f v
(m) (Hz) (m/s)
1st Result
2nd Result
Mean =
RESULT
QUESTIONS:
1. How did your values for the speed of sound in air compare with the S.T.P. value of 330
m/s?
2. Suggest possible reasons for any differences in the two values.
CHAPTER 3
DIFFRACTION GRATING
DIFFRACTION
The diffraction phenomenon is described as the apparent bending of waves around small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves,
including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic wave such as visible light, x-rays and
radio waves.
For diffraction at a slit of width a, the angle of diffraction

between the mth minimum and central maximum is given
m
by sin  m 
a
The width of the central maximum is
2D
0 
a
Where: D is the distance between the slit and the screen.
Figure 1
The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central bright band having alternate dark
and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity on both sides.
Diffraction is supposed to be due to interference of secondary wavelets from the exposed

portion of wave front from the slit.
Whereas in interference, all bright fringes have same intensity, in diffraction, bright bands are
of decreasing intensity.
The diffraction Grating

One of the most useful tools in the study of light and of objects that emit and absorb light is the
diffraction grating. A diffraction grating is a device that uses interference phenomena to
separate a beam of light by wavelength. A grating can be made by a diamond-tipped cutting
tool is used to inscribe closely spaced parallel lines on a glass plate, where the spaces between
the lines serving as the slits. A typical grating contains several thousand lines per centimeter.
For example, a grating ruled with 5000 lines/ cm has a slit spacing d equal to the inverse of this
number ; d = (1/ 5000) cm.
Figure 4.3 is a diagram of a section of a
plane diffraction grating. A plane wave is
incident from the left, normal to the
plane of the grating. The intensity of the
pattern on the screen is the result of the
combined effects of interference and
diffraction.
Each bright fringe is located by an angle
 relative to the central fringe. These
bright fringes are some times called the
principal fringes or principal maxima.
Constructive interference creates the
principal fringes.
Also figure illustrates how light travels to
a distant viewing screen from each of
five slits in a grating and forms the
central bright fringe and the first order
bright fringes on either side.
From the figure the path difference
between waves from any two adjacent
slits is d sin. If this difference equals
some integral multiple of a wave length, Figure 4.3
waves from all slits will be in phase at P
and a bright line will be observed at this
point.
The general result of principal maxima of a diffraction grating is
d sin θ = m λ,
where, m = 0, 1, 2… The integer m is the order number of the diffraction pattern.
All the wavelengths are focused at θ = 0, corresponding to m = 0. This is called the zeroth order
maximum.
The first order maximum, corresponds to m = 1, is observed at an angle that satisfies the
relation sin θ = / d.
Light emerging from a slit at an angle other than that for a maximum interferes with nearly
complete destruction with light from some other silt on the gratings. As such pairs will result in
little or no transmission in that direction, as shown in intensity versus sin for diffraction
grating of first, and second order principal maxima.
Figure 4.4
Note
The sharpness of the principle maxima and the broad range of the dark areas. This is in contrast
to the broad, bright fringes characteristic of the two-slit interference pattern.
Example 1:
White light is spread out into its spectral components by a diffraction grating. If the grating has
2 000 lines per centimeter, at what angle does red light of wavelength 640 nm appear in the
first-order spectrum?
Solution: With 2000 lines per centimeter, the grating spacing is

1
d cm  5.00  104 cm  5.00  106 m
2000
Then, from dsin  m  , the location of the first order for the red light is
 m
  sin1   si
n 1


 1 640  109 m   
 d  6 7.35
 5.00  10 m 
Example 2:
Intense white light is incident on a diffraction grating that has 600 lines/mm.
(a) What is the highest order in which the complete visible spectrum can be seen using this
grating?
(b) What is the angular separation between the violet edge (400 nm) and the red edge (700 nm)
of the first-order spectrum produced by this grating?
Solution:
a) The longest wavelength in the visible spectrum is 700 nm, and the grating spacing is
1m m
d  1.67  103 m m  1.67  106 m
600
Thus, m m ax 

6
dsin90.0 1.67  10 m sin90.0
  2.38 ,

 red 700  109 m
so 2 com plete orders will be observed.
(b) From   dsin , the angular separation of the red and violet edges in the first order
will be
    700  109 m  9
 1  400  10 m 
  sin1  red   sin1  violet   sin1  6   si
n  6 
 d   d   1.67  10 m   1.67  10 m 
or   10.9
Example 3:
A grating with 1 500 slits per centimeter is illuminated with light of wavelength 500 nm.
(a) What is the highest-order number that can be observed with this grating?
(b) Repeat for a grating of 15 000 slits per centimeter.
Solution:
1 cm
(a) If d   6.67  104 cm  6.67  106 m , the highest order of
1500
  500 nm that can be observed will be
m m ax 
dsin90

 6.67  10 6
m  1  13.3 or 13 orders
 500  10 m 9
1 cm
(b) If d   6.67  105 cm  6.67  107 m , then
15000
m m ax 
dsin90

 6.67  10 7
m  1  1.33 or 1 order
 500  10 m 9
DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF A LASER LIGHT
OBJECTIVE
To determine the wavelength of the monochromatic light from a neon-light laser.
APPARATUS
Neon-helium laser
300 line/mm 0r5 600 line/mm diffraction grating
Two (2) 1-meter rulers
Screen (wall)
DIAGRAM
y
P1
Po
Q
m=- x
2
m=- C
1
m=0
m= 1
m=2
a
Figure 2
d
Figure 1
BACKGROUND
The laser is an intense, coherent light source which must not be looked at directly or indirectly
by reflection from shiny surfaces.
The wavelength of the neon-helium laser is to be found using the equation from the last
experiment and putting it in terms of λ, which is:
1 𝑥
𝝀=( ) ( )
𝑁 √𝑥 + 𝑦
2 2
METHOD
1. Place the laser source on the bench 100.0 cm distance from grating to the wall.
2. Switch on the laser source and observe the wall.
3. Measure distance x which is the distance between the zero and first order.
Caution: do not stare at the laser beam.
4. Calculate the wavelength of the neon-helium laser.
OBSERVATION TABLE
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙
X Y 𝝀=( ) ( )
S.NO. N 𝑵 𝑵 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
(m) (m) (m)
1
QUESTIONS
1. How does your value of λ compare with the marked value?
______________________________________________________________
2. Why is there a difference?

______________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 4
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
MAGNETIC FLUX
The magnetic flux øB through a closed loop is defined as
∅𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos ∅
Where: B is the strength of the uniform magnetic field, A is the cross-sectional area of the loop,
and ø is the angle between B and A (A is the area vector). The units of the magnetic flux are
weber (Wb) or T.m.
Example 1
Figure 4.1.a: Magnetic Flux through a closed rectangular loop

[Source: http://img.sparknotes.com/content/testprep/bookimgs/sat2/physics/0014/square.gif]
Example 2
A
Figure 4.1.b: Magnetic Flux through a closed circular loop

[Source: http://d2vlcm61l7u1fs.cloudfront.net/media%2F05d%2F05db3cfb-6df6-423d-87c2-
bb938f894c6e%2Fphp5qlnhl.png]
Figure 4.1
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY OR MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (B)
The magnetic flux density or magnetic field intensity is the amount of flux per unit area
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
𝑊𝑏
1𝑇 =1
𝑚2
∅𝐵 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐵= = ( ø = 0, cos ø = cos 0 = 1 )
𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

Faraday’s law of induction states that the instantaneous emf (ε ) induced in a circuit equals
∆∅
the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux ( ∆ 𝑡𝐵 ) through the circuit,
∆ ∅𝐵
∈ = −𝑁
∆𝑡
Where: N is the number of loops in the circuit. The magnetic flux øB can change with time
whenever the magnetic field B, the area A, or the angle ø changes with time.
Example 3
Figure 2.3: Faraday’s Law
[Source: https://physicsabout.com/faradays-law-of-induction/]
When a magnet is moved toward a wire loop connected to an ammeter, the ammeter deflects
as shown in Figure 4.3.a, indicating that a current I is induced in the loop.
When the magnet is held stationary, no current is induced in the loop, even when the magnet is
inside the loop as shown in Figure 4.3.b.
When the magnet is moved away from the loop, the ammeter deflects in the opposite direction
as shown in Figure 4.3.c., indicating that the induced current is opposite that shown in Figure
4.3.a.
Current flowing through the loop is changing due to the change in magnetic field, B.
The current induced is more if the movement is faster.
Current changes direction by the change in direction of current as well as polarity of magnet.
Deflection produced is directly proportional to the no. of turns, N.
TRANSFORMER
INTRODUCTION
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltage without changing the power of AC
electrical circuit.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. Step-up transformer - If number of turns of secondary coil is greater than that of primary
coil (𝑁𝑠 › 𝑁𝑝), transformer is step-up transformer and is used to increase the voltage.
Low voltage, High current High voltage, Low current
2. Step-down transformer - If number of turns of secondary coil is less than that of the primary coil
(𝑁𝑠 ‹ 𝑁𝑝 ), transformer is step-down transformer and is used to decrease the voltage.
High voltage, Low current

Low voltage, High current
Ratio of the number of turns of secondary coil (𝑁𝑠) to that of the primary coil (𝑁𝑝) is called
transformation ratio(r).
In transformer,
Magnetic flux linked with primary coil фp = NpA B
Magnetic flux linked with secondary coil фs = NsA B
Ns
∴ фs = Np фpWhere: A is area of cross section of the coil, and B is magnetic field due to
current in primary coil.
фs Ns
=
фp Np
dфs Ns dфp
∴ =
dt Np dt
Vs Ns Ns
∴ = ∴ Vs = Vp
Vp Np Np
But for ideal transformer, Input power = Output power
Vp Ip = Vs Is
Ip Vs
=
Is Vp
Therefore we get,
Ip Ns
∴ =
Is Np
Experiment
TRANSFORMER
OBJECTIVE
To study input and output voltage in step-up and step-down transformer.
APPARATUS
AC power supply
Coils with different number of turns
Magnetic core
2 - Voltmeter
Connecting wires
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Before switching the power of the circuit, call the attention of the teacher/instructor
just to make sure that the connections are correct.
 Wrong circuit can result in fire that can damage the equipment and hurt the user.
 Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires and thermal burns in homes and
workplaces.
 Defective electrical equipment and incorrect circuits result in fire, if you notice defective
equipment, then inform immediately the teacher/technician.
 In case of small electrical fire, a fire extinguisher can be used to put off the fire.
SYMBOLS
FORMULA
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉p 𝑁p
Where: Vp– Voltage, Ip– Current and Np – number of turns of primary coil
𝐼p 𝑁𝑠
=
𝐼𝑠 𝑁p
Where: Vs – Voltage, Is – Current and Ns – number of turns of secondary coil
V p Ip = V s Is
(For ideal transformer)
VpIp› VsIs
(In practice)
DIAGRAM
AC
S
O
U V V
VP
R VS
C
E
METHOD
1. Take two coils with 200 and 800 turns. Arrange them with magnetic core. Connect AC
source and voltmeters as shown in the diagram.
2. Coil connected with AC source is referred to as primary coil and another coil is
secondary coil.
3. Adjust voltage from AC source to 4 V. Note down the values of input voltage (Vp) across
primary coil and output voltage (Vs) for secondary coil in table.
4. Now repeat step-3 for different number of turns of primary and secondary coils.
Ns Vs
5. Calculate ratio Np and Vp.
OBSERVATIONS
Table-1
Number of Number of Voltage Voltage Ns Vs
turns in turns in across across Np Vp
primary coil secondary coil primary coil secondary coil
Np Ns Vp Vs
(Input) (output)
200 800
200 400
400 400
800 400
800 200
RESULT
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS
(1) What is the main use of transformers?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
(2) What is step-up transformer?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
(3) Why do we get output power less than the Input power in transformer?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
(4) The ratio of the number of turns of secondary coil to that of primary coil is called
__________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 5
CHARGE & DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR
CHARGING
Charge/voltage
current
R C time time
When a capacitor is connected across a D.C. voltage supply, charge is transferred from one
plate to the other plate, so that one plate has a positive charge and the other plate has a
negative charge.
During charging, the voltage across the capacitor plates increases from zero to the D.C. supply
voltage value.
Referring to the graphs:
a) The charge (and voltage) against time graphs shows the increase of charge and voltage from
zero to a maximum value.
b) The current against time shows the charging current decreases from a maximum value to zero.
The time taken to charge the capacitor depends upon the value of C and R, where C is the
capacitance value and R is the resistance value.
DISCHARGING
F
+Q -Q
Charge/voltage
current
R
time time
When a charged capacitor is connected across a resistance, there is a flow of charge (and
therefore of current) until the positive and negative charge values on each plate is zero.
The current flow is zero.

The voltage across the two plates is then zero.
Referring to the graphs:
The graphs are similar and show voltage, charge and current decreases from a maximum value
to zero.
The time taken to discharge the capacitor depends upon the value of C and R, where C is the
capacitance value and R is the resistance value.
Note:
When capacitance value are 200μF and above, they should not usually be shorted when
charged as sparking becomes dangerous.
TIME CONSTANT (t)
A
Vo
C
VOLTAGE
0.37Vo
O time
When a charged capacitor discharges through a resistor, the voltage falls with respect to time.
The value of time when the voltage is equal to 0.37 Vo is called the time constant.
The value of T is obtained by drawing a horizontal line across at V = 0.37 Vo to cut the curve at
C, and dropping a vertical line to B, and measuring the time OB. It is found that:
T = C R, where C is the capacitance in Farads, and R is the resistance in ohms.
Note:
The line from A to B is tangent to the curve at A.
EXAMPLE
Calculate the capacitance C when t = 20.0s and R = 500 kΩ
DETERMINATION OF CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR
OBJECTIVE
To determine the resistance of a high resistance voltmeter using a capacitor.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Some of the large capacitors commonly found in line operated equipment, store a
potentially lethal charge. Large or high voltage capacitors should be fully discharged
before measurements are made, soldering is attempted, or the circuitry is touched in
any way.
2. Do not use nor leave the capacitors in direct sunlight or in high-temperature areas. It
may cause fire, heat generation, leakage or bursting.
3. If the (+) and (-) side of the capacitor is reversely inserted, it may cause short-circuit or
over discharge of the capacitor on some equipment and it may induce overheating,
explosion or fire.
4. Make sure that the power cable has proper insulation to prevent any electric shock.
DIAGRAM
+ +
- -
V
C
MATERIALS
Quantity
SN Apparatus for 1 set Hazard
1 High Resistance Voltmeter 1 High voltage electrical shock hazard
2 Power Supply (9V PP9 Battery) 1 Electrical hazard
3 2200μF Electrolytic Capacitor 1 Danger Drain Capacitor
4 Terminal Block 1
5 Stopwatch 1
6 Crocodile Clips 2
7 Connection Wires 6 Electrical hazard
SYMBOLS
METHOD
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram above.
2. Switch the multimeter to the 10 V D.C. range.
3. Close the switch across the power supply so that the capacitor is charge very quickly.
4. Record the final steady voltage (Vo).
5. Open the switch across the power supply so that the capacitor starts to discharge
through the multimeter. Start the stopwatch as you open the switch.
6. Record the voltage values every 1 minute.
7. Plot the graph of voltage against time.
8. Draw a horizontal line to cut the curve at 0.37Vo and determine the value of the time
constant T.
9. Calculate the resistance of the multimeter on the 10V D.C. range.
OBSERVATION:
t Voltage t Voltage
(min) (V) (min) (V)
0 8
1 9
2 10
3 11
4 12
5 13
6 14
7 15
CALCULATION
Vo = ________________ V
0.37Vo = ________________ V
= ________________ V
Using the graph
T = ________________ min
= ________________ s
R = T/C
= ________________ ohms
= ________________ ohms
RESULT
VARIATION OF DISCHARGE VOLTAGE WITH TIME
VARIABLES
Independent Variable = ________________ Dependent Variable = _____________________
SCALE
1 big square along x-axis = __________ 1 big square along y-axis = __________
TIME (min)
DISCHARGE VOLTAGE (V)
QUESTIONS:
1. Why does it take for the voltage to fall to zero?
2. What would be the effect on the discharge time when 100μF capacitor was used?
3. What would be the effect on the discharge time if a lower resistance voltmeter scale was
used?
CHAPTER 6
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
INTRODUCTION
Specific Heat Capacity (C)

“The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of the material (solid/liquid) through 1ºC or 1ºK.”
(1 calorie = 4.18 joule)
Electrical Method:
It is always best to use the electrical method, of which you can equate the heat and electrical
energies.
The theory makes the use of law of conservation of energy, where the electrical energy
provided is equal to the heat energy produced in the water and calorimeter.
The electrical energy supplied by the heater is given by:
E=VIt
Where: ‘V’ is the voltage across the heater, ‘I’ is the current in the heater and ‘t’ is the time.
The heat energy produced in the liquid is given by:
Q = m CΔT
Where: ‘m’ is the mass of the liquid, ‘C’ is the specific heat capacity of the liquid and ‘ΔT’ is
the temperature rise.
The heat energy produced (absorbed) in the calorimeter and the stirrer is:
Qc = mcΔT
Where: ‘mc’ is the mass of calorimeter and stirrer, ‘Cc’ is the specific heat capacity of the
calorimeter and ‘ΔT’ is the temperature rise.
By applying the law of conservation of energy:
E  Q  Qc
VIt = McΔt + mcCcΔT
V  I  t  mcCc T
C
mT
However, if a thin walled calorimeter is used, the amount of heat given to it will be very
small compared to the water – it contains and therefore it can be ignored in theory.
Hence:
V  I t
C
m  T
Where:
V is the voltage across the terminals of the heater measured in volts
I is the current flowing through the circuit measured in Amperes
t is the time of heating the water measured in seconds
m is the mass of water measured in Kg
C is the specific heat capacity of the liquid (water) measured in J/KgK
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER
OBJECTIVE
To determine the specific heat capacity of water by electrical method.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Make sure that the power cable of the battery, ammeter, and voltmeter have proper
insulation to prevent electric shock.
2. Use safety gloves while handling hot liquids
3. Never use electrical equipment around water or when the equipment is wet or your
hands are wet. Be sure cords are untangled. Disconnect the equipment when not in use.
DIAGRAM Battery
+ _
Switch
A Ammeter
+ _
V
Voltmeter
Rheostat
Water
Calorimeter
Heater
MATERIALS
Quantity
SN Apparatus for 1 set Hazard
1 DC voltage supply 1 Danger Electric Hazard
2 Joule’s Calorimeter 1 Caution Hot liquids and
wear gloves
3 Voltmeter (0-10V) 1 Danger Electric Hazard
4 Ammeter (0-5A) 1 Danger Electric Hazard
5 Rheostat (0-15Ω) 1
6 Connection wires 8 Danger Electric Hazard
7 Weighing machine 1
8 Thermometer 1
9 Stopwatch 1
SYMBOLS
Wear Gloves
METHODS
1. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and record the mass.
2. Fill the calorimeter with water to a ¾ full that is sufficient enough to cover the heater. If
not, then add more water, re-weight then record the mass.
3. Place the calorimeter into its jacket.
4. Place the thermometer and heater in the liquid and clip in place the thermometer.
5. Arrange the apparatus in the working space (see the Fig.1) and connect the circuit.
6. Switch ON the heater and adjust the current quickly to 4A. Record the voltage then
switch OFF.
7. Record the initial temperature T1.
8. Switch ON the heater and the stopwatch at the same time.
9. When the temperature T2 is 10ºC above the initial value temperature, switch OFF the
heater and stopwatch at the same time. Record the time (t).
10. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water.
OBSERVATIONS
Time taken = _____________s
Mass of calorimeter and stirrer (mc) = _____________ Kg
Mass of calorimeter and stirrer with water (Mcw) = _____________ Kg
Mass of water (mw) = mcw – mc = _____________ Kg
Current (I) = _____________ A
Voltage (V) = _____________ V
Initial Temperature (T1) = _____________ K
Final Temperature (T2) = _____________ K
Temperature rise (T) = T2 – T1 = _____________ K
Specific Heat of Calorimeter:

J
Aluminum Cc  900
KgK
J
Copper Cc  400
KgK
1 calorie = 4.18 joule
CALCULATIONS:
VIt=
mcCcT =
mwT =
V  I  t  mcCc T
hence, C
mT
RESULT
QUESTIONS
1. The correct value for the specific heat capacity of water (Cwater) is 4200 J/KgK. How much
your value of C differs from it?
2. Calculate the percentage error of the result.
3. Why is it necessary to stir continuously throughout the experiment?
4. Do all substances have only one specific heat?
5. Can this method be employed to determine the specific heat of a solid?
CHAPTER 7
CRO SETTING AND DC VOLTMETER
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a general
purpose laboratory instrument used for time and
amplitude measurements of small signal voltage signals
over a wide range of frequencies.
INTRODUCTION
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) can be used to
measure A.C. voltage, D.C. voltages, frequency of
signals, inductance of an air core inductor and
capacitance of a non-electrolytic capacitor and so on.
FUNCTION AND OPERATION OF A CRO

The CRO contains many control switches. Before setting up the CRO for any measurement it is
important to understand the roles of its number of controls.
Control Switch Function
Power ON/OFF switch Switches the CRO “ON” and “OFF”.

Intensity Regulates the intensity/brightness of traces.
Focus Adjusts the focus of the trace.
X-Shift Moves the trace horizontally.
Y-Shift Moves the trace vertically.
Time-base (time/div) Switches the time base “ON”. Controls the speed with which the
trace moves on the screen.
X-Y Switches the time base “Off”.
Y-gain (volt/div) Amplifies or attenuates the incoming signal to fit the screen. It
determines the height of the trace on the screen.
AC/DC If the incoming signal is AC, switch to AC.
If the incoming signal is DC, switch to DC.
GND Zero signal base line. Does not measure AC or DC.
Trigger Fine adjustment to make the trace stationary. It selects the timing
of the beginning of the horizontal sweep. It is best at “AUTO”
position.
EXPERIMENT – 1
SETTING-UP OF CRO
OBJECTIVE
To setup the cathode ray oscilloscope
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not use CRO in places where there is a presence
of strong electric and magnetic fields as it may
adversely affect the measurements.
2. Never place heavy objects on the instrument.
3. Never place a hot soldering iron on or near CRO.
4. The instrument may not operate properly or may

be damaged if it is connected to a wrong AC line
voltage. Whenever line voltages are changed, fuses
must also be replaced.
APPARATUS
S. No. Apparatus Hazard
1 Cathode ray oscilloscope Electrical Hazard, Electric Shock hazard, sensitive device
SYMBOLS
Electric shock hazard Sensitive Device Electrical Hazard Lab coat
METHOD
1. Rotate the Y Gain (i.e. variable volts/div) to give the highest value, in the case 5V/cm.
2. Rotate the X-shift and Y-shift to the mean positions.
3. Press the GND switch.
4. Rotate the intensity control fully clockwise to give maximum intensity.
5. Switch the time-base ON, and rotate to the smallest time setting.
6. Switch ON the CRO and a straight line trace should be seen on the screen.
7. Adjust the focus and intensity controls to give a clear focused line trace.
8. Rotate the time-base control from the lowest time setting to the highest. Observe what
happens.
QUESTIONS
1. What are the X and Y shift controls rotated to the mean positions?
2. Why is the intensity control switch initially rotated fully clockwise?
3. What happens to the straight line trace when the time base is rotated from the lowest
to the highest time base setting?
CONCLUSION
EXPERIMENT - 2
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AS DC VOLTMETER
OBJECTIVE
To measure D.C. voltage using a cathode ray oscilloscope.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not use CRO in places where there is a presence of strong electric and magnetic fields
as it may adversely affect the measurements.
3. Never place a hot soldering iron on or near the CRO.
4. The instrument may not operate properly or may be damaged if it is connected to a

wrong AC line voltage. Whenever line voltages are changed, fuses must also be replaced.
APPARATUS
S. Apparatus Hazard
No.
2 DC Variable voltage supply Electrical Hazard, Electric Shock hazard
3 Digital Multimeter General Hazard
4 Connecting wires Electrical Hazard
SYMBOLS
Electric shock hazard Sensitive Device Electrical Hazard General Hazard Lab coat
DIAGRAM
DC Voltage
Supply
+ -
V
V CRO
Fig: 4.2
Connecting CRO to Power Supply
DC Voltage on CRO Screen with Time-Base ON/OFF:
Time-Base “OFF”/X-Y Time-Base “ON”
Fig-4.3
DC Voltage on CRO Screen with Time-Base ON/OFF
METHOD
1. Connect the DC voltage supply across the CRO. Set the supply voltage at 5 V.
2. Switch ON the CRO and select the GND position. Observe the screen and adjust the
straight line trace to a convenient reference level.
3. Adjust the Y Gain switch of the CRO to 2V/division and the CAL (calibrate) position.
Switch the time base ON and adjust it 0.5ms/division.
4. Adjust the AC/DC control to DC.
5. Observe the trace on screen. Record the vertical distance Y.
6. Calculate the value of DC voltage using the CRO as a DC voltmeter.
7. Observe the screen when the time base is switched OFF.
8. Switch OFF the voltage supply and CRO. Repeat the above steps for two more voltages
for other Y Gain settings.
FORMULA
DC Voltage, V = Y (div) * Y Gain (V/div)
RESULT
DC Voltage from DC Voltage from CRO
S. No. Power Supply Y Y Gain V = Y (div) * Y Gain
or DMM (div) (V/div) (V/div)
QUESTION
1. How accurate is your CRO voltage value?
2. What happens when time base is switched OFF?
CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 8
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOCOPE AS AC VOLTMETER
OBJECTIVE
To measure AC voltage using a cathode ray oscilloscope.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not use CRO in places where there is a presence of strong electric and magnetic
fields as it may adversely affect our measurements.
3. Never place a hot soldering iron on or near the CRO.
4. The instrument may not operate properly or may be damaged if it is connected to a

wrong AC line voltage. Whenever line voltages are changed, fuses must also be replaced.
APPARATUS
S. APPARATUS HAZARD
NO.
2 Variable voltage supply Electrical Hazard, Electric Shock hazard
3 Digital multimeter General Hazard
4 Connecting wires Electrical Hazard
SYMBOLS
Electric shock hazard Sensitive Device Electrical Hazard General Hazard Lab coat
DIAGRAM
AC Voltage
Supply
+ - V
CRO
Fig: 4.4
Connecting CRO to Power Supply
AC Voltage on CRO Screen with Time-Base ON/OFF
Time-Base “OFF”/X-Y Time-Base “ON”
Fig-4.5
AC Voltage on CRO Screen with Time-Base ON/OFF
METHOD
1. Connect the voltage supply across the CRO. Set the supply voltage at 3 V.
2. Switch ON the CRO and select the GND position. Observe the screen and adjust the
straight line trace to a convenient reference level.
3. Adjust the Y Gain switch of the CRO to 2V/division and the CAL (calibrate) position.
Switch the time base ON and adjust it 0.5ms/division.
4. Select AC from the AC/DC control switch.
5. Adjust the time base until a suitable voltage waveform is observed on the screen.
6. Observe the screen when the time base is switched OFF.
7. Record the vertical distance Y.
8. Calculate the value of the AC voltage using CRO as AC voltmeter.
9. Switch OFF the voltage supply and CRO. Repeat the above steps for one more voltages
for other Y Gain settings.
FORMULA
Peak to peak AC voltage, 2V0 = Y (div) * Y Gain (V/div);
Peak AC Voltage, V0 = (Y * Y Gain)/2
RMS Voltage, VRMS = V0/√2
RESULT
AC Voltage Peak to Peak
S. from Power Y Y Gain AC Voltage, Peak RMS
No. Supply or 2 V0 AC Voltage, Voltage
DMM (div) (V/div) (Vp-p) V0 VRMS
QUESTION
1. How accurate is your CRO voltage value?
2. What happens when time base is switched OFF?
3. Why is it better to measure Y with the time base OFF?
CONCLUSION
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 9
BOYLE’S LAW
Ideal Gas Laws
1. Boyle’s Law
The volume of a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the pressure,
provided the
or PV= constant (Note: temperature remain constant)
2. Charles’ Law
States that at constant pressure the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas is
proportional to its absolute temperature, i.e.
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases by 1/273 of
its volume of its volume at 00C for each 10C rise in temperature, i.e.
= =
=
where T and T0 are absolute (Kelvin) temperatures corresponding to t0C and 00C,
respectively.
3. Ideal Gas Equation

For n moles of an ideal gas, the pressure P, volume V and absolute temperature T are
related by the equation
or
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant and has the value
where R is the universal gas constant whose value is 8.31 JK-1mol-1.
Example 1:
Gas is contained in an 8.0-L vessel at a temperature of 20°C and a pressure of 9.0 atm. (a)
Determine the number of moles of gas in the vessel. (b) How many molecules are in the vessel?
PV
Solution: (a) n
RT
 9.0 atm  1.013  105 Pa atm    8.0 L  1 m 3 103 L 

    3.0 mol
 8.31 J mol  K  293 K 
N  n  N A   3.0 mol  6.02  1023 molecules mol   1.8  10 molecules

24
(b)
Example 2:
(a) An ideal gas occupies a volume of 1.0 cm3 at 20°C and atmospheric pressure. Determine the
number of molecules of gas in the container.
(b) If the pressure of the 1.0-cm3 volume is reduced to 1.0 x 10–11 Pa (an extremely good
vacuum) while the temperature remains constant, how many moles of gas remain in the
container?
PV  1.013  10 Pa atm  1.0  10 m 
5 6 3
Solution: (a) n   4.2  105 mol ,

RT  8.31 J mol  K  293 K 
Thus, N  n  N A
 molecules 
  4.2  10-5 mol  6.02  1023   2.5  10 molecules
19
 mol 
n 2 P2V2 RT2 P2
(b) Since both V and T are constant,   , or
n1 PV1 1 RT1 P1
P   1.0  1011 Pa 
  4.2  10 mol   4.1  10 mol
21
n2   2  n1   -5
 1.013  10 Pa 
5
 P1 
Example 3:
A rigid tank contains 0.40 mol of oxygen (O2). Determine the mass (in kg) of oxygen that must
be withdrawn from the tank to lower the pressure of the gas from 40 atm to 25 atm. Assume
that the volume of the tank and the temperature of the oxygen are constant during this
operation.
Solution: From PV  nRT , with V and T both constant, we have
P   25 atm 
n2   2  n1    0.40 mol   0.25 mol
 P1   40 atm 
Thus, the mass of Oxygen withdrawn was
m   n  M   0.40 mol  0.25 mol  32.0  103 kg mol 
 4.8  103 kg  4.8 g
The Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic theory of gases model makes the following assumptions:
1. The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between them
is large compared with their dimensions.
2. The molecules obey Newton’s law of motion, but as whole they move randomly.
3. The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions.
4. The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls.
5. The gas under consideration is a pure substance; that is, all molecules are identical.
Pressure of an Ideal Gas

The pressure of the gas is the result of collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of
the container.
The pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume and to the average
translational kinetic energy of a molecule,
Molecular Interpretation of Temperature

The temperature of a gas is a direct measure of average molecular kinetic energy.
The average translational kinetic energy per molecule is
The total translational kinetic energy is
For a mono atomic gas, translational kinetic energy is the only internal energy,
Root-mean square (rms) speed of molecule is the square root of
=
Where, M is the molar mass in kilograms per mole.
Example 4:
What is the average kinetic energy of a molecule of oxygen at a temperature of 300 K?
Solution: The average kinetic energy of the molecules of any gas at 300 K is
1 3 3 J
  300 K   6.21  10 J
21
KE  mv 2  kBT   1.38  1023
2 2 2 K
Example 5:
Use Avogadro’s number to find the mass of a helium atom.
Solution: One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of molecules and has
a mass equal to the molar mass, M. Thus, the mass of a single molecule is m  M N A .
For helium, M  4.00 g mol  4.00  103 kg mol , and the mass of a helium molecule is
4.00  103 kg mol

m  6.64  1027 kg molecule
6.02  1023 molecule mol
Since a helium molecule contains a single helium atom, the mass of a helium atom is
m atom  6.64  1027 kg
Example 6:
A tank contains 2.0 mol of helium gas at 200C. Assume the helium (diatomic n=2) behaves as an
ideal gas. (a) Find the total internal energy of the system. (b) What is the average kinetic energy
per molecule?
Solution: Given in the problem n= 2.0 and T = 20+273=293 K then,

(a) The total internal energy is
(b) The average kinetic energy per molecule is
Example 7:
The temperature near the top of the atmosphere on Venus is 240 K. (a) Find the rms speed of
hydrogen (H2) at this point in the atmosphere. (b) Repeat for carbon dioxide (CO2). (c) It has
been found that if the rms speed exceeds one sixth of the planet’s escape velocity, the gas
eventually leaks out of the atmosphere and into outer space. If the escape velocity on Venus is
10.3 km/s, does hydrogen escape? Does carbon dioxide?
1 3
Solution: From KEmolecule  mv 2  kBT ,
2 2
3kBT
the rms speed of a molecule is v  v 2 
m
molar mass M
The mass of the molecule is m  
NA NA
2.00  103 kg mol

(a) For hydrogen  H 2  , m   3.32  1027 kg .
3 1.38  1023 J K   240 K 

At T  240 K , vH2   1.73 km s
3.32  1027 kg
44.0  103 kg mol

(b) For carbon dioxide, m   7.31  1026 kg , and
3 1.38  1023 J K   240 K 

at T  240 K , v CO 2   0.369 km s
7.31  1026 kg
v escape 10.3 km s
(c) Since, on Venus,   1.71 km s , we should expect
6 6
that hydrogen will escape but carbon dioxide will not . Indeed, it is found that
carbon dioxide is the predominant component in the atmosphere of Venus and
hydrogen is present only in combination with other elements.
Introduction
Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure, provided that the temperature remains constant.
Boyle’s law in terms of pressure ‘P’ and volume ‘V’ is given by the equation:
Volume α __ 1____
Pressure ------------------------ (i)
V α __1__
P -------------------------- (ii)
PV = constant ------------------------ (iii)
PRESSURE CONVERSION
Standard pressure values are used in conversions.
The standard pressure values for three different pressure systems are given below:
Standard Pressure = 760 mmHg
= 101 kPa
= 1013 mbars
Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume of a Gas at Constant Temperature
(Pressure Sensor)
Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to explore the relationship between the pressure in a container of
air as its volume is changed while the temperature remains constant. Use a Pressure Sensor to
measure the change in the pressure of air in a syringe as you change the volume of air in the
syringe. Use DataStudio to record and display the data. Use the graph of pressure and volume
to determine the relationship.
Background
Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a gas in a container is related to the volume of the gas.
In other words, as the volume changes, the pressure changes. For a given amount of a gas at a
fixed temperature the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to the volume. One way to
verify this is to graph the inverse of gas volume versus gas pressure.
SAFETY REMINDER
 Follow directions for using the equipment.
Setup
1. Setup the PASCO Interface and computer and start DataStudio.
2. Connect the Pressure Sensor to the interface.
3. Open the file titled 45 Boyle’s Law.ds.
Data recording is set for one measurement per second. Use the keyboard to enter the
volume of the air inside the syringe (in milliliters).
4. Put a drop of glycerin on the barb end of a quick release coupling. Put the end of the
coupling into one end of a short piece (about 2.5 cm) of plastic tubing that comes with
the Pressure Sensor.
5. Put a drop of glycerin on the end of the syringe. Connect the end of the syringe to the
other end of the small piece of plastic tubing.
6. Align the quick-release coupling on one end of the plastic tubing with the pressure port of
the Pressure Sensor. Push the coupling onto the port, and then turn the coupling
clockwise until it clicks (about one-eighth turn).
7. Check that the syringe and Pressure Sensor have a secure seal by adjusting the volume
between 20 mL and 10 mL. It should get harder to push as the volume decreases.
8. Adjust the volume of air in the syringe to 20.0 mL. (Note: To set the initial position of the
piston in the syringe, disconnect the quick-release connector from the sensor, move the
piston to the first position (20 mL), and then re-connect the quick-release connector to the
sensor.)
Procedure
In DataStudio, the Table display shows values for the gas volume in the syringe (for example,
20, 18, 16 and so on).
1. Click ‘Start’ to begin recording data.
 The ‘Start’ button changes to ‘Keep’ ( ) and the Table display shows the value
of pressure next to the first volume (20 mL).
2. Click ‘Keep’ to record the pressure.
 The Table display changes to show the next value of volume (18 mL).
3. Move the piston to the 18 mL mark and click ‘Keep’ to record the pressure.
4. Continue to move the piston to each new position and then click ‘Keep’ to record the
corresponding pressure.
5. After you record the pressure for the last volume, click ‘Stop’ to end data recording.
6. If time permits, repeat the procedure.
Analyze
1. Set up the Graph display so you can examine the plot of Volume versus Pressure and also
the plot of Inverse Volume versus Pressure.
2. Set up the Table display so you can examine the Pressure, Volume and Inverse Volume.
Use your observations to answer the questions in the Lab Report.
LAB REPORT
Boyle’s Law
Pressure and Volume of a Gas at Constant Temperature
Data
Sketch your graph of pressure and volume:
Questions
1. From looking at your data, do the pressure and volume seem to be directly or inversely
proportional? Does this agree with Boyle’s Law?
2. What happened to the pressure when the volume went from 20 mL to 10 mL?
3. What are possible sources of error or limitations in this experiment? For each one, try to
decide what effect it might have on the experimental results.
CHAPTER 10
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Introduction
The photoelectric effect is the emission of
electrons from the surface of a metal when
electromagnetic radiation (such as visible or
ultraviolet light) of the light frequency shines on
the metal. At the time of its discovery, the
classical wave model for light predicted that the
energy of the emitted electrons would increase
as the intensity (brightness) of the light
increased.
Instead it was discovered that the energy of the

emitted electrons was directly proportional to
the frequency of the incident light, and that no
A circuit diagram for studying the
electrons would be emitted if the light source was not above photoelectric effect. When light strikes plate
a certain threshold frequency. Lower energy electrons were E (the emitter), photoelectrons are ejected
from the plate E to plate C (the collector)
emitted when light with relatively low frequency was create a current in the circuit, registered at
incident on the metal, and higher energy electrons were the ammeter
emitted when light with relatively high frequency was
incident on the metal.
"The emission of electrons from a metal surface when

exposed to light of suitable frequency is called
photoelectric effect. These emitted electrons are called
Photoelectrons.”
The Photoelectric effect is demonstrated by the

apparatus shown in the figure. An evacuated glass tube
contains two electrodes C(anode) & E [cathode)which
are connected to positive and negative terminals of the
battery. When a light is allowed to fall on cathode (E) it
emits electrons. These electrons are attracted by the
positive anode (C) and ammeter will show a reading which means that current passing through
the circuit. If the light is cutoff, then current will stop which shows that current flows because
of the incident light.
This current called photoelectric current and this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect or
Thermionic emission.
Maximum Energy of photoelectrons
To calculate the maximum energy of photoelectrons, connections are reversed. it means now
“C” is connected to the negative and “E" is connected to the positive terminal of battery. In this
case when photoelectrons are produced and try to move towards “C" then since “C" is
connected to negative so it will repel photoelectron. If negative potential on "C" is increased
more and more than a potential will come when there will be no current in the circuit. This
potential is called stopping potential (V0). At this potential even the photoelectrons of
maximum energy will not be able to reach “C'. Therefore, maximum energy is
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉0 . 𝑒
Where "e" is the charge of the electron. V0 is the maximum potential.
Following observations were found during the experiment

1) Photoelectrons are of different energies. Maximum Photoelectric current versus
energy of photoelectrons depends upon metal surface applied potential difference
(work function) and frequency of light. for two light intensities. The
current increases with
intensity but reaches a
2) There is a minimum frequency below which no electron is saturation level for large
emitted however intense the light may be. This frequency value of ΔV. At voltages equal
to or less then – ΔVs is the
is called threshold frequency "f0" and it is different for stopping potential. The
different metals. current is zero.
3) By increasing the intensity of light, only the numbers of

electrons will increase.
These results could not be explained on the basis of electromagnetic wave theory,
according to which by increasing the light intensity, K.E of photoelectrons should be
increased but actually it does not happen because by increasing the intensity of light,
number of electrons increases not the energy. . This
problem was explained by the Quantum theory.
Explanation on The Basis of Quantum Theory:

Max Plank said that” Light Consists of energy packets called
“PHOTON”. Every photon has an energy which can be
calculated by the equation”
𝐸 = ℎ. 𝑓 ……..(1)
Where ”h" is Plank's constant and its value is h=6634x10-34j.s. When these photons (light) falls
on the metal plate, then photoelectrons are emitted from the metal plate but these electrons
need a minimum energy to come out from the metal plate. This minimum energy is called work
function (φ).
Therefore, a part of photon’s energy is used as work function Figure A sketch of KEmax versus the
to emit electrons and remaining part is used as K.E of frequency of incident light for
photoelectrons in a typical photoelectric
photoelectrons. i.e., effect experiment. Photons with
frequency less than fc don’t have
Photon energy= work function (φ)+K.E of photoelectrons sufficient energy to eject an electron
from the metal
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜑 + 𝐾. 𝐸…………….(2)
it is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
If the K.E of the photoelectrons is zero then frequency is equal to threshold frequency “f 0” and
can be calculated by the equation
ℎ 𝑓0 = 𝜑 + 0
ℎ𝑓0 = 𝜑
As we know that
Since φ =work function= ℎ 𝑓 .
Therefore, Equati0n(2) can also be written as
ℎ 𝑓0 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝐾𝐸 ............... (3)
Application
Photo cell
This photocell is used in Security system, counting system, Automatic door system, Automatic
street lighting, Exposure meter for Photography, Sound tracks of movies.
Problem
Sodium surface is illuminated with light of wavelength 0.3µm. the work function for sodium is
2.46eV.
a. Calculate the energy of each photon.
b. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons
c. The cutoff wavelength for sodium
Solution
a) Calculate the energy of each photon
Obtain the frequency from the wavelength
𝑐 3.00×108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 𝑓 = 𝜆 = 0.300×10−6 𝑚
𝑓 = 1.00 × 1015 𝐻𝑧
Use equation 27.5 to calculate the photon’s energy:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = (6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠)(1.00 × 1015 𝐻𝑧)

= 6.63 × 10−19 𝐽
1.00𝑒𝑉
= (6.63 × 10−19 𝐽) ( ) = 4.14 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
b) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons
Substitute into equation 27.6: 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜑 = 4.14𝑒𝑉 − 2.46𝑒𝑉 = 1.68𝑒𝑉
c) Compute The cutoff wavelength
Convert φ from electron Volts to joules: 𝜑 = 2.46𝑒𝑉 = (2.46𝑒𝑉)(1.6 × 10−19 𝐽/𝑒𝑉)

= 3.94 × 10−19 𝐽
Find the cutoff wavelength using equation 27.7
ℎ𝑐 (6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠)(3.00 × 3.00 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)

𝜆𝑐 = =
𝜑 3.94 × 10−19 𝐽
= 5.05 × 10−7 𝑚 = 505𝑛𝑚
Remark
The cutoff wavelength is in the yellow-green region of the visible spectrum
Exercise
a) What minimum-frequency light will eject photoelectrons from copper surface?
b) If this frequency is tripled. Find the maximum kinetic energy (in eV) of the resulting
photoelectrons. (Answer in eV)
Answers: (a) 1.3×1015Hz
(b) 9.4eV
Problems
1. Electrons are ejected from a metallic surface with a speed ranging up to 4.6×10 5m/s
when light with a wavelength of λ=625nm is used. (a) What is the work function of the
surface? (b) what is the cutoff frequency of this surface?
Ans: (a) φ=2.2×10-19J=1.4eV,
(b) f0=3.3×1014Hz)
2. Molybdenum has a work function of 4.2eV. Find the cutoff wavelength and threshold
frequency for the photoelectric effect?
Ans: λc=2.96×10-7m, =1.01×1015Hz
Background Information:
Many people contributed to the discovery and explanation of the photoelectric effect In 1865
James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and concluded that light
itself was just such a wave. Experimentalists attempted to generate and detect electromagnetic
radiation and the first clearly successful attempt was made in 1886 by Heinrich Hertz. 1n the
midst of his experimentation, he discovered that the spark produced by an electromagnetic
receiver was more vigorous if it was exposed to ultraviolet light. In 1888, Wilhelm Hallwachs
demonstrated that a negatively charged gold leaf electroscope would discharge more rapidly
than normal if a clean zinc disk connected to the electroscope was exposed to ultraviolet light.
In 1899, JJ. Thomson determined that the ultraviolet light caused electrons to be emitted from
the metal.
In 1902, Phillip Lenard, an assistant to Heinrich Hertz, used a high intensity carbon are light to
illuminate an emitter plate. Using a collector plate and a sensitive ammeter, he was able to
measure the small current produced when the emitter plate was exposed to light. In order to
measure the energy of the emitted electrons, Lenard charged the collector plate negatively so
that the electrons from the emitter plate would be repelled. He found that there was a
minimum “stopping” potential that kept all electrons from reaching the collector. He was
surprised to discover that the “stopping” potential, V, and therefore the energy of the emitted
electrons did not depend on the intensity of the light. He found that the maximum energy of
the emitted electrons did depend on the color, or frequency, of the light.
In l90l, Max Planck published his theory of radiation. In it he stated that an oscillator, or any
similar physical system, has a discrete set of possible energy values or levels; energies between
these values never occur. Planck went on to state that the emission and absorption of radiation
is associated with transitions or jumps between two energy levels. The energy lost or gained by
the oscillator is emitted or absorbed as a quantum of radiant energy, the magnitude of which is
expressed by the equation: E = h v where E equals the radiant energy, v is the frequency of the
radiation, and h is a fundamental constant of nature. (The constant, h, became known as
Planck's constant.)
In 1905, Albert Einstein gave a simple explanation of Lenard’s discoveries using Planck’s theory.
The new ‘quantum’-based model predicted that higher frequency light would produce higher
energy emitted electrons (photoelectrons), independent of intensity, while increased intensity
would only increase the number of electrons emitted (or photoelectric current). Einstein
assumed that the light shining on the emitter material could be thought of as ‘quanta’ of energy
(called photons) with the amount of energy equal to h v with v as the frequency. In the
photoelectric effect, one ‘quantum’ of energy is absorbed by one electron. If the electron is
below the surface of the emitter material, some of the absorbed energy is lost as the electron
moves towards the surface. This is usually called the ‘work function’ (W0). If the ‘quantum’ is
more than the ‘work function’, then the electron is emitted with a certain amount of kinetic
energy. Einstein applied Planck's theory and explained the photoelectric effect in terms of the
quantum model using his famous equation for which he Albert Einstein received the Nobel
prize in 1921:
E = h v = KEmax + W0
where KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron.
In terms of kinetic energy, KEmax = hv-W0
If the collector plate is charged negatively to the ‘stopping’

potential so that electrons from the emitter don’t reach the
collector and the photocurrent is zero, the highest kinetic
energy electron will have energy eV where e is the charge
on the electron and V is the ‘stopping’ potential.
eV = hv-W0
𝒉 𝑾𝟎
𝑽= 𝒗−
𝒆 𝒆
Einstein’s theory predicts that if the frequency of the
incident light is varied, and the ‘stopping’ potential, V, is
plotted as a function of frequency, the slope of the line is
h/e (see Figure l).
Figure 1: stopping Potential, V versus Frequency,v
Principle of the Experiment:

When incident light shines on the cathode (K), photoelectrons can be emitted and transferred
to the anode (A). This constitutes a photocurrent. By changing the voltage between the anode
and cathode, and measuring the photocurrent, you can determine the characteristic current-
voltage curves of the photoelectric tube. The basic facts of the photoelectric effect experiments
are as follows:
For a given frequency (color) of light, if the voltage between the

cathode and anode, VAK, is equal to the stopping potential, V, the
photocurrent is zero.
When the voltage between the cathode and anode is greater

than the stopping voltage, the photocurrent will increase quickly
and eventually reach saturation. The saturated current is
proportional to the intensity of the incident light. (see Figure 2)
Light of different frequencies (colors) have different stopping

potentials. (see Figure 3)
The slope of a plot of stopping potential versus frequency 18 the

value of the ratio, h/e. (see Figure 1)
The photoelectric effect is almost instantaneous. Once the light

shines on the cathode, photoelectrons will be emitted in less than a nanosecond.
The apparatus has several important features:

 The current amplifier has high sensitivity and is very stable in order to improve the
accuracy of the measurement.
 The photoelectric tube has low levels of dark current and anode reverse current.
The optical filters are of high quality in order to avoid an error due to interference between
different spectral lines
Experiment 1
Measuring and Calculating Planck’s constant, h
Preparation Before Measurement
1. Cover the window of the Mercury Light Source enclosure with the Mercury Lamp Cap
from the optical filters box. Cover the window of the photodiode enclosure with
photodiode cap from the optical filters box.
2. On the h/e Power supply, turn on POWER and MERCURY LAMP. On the Photoelectric
Effect Apparatus, push in the POWER button to the ON position.
3. Allow the light source and the apparatus to warm up for 20 minutes.
4. On the apparatus, set the VOLTAGE to -2……. +2V. Turn the CURRENT RANGES switch to
10-13.
5. To set the current amplifier to zero, first disconnect the ‘A’, ’K’, and ‘down arrow’
(GROUND) cables from the back panel of the apparatus.
6. Press the PHOTOTUBE SIGNAL button in to CALIBRATION.
7. Adjust the CURRENT CALIBRATION knob until the current is zero.
8. Press the PHOTOTUBE SIGNAL button to MEASURE.
9. Reconnect the ‘A’, ’K’, and ‘down arrow’ (GROUND) cables to the back of the apparatus.
Measurement
1. Uncover the window of the photodiode enclosure. Place the 4 mm diameter aperture
and the 365 nm filter onto the window of the enclosure. (see side bar note)
2. Uncover the window of the mercury light source. Spectral lines of 365 nm wavelength
will shine on the cathode in the phototube.
3. Adjust the VOLTAGE ADJUST knob until the current on the ammeter is zero.
4. Record the magnitude of the stopping potential for the 365 nm wavelength in Table 1.
5. Cover the window of the mercury light source.
6. Replace the 365 nm filter with the 405 nm filter.
7. Uncover the window of the Mercury Light Source Spectral lines of 405 nm wavelength
will shine on the cathode in the phototube.
8. Adjust the VOLTAGE ADJUST knob until the current on the ammeter is zero.
9. Record the magnitude of the stopping potential for the 365 nm wavelength in Table 1.
10. Cover the window of the mercury light source.
11. Repeat the measurement procedure for the other filters. Record the magnitude of the
stopping potential for each wavelength in Table 1.
Table 1: Stopping Potential of Spectral lines, 4mm diameter Aperture
ITEM 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength, λ(nm) 365.0 404.7 435.8 546.1 577.0
Frequency, ν=c/λ, 8.214 7.408 6.879 5.49 5.196

(×1014Hz)
Stopping Potential, V(V)
Calculating
1. Plot a graph of Stopping Potential (V) versus Frequency (×1014Hz).
2. Find the slope the best-fit line through the data points on the Stopping Potential (V)
versus Frequency (×1014Hz) graph.
3. Record the calculated slope and use it to calculate the value of Plank’s constant, h
Slope=……………………………………
ℎ = 𝑒 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ⋯ … … … … … … … … … ….
4. Estimate the error in the slope and round your result to the appropriate value. Compare
your calculated value of h to the value h0=6.626×10-34 J.s
𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = | | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒉𝟎
5. Record your percent difference=…………………………………………………….
Questions
1. How does your calculated value of h compare to the accepted value?
2. What do you think may account for the difference-if any- between your calculated value
of h and the accepted value?
3. How can you find the value of the work function from the graph of stopping potential
versus frequency?
Extension
Repeat the data measurement and analysis the other two apertures in the OPTICAL FILTERS box
ITEM 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength, λ(nm) 365.0 404.7 435.8 546.1 577.0
Frequency, ν=c/λ, 8.214 7.408 6.879 5.49 5.196

14
(×10 Hz)
Stopping Potential, V(V)
ITEM 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength, λ(nm) 365.0 404.7 435.8 546.1 577.0
Frequency, ν=c/λ, 8.214 7.408 6.879 5.49 5.196

(×1014Hz)
Stopping Potential,
V(V)
Questions
1. How does your calculated value of h for each different aperture compare to the
accepted value h0=6.626×10-34 J.s?
2. How does light intensity affect the stopping potential?
REFERENCES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. www.markedbyteachers.com/.../to-determine- 14. https://www.quora.com/How-can-I-check-a-
the-refractive-index-of glass capacitor-with-a-multimeter
2. A text book of Physics by Dr. R. Ramachandra 15. www.tek.com/dl/75W_28152_0_MR_Letter.pdf
and Dr. A.H Rama Rao. · PDF file
3. A practical manual copy of a text book of Physics 16. www.radio-electronics.com/info/t_and_m/lcr-
by Dr. R. Ramachandra and Dr. A.H Rama Rao. meter/basics-tutorial.php
4. http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=281&sim= 17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor
1513&cnt=2 18. www.academia.edu/8165147/A_Textbook_of_E
5. www.pa.msu.edu/courses/2002spring/PHY252/ lectrical_Technology_Vol-I...
Prism.pdf · 19. https://nationalmaglab.org/.../try-at-
6. www.physics.brocku.ca/Courses/2P51/lab- home/draw-magnetic-field-lines
manual/Prism/prism.pdf 20. www.youtube.com/watch?v=FqswmWfT56I
7. www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a- 21. www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/...forces/magnets_elect
level/science/an-experiment-to
ric_effects/revision/3
8. physicsmax.com/measure-specific-heat-
22. https://www.boundless.com/.../magnetic-field-
capacity-liquid-8009
lines-549-6686
9. hyperphysics.phy-
23. To set up a cathode ray oscilloscope
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Class/PhSciLab/restube2.ht
24. www.best-microcontroller-projects.com/how-
ml
to-use-an-oscilloscope.html
10. www.academia.edu/7330066/Resonance_of_a_
25. https://project-
Closed_Air_Column
11. https://www.coursehero.com/file/12704937/Ph physicsteaching.web.cern.ch/.../cathode-ray-
ys-115l-Fall-2015-Lab tube.pdf
12. www.jiskha.com/search/index.cgi?query=diffrac 26. www.aurora.ac.in/images/pdf/departments/ece
tion+grating -downloads/academic
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium- 27. talkingelectronics.com/projects/Inductor/Induct
vapor_lamp or-3.html

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ACTIVITY PAGE

8 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) – Part-II

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Fig. 1.2 Reflection and refraction of a light

Fig. 1.3 Reflection of light

Fig.1.4 Specular and diffuse reflections.

ii. Diffuse Reflection

Why does a rough surface give diffused beam of light?

Why does the bending of light occur?

Fig.1.7 Example of refraction of light.

Partial reflection and partial refraction

If a beam of light falls on the

Fig.1.8 Partial reflection and refraction at the

Thus, the Snell's Law may be written as

i. the nature of the pair of media 1 and 2

v1  f1 and v2  f2

As v1 ≠ v2 , it follows that λ1 ≠ λ 2. From these equations, a relationship between refractive

Real depth, OA = reading of A – reading of O

Displacement of the point

Caution Broken glass

7. Measure angle O’OQ. This is the angle of refraction.

Refractive index of glass (ng) was found to be ____________

FILL IN THE BLANKS.

6. In the experiment using the traveling microscope, is it possible to replace traveling

7. Differentiate between real depth and apparent depth.

PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES:

Fig. 1 Tuning fork

A sinusoidal wave can be used to represent a sound wave.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

Categories of Sound Waves

Frequency, Amplitude and Wavelength

Fig. 3. Traveling waves on a continuous string. Every segment, such as P

Wavelength (λ) – the distance between two successive waves

To derive an expression for the speed of wave;

THE SPEED OF SOUND

where: B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid

where: Y is the Young’s Modulus of the material

v = 5.1 x 103 m/s

T where: 331 m/s is the speed of air at 0°

Table 1. Speeds of Sound in Various Media

When a vibrating tuning fork is held over the

When this occurs, the forced frequency ¼𝜆 L

In more simple terms resonance occurs when

The best resonance occurs when the air column

Hence, when resonance occurs:

1) it produces sound wave continuously

When tuning forks are used, the choices of frequencies are:

DETERMINATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound in air can be obtained using one of

a) Using fixed frequency values and varying the

b) Using fixed lengths of air column and varying the

Signal generators can be used in (a) and (b) but tuning

3. Handle the glass wares carefully.

SN Apparatus Quantity Hazard

Caution Broken glass

2. Suggest possible reasons for any differences in the two values.

For diffraction at a slit of width a, the angle of diffraction

The width of the central maximum is