Radio Wave Propagation

Radio Wave Propagation

Free-Space

vs

Earth’s Atmosphere
 The Earth’s atmosphere introduces losses and
impairments to the signal that are not
encountered in a vacuum, resulting to a velocity
just approximately equal to the velocity of light.
 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Discovery:

1857:
James Clerk Maxwell build
the mathematical explanation
of the behavior and
characteristics of
electromagnetic waves.
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (1865)
a. The E and H fields travel through space at the speed of light
b. The unification of light and electrical phenomena
led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves

Part I. Introductory
Part II. Electromagnetic Induction
Part III. General Equations of the
Electromagnetic Field
Part IV. Mechanical Actions in the Field
Part V. Theory of Condensers
Part VI. Electromagnetic Theory of Light
Part VII. Calculation of the Coefficients
of Electromagnetic Induction
Discovery:
• 1887: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discover the radio wave
which is also known as the “Hertzian wave.” At
present, these waves are also known as tranverse
electromagnetic waves. In recognition of his work,
the unit of frequency - one cycle per second - is
named the “hertz”, in honor of Heinrich Hertz.
The Discovery of Electromagnetic Radiation
1886: For his radio wave transmitter Hertz used a
high voltage induction coil, a condenser (capacitor,
Leyden jar) and a spark gap - whose poles on either
side are formed by spheres of 2 cm radius - to cause
a spark discharge between the spark gap’s poles
oscillating at a frequency determined by the values
of the capacitor and the induction coil.
Hertz used a piece of copper wire, 1 mm thick, bent into a
circle of 7.5 cm diameter, with a small brass sphere on one
end, and the other end of the wire was pointed, with the
point near the sphere. He added a screw mechanism so that
the point could be moved very close to the sphere in a
controlled fashion. This "receiver" was designed so that
current oscillating back and forth in the wire would have a
natural period close to that of the "transmitter”. The presence
of oscillating charge in the receiver would be signaled by
sparks across the (tiny) gap.
 Highlights of Hertz’s Experiment
❖ Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s theories about the existence of
electromagnetic radiation.

❖ Hertz measured the velocity of electromagnetic radiation and

found it to be the same as the light’s velocity.

❖ He also showed that the nature of radio waves’ reflection and

refraction was the same as those of light, and established
beyond any doubt that light is a form of electromagnetic
radiation obeying the Maxwell equations.

❖ His experiments soon trigger the invention of the wireless

telegraph and radio by Marconi and others and TV.
 Characteristics of Radio Wave
• The frequency ranges from 1 Hz to 300 GHz.
• The basic shape of the carrier wave generated
is that of a sinewave.
• Characteristics:
– cycle
– frequency
– harmonics
– period
– wavelength
– velocity
• It can pass through any good dielectric.
• It can reflect from good conductors.
• It is refracted as it pass from one medium to another.
• It is diffracted as it hits an edge.
• No physical motion of the medium is required during propagation.
•

It is consists of electric field and magnetic field that has

definite ratio known as characteristic impedance.
Its wavefront has waves that have the same
phase.
• Huygen’s Principle
(Christian Huygens)

“ Each point on a
wavefront maybe
regarded as a new
source of secondary
wavelets.”
• Magnetic Field ( H )
Magnetic field is an invisible force field produced by magnets.

Where : H = At / m
d = distance from wire (m)
Pt = transmitted power (W)

• Electric Field (E )
Electric field is an invisible force field produced by a difference
in voltage potentials

Where: E = V/m
q = charge between conductors ( C )
ε = permittivity (F/m)
 Polarization of Radio Wave
Polarization of the radio wavefront is
determined by the direction of the electric field of
the wave with respect to earth.

• Factors affecting the polarization:

atmospheric conditions,
hills,
buildings,
towers
etc.
Linear Polarization : the electric field has
unvarying direction
* horizontal and vertical polarization
Random or Nonlinear Polarization : the electric
field has varying direction
* circular and elliptical polarization
Characteristic Impedance (Z)
 Problem
• The velocity of the radio wave is 2 x 108 m/s.
What is the characteristic impedance of the
medium through which the radio wave
travels?
 Problem
• The characteristic impedance of the radio
wave in a nonmagnetic medium is 115πΩ .
Give some inferences.
 Measurement of Signal Strength
Power Density (P)
It is the amount of power that flows through each square meter
of a surface perpendicular to the direction of travel.
Where: Pt = total power (W)
r or d= distance from the antenna (m)

Considering transmit antenna gain (Gt)

 Problem
• The dielectric strength of air is about 2.5
mV/m. Arcing is likely to take place at field
strength greater than that. What is the
maximum power density of an
electromagnetic wave in air?
 Problem
• The power supplied to an antenna with 3dB
gain is 20W. What is the power density and
electric field strength 1 km away?
 Problem
• If 4kW in antenna produces 50 µV/m in a
receiving antenna, a 16kW will produce
_________ µV/m.
 Attenuation or Loss

Inverse-square Law : it states that power

density is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the source. (P α 1/ r2 )

As distance increases from the source, power

density and electric field strength decrease. The
reduction in their strengths is called attenuation
or loss primarily due to absorption by the
medium.
 Problem #6
• If the distance between the transmitter and
receiver is reduced to one-half of its original
value, what effect does this have on the
power density?
Properties of Radio Wave Propagation
Properties of Radio Wave Propagation
1. REFLECTION – the ability of EM wave to
bounce off a relatively smooth surface
 Specular or Smooth Surface Reflection

A mirror-like reflection from a surface, in which

signal from a single incoming direction is reflected
into a single outgoing direction.
 Corner Reflection
It uses a corner reflector that is mutually
perpendicular, intersecting flat surfaces, which
reflects signal back directly towards the source,
but shifted.
 Parabolic Reflection

It is used to collect energy from a distant and bring

it to a common focal point.
 Diffuse or Scattered Reflection
It is the reflection of light from a surface such
that an incident ray is reflected at many angles
rather than at just one angle.
2. REFRACTION – the ability of EM wave to bend
when the density of the path it travels changes
 Problem
A radiowave moves from air to glass. Its
angle of incidence is 15 degrees. What is
the angle of refraction?
3. DIFFRACTION – the ability of EM wave to
bend when partially obstructed by an edge.
4. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION – the ability of
the EM wave to travel in a straight path.
5. INTERFERENCE – the ability of two EM waves
to intermix when they cross each other’s path.
 Terrestrial Propagation of Waves
When an electromagnetic wave is sent out from an
antenna, part of the radiated energy travels along or near the
surface of the earth, and another part travels from the antenna
upward into space.
 Frequency Limits
Groundwave Propagation: up to 3 MHz

Sky wave Propagation: 3 to 30 MHz

Space wave Propagation: above 30 MHz

A. Ground-wave / Surface Wave Propagation

a. It follows the Earth’s surface

b. It is used for frequency less than 3 MHz
c. It is the primary mode of propagation in the VLF, LF and MF
bands
d. The waves are vertically polarized because when the electric
field is horizontally polarized, it is effectively short-circuited by
the conductivity of the earth.
e. As distance from the transmitter increases, tilting also
increases.
f. It provides reliable communication that is almost independent
of weather and solar activity.
g. It attenuates quickly above 3 MHz.
h. Its disadvantage is the lack of spectrum space.
i. It requires high power and large antennas.
 Relative Conductivity of Earth Surfaces

Surface Condition
Seawater Good
Loamy Soil Fair
Large bodies of freshwater Fair
Rocky Terrain Poor
Desert Poor
Jungle Unusable
 B. Line-of-sight / Space Wave / Tropospheric / Direct
Wave Propagation

a. It is for frequency above 30 MHz (HF, VHF, UHF)

b. The communication distance is limited by the Earth’s
curvature.
c. The higher the antenna the better is the propagation.
d. Problems in LOS: reflection, diffraction from obstacles in the
path, multipath distortion
Where: d = radio horizon
ht = height of transmitting antenna
hr = height of receiving antenna
 Problem
• A taxi company uses a central dispatcher with
an antenna at the top of a 30m tower, to
communicate with taxicabs. The taxi antenna
are on the roofs of the cars approximately 2
meters above the ground. Calculate the
maximum communication distance
a. between the dispatcher and a taxi
b. between two taxis
C. Sky Wave or Ionospheric Propagation
Layers of the Ionosphere

D layer – 30 to 60mi
E layer – 60 to 85mi or 60 to 90 mi
(Kenelly-Heaviside Layer)
F1 layer – 85 to 155mi or 90 to 180 mi
F2 layer – 155 to 220mi or 180 to 250 mi
a. for frequency 3 to 30 MHz

b. layers: D, E, F1 and F2

@ daytime:
D & E absorb frequency below 8 – 10 MHz

F1 and F2 refract frequency above 8 – 10 MHz up to 30 MHz

@ nighttime:
D and E disappear allowing lower frequency to reach F layer
without being absorbed

c. It allows communication over great distances with simple

equipment and reasonable power level of 100 W to a few kW.
Factors Affecting the Ability of the Ionosphere
to Refract Radio Waves

1. Ion Density
2. Frequency of the radio wave
3. Angle of Radiation/Termination
2. Frequency of the radio wave : inversely
proportional to refraction
3. Angle of Radiation (AOR) or Angle of
Termination (AOT) : directly proportional to
refraction
 Sky Wave Propagation Parameters
1. Virtual Height
2. Critical Frequency
3. Critical Angle
4. Maximum Usable Frequency
5. Optimum Working Frequency
6. Lowest Usable Frequency
7. Gyrofrequency
8. Skip Distance
9. Skip Zone
10. Hop
11. Ionospheric Sounding
1. Virtual Height – the apparent height of the
ionized layer
hv = d tanӨi
2

hv = Vc T
2
d = distance between Tx & Rx
Өi = angle of incidence
Vc = light velocity
T =round trip propagation time
2. Critical Frequency – the highest frequency that can
be propagated directly upward and still be returned to
Earth by the ionosphere

fc = MUF cos Өi MUF = maximum usable frequency

fc = 9√ Nmax Nmax = maximum number of free
electrons per cubic meter
3. Critical Angle – the vertical angle at which the
wave can be propagated and still be refracted
back by the ionosphere
4. Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) : the highest
frequency that returns to Earth over a given path;
normal value is 8 to 35 MHz or up to 50 MHz

MUF = fc sec θi

Where: fc = critical frequency

θi = angle of incidence
 Factors Affecting the Maximum Usable Frequency
• Location and Geography – caused by the varying intensity of
the solar radiation striking the ionosphere at different
latitudes; intensity is greatest in regions where the sun is
directly overhead
• Seasonal Variations – caused by the constantly changing
position of any point on earth relative to the sun as the earth
orbits the sun (Earth’s revolution); it is strongest in summer
• Diurnal Variations – the hour-to-hour changes in the
various ionospheric layers caused by the rotation of
the earth around its axis (Earth’s rotation); it is
maximum at daytime and minimum at nighttime

• Cyclical variations – ionization is brought about by

solar cycle like the sunspot activities
5. Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
the best frequency used to operate a
skywave link; 85 % of MUF

6. Lowest Usable Frequency : the lower

limit of the range of frequency that provide
useful communication between two given
points by ionospheric refraction
7.Gyrofrequency : the frequency that
provides path of the electrons to become a
very wide single loop when electron is
moving in an ionized layer and taking a helix
path

8. Skip distance : the minimum distance

over which communication at a given
frequency can be established; use the
highest frequency and the smallest angle
9. Skip zone – area close to the transmitter
where the signal cannot be received
10. Hop – the reflection of a wave from
ionosphere to earth
11. Ionospheric Sounding – a signal is sent
straight up and the frequency is gradually
increased to the critical frequency that will
return the signal to earth in vertical direction
 IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES
1. Sunspot
2. Solar Flux
3. Solar Flare
4. Sudden Ionosphere Disturbance
5. Geomagnetic Disturbance
6. Ionosphere Storms
Sunspots :
• The tendency of the sun to have grayish-black
blemishes, at random places on its fiery surfaces;
happens as an 11-year cycle; affects propagation
because there is a duct correlation between sunspot
activity and ionization
• Even though data has been recorded on sunspot
activity for over 250 years, the cause for the
phenomena is not yet known.
 Relative Sunspot Number
A measure of sunspot activity, computed from the formula:
R = k(10g + f)
where: R = the relative sunspot number
f = the number of individual spots
g = number of groups of spots
k = a factor that varies with the observer (his or her
personal equation)
R is also known as sunspot number; sunspot relative number;
Wolf number; Wolf-Wolfer number; Zurich number.
Solar Flux :
• the radio wave emission of the sun on all frequencies
because of its tremendous amount of energy
• the measure of the energy received per unit time,
per unit area, per unit frequency interval that is used
in determining current propagation conditions
• It is recorded as Solar Flux Index
Solar Flares :
• A sudden eruption on the sun that causes high-speed
atomic particles to be ejected far into space that
results in dramatic ionization of the thin atmosphere
• A solar flare can emit intense UV radiation hitting the
earth within 8 minutes after the event. Particles from
the flare arrive in the earth’s upper atmosphere from
an hour to about 2 days later.
Sudden Ionosphere Disturbance (SID):
• A SID is a blackout of HF sky wave
communications that occurs after a solar
flare.

• A large amount of UV radiation leaves the

sun at the speed of light and arrives 8
minutes later.

• The D-Layer rapidly becomes a radio wave

absorber. Depending on the “attack” angle,
a SID could last from a few minutes to a few
hours.
Geomagnetic Disturbance
• The result of the dramatic change in the
earth’s magnetic field over a short period of
time that usually occur in areas greater than 45
degrees latitude.
Ionosphere Storms
Solar activity such as flares and coronal mass ejections often produce large
variations in the particle and electromagnetic radiation incident upon the
earth. Such variations can, in turn, lead to disturbances of the "quiet-time"
magnetosphere and ionosphere. These disturbances, when affecting the
ionosphere are known as ionospheric storms, tend to generate large
disturbances in ionospheric density distribution, total electron content, and
the ionospheric current system. Ionospheric storms have important terrestrial
consequences such as disrupting satellite communications and interrupting
the flow of electrical energy over power grids.
Maunder Minimum : a long period with a lack
of any solar activity
The Maunder Minimum, also known as the "prolonged
sunspot minimum," is the name used for the period
starting in about 1645 and continuing to about 1715
when sunspots became exceedingly rare.
D. Scatter Propagation Modes
Characteristics of Scattered Signals
a. Too far for ground wave – too near for sky
wave
b. A wavering sound due to multiple arrivals of
the signal
c. the sound is distorted due to multiple path
signals
d. Usually, received signals are weak
 Kinds of Scatter Propagation
a. Tropospheric Scatter / Forward Scatter/
Troposcatter Propagation
b. Ionospheric Scatter / Ionoscatter
c. Backscatter Propagation
d. Sidescatter Propagation
e. Ducting
a. Tropospheric Scatter / Forward Scatter/
Troposcatter Propagation
• the least method of propagation that is used for
frequency 350 MHz to 10 GHz; provides multi-
channel telephone links

• The transmitting antenna is aimed in the direction of

the receiver, but the receiver is over the horizon

• Most of the transmitted energy simply continues on

into space, but a small portion of it is scattered, and
a small fraction of the scattered energy reaches the
receiver
• Requires larger transmitter power, high gain antenna
and sensitive receivers.
• It can reduce fading by spatial diversity at both ends,
each station with at least 2 antennas separated by
100 times or more
b. Ionospheric Scatter / Ionoscatter - for
frequency above MUF and the scattering
medium is the E layer; for printing telegraph
channel.
c. Backscatter Propagation - propagates via the
E and F layer; fluttering and fading is evident
d. Sidescatter Propagation – for 14 MHz band; used as
a replacement where there is a large window between
the MUF and the LUF
e. Ducting – the transmitter and receiver are in duct
which has a high refractive index; signal propagates
over long distances by reflecting from earth and
refracting from super refractive layer
E. Minor Propagation Modes
a. Auroral propagation
A beautiful display of ionized
clouds in the northern hemisphere
called the Aurora Borealis is also
propagation enhancing.

The Aurora is formed by ionized

gasses in the upper atmosphere
being concentrated by the earth’s
magnetic poles.

This mode supports great propagation

on 50 and 144 MHz.

Used for Morse Code propagation

b. Sporadic – E propagation – a region in the E-layer that provides unexpected
improvement in long distance transmission because of the sunspot and solar flare;
provides single hop with maximum range of 1400mi and double-hop to 1400 –
2500mi
It occurs most predominately during June and July in the North American
Hemisphere.
It concentrates in the frequency range of 50 MHz but is responsible for improved
propagation on 28MHz and 144MHz.
c. Gray – line propagation – band around the earth
between the sunlight portion and darkness and
provides efficient communication; also called
terminator and twilight zone
d. Meteor- burst propagation – propagation of VHF and
UHF waves through the ionization trails by meteors
entering the Earth’s atmosphere
 SIGNAL FADING
Fading is the reduction in signal strength at the
receiver or a random variation in the received
signal

Classification of fading according to duration of

variation in signal strength:
a. Rapid fluctuations
b. Short term fluctuations
c. Long term fluctuations
Types of Fading:
a. Selective Fading
b. Interference Fading
c. Absorption Fading
d. Polarization Fading
e. Skip Fading
Causes of Signal Fading:
1. Reflection
Solution: Reduce the effect of reflection
a. Survey the proposed route.
b. Adjust the transmitter and receiver antenna
height so that any reflection takes place in
wooded areas or rough terrain where the
reflected signal will be diffuse and become weak
c. Use frequency diversity if the path is over a
reflective surface such as desert or water.
Frequency diversity is transmitting same
information in more than 1 carrier frequency.
d. Use spatial diversity where two antennas are
usually mounted one above the other on the
same tower, so that the difference between the
direct and reflected path length is different for
the two antennas.
2. Diffraction from obstacles in the path
Advantage: allows reception in the far side
of an obstruction
Disadvantage: cause problems when the
direct wave and the diffracted
wave have opposite phase and tend to
cancel
Solution: arrange for the direct and refracted
signals to be in phase by surveying the
proposed route and adjusting the
transmitting and receiving antenna heights
to achieve the desired result
3. Multipath Distortion
The signal reflects from large objects like
hills or buildings that causes not only phase
cancellation but also significant time difference
between the direct and reflected waves

Solution: use directional receiving antenna

aimed in the direction of the direct
signal and use a fixed receiver
FADE MARGIN
 FADE MARGIN
• It is an expression for how much margin in dB
there is between the received signal strength
level and the receiver sensitivity of the radio.

• It is the amount by which a received signal

level may be reduced without causing system
performance to fall below a specified
threshold value.
Fm = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) – 10 log (1-R) -70

Where: Fm = Fade margin (dB)

30 log D = multipath effect
10 log (6ABf) = terrain sensitivity
10 log (1-R) = reliability objectives
70 = constant
D = distance (km)
f = frequency (GHz)
R = reliability (dB)
1 - R = reliability objective for a one-way 400 km
route
A = roughness factor
4 – over water or a very smooth terrain
1 – over an average terrain
0.25 – over a very rough mountainous
terrain
B = factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual
probability
1 – to convert to an annual availability to a
worst-month basis
0.5 – for hot humid areas
0.25 – for average inland areas
0.125 – for very dry or mountainous areas
PATH LOSS OR FREE SPACE LOSS
 PATH LOSS OR FREE SPACE LOSS
Path loss (or path attenuation) is the reduction in power density
(attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates
through space.

Path loss is a major component in the analysis and design of the

link budget of a telecommunication system.

Path loss increases with higher frequencies.

Affecters of Path Loss

– Seasons - Rain
– Clouds - Snow
– Lightning - Fog
Path Loss or Free Space Loss
The End....