LECTURE # 9

Sets Continued
REFLEXIVE RELATION:
Let R be a relation on a set A. R is reflexive if, and only if, for all a ∈ A,
(a, a) ∈R. Or equivalently aRa.
That is, each element of A is related to itself.
REMARK
R is not reflexive iff there is an element “a” in A such that
(a, a) ∉R. That is, some element “a” of A is not related to itself.
EXAMPLE:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1,R2, R3, R4 on A as follows:
R1 = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (2, 2), (4, 4)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3)}
R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R4 = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 4)}
Then,
R1 is reflexive, since (a, a) ∈R1 for all a ∈A.
R2 is not reflexive, because (4, 4) ∉R2.
R3 is reflexive, since (a, a) ∈R3 for all a ∈A.
R4 is not reflexive, because (1, 1) ∉R4, (3, 3) ∉R4
DIRECTED GRAPH OF A REFLEXIVE RELATION:
The directed graph of every reflexive relation includes an arrow from every point
to the point itself (i.e., a loop).
EXAMPLE :
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1, R2, R3, and R4 on A by

R1 = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (2, 2), (4, 4)}

R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3)}
R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R4 = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 4)}

Then their directed graphs are

 1 2
1 2

4 3
R1 is reflexive because at
every point of the set A we 4 3
have a loop in the graph.
R2 is not reflexive, as there
is no loop at 4.
1 2
1 2

4
3
4 3
R4 is not reflexive, as there are
R3 is reflexive no loops at 1and 3.
MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF A REFLEXIVE RELATION:
Let A = {a1, a2, …, an}. A Relation R on A is reflexive if and only if
(ai, aj) ∈R ∀ i=1,2, …,n.
Accordingly, R is reflexive if all the elements on the main diagonal of the matrix
M representing R are equal to 1.
EXAMPLE:
The relation R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,2), (3,3)} on A = {1,2,3}
represented by the following matrix M, is reflexive.
1 2 3
1 ⎡1 0 1⎤
M = 2 ⎢⎢0 1 0⎥⎥
3 ⎢⎣0 1 1⎥⎦
SYMMETRIC RELATION

Let R be a relation on a set A. R is symmetric if, and only if,

for all a, b ∈ A, if (a, b) ∈R then (b, a) ∈R.
That is, if aRb then bRa.

REMARK
R is not symmetric iff there are elements a and b in A such that
(a, b) ∈R but (b, a) ∉R.
 EXAMPLE

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1, R2, R3, and R4on A as
follows.
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4,2)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
R4 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3), (4, 4)}

Then R1 is symmetric because for every order pair (a,b)in R1awe have (b,a) in R1for
example we have (1,3)in R1 the we have (3,1) in R1 similarly all other ordered pairs can be
cheacked.
R2 is also symmetric symmetric we say it is vacuously true.
R3 is not symmetric, because (2,3) ∈ R3 but (3,2) ∉ R3.
R4 is not symmetric because (4,3) ∈ R4 but (3,4) ∉ R4.

DIRECTED GRAPH OF A SYMMETRIC RELATION

For a symmetric directed graph whenever there is an arrow going from one point
of the graph to a second, there is an arrow going from the second point back to
the first.

EXAMPLE

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1, R2, R3, and R4

on A by the directed graphs:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4,2)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
R4= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
 2
1 1 2

4
3 4 3
R1 is symmetric R2 is symmetric

1
2
1
2

4
3 4 3

R3 is not symmetric since there R4 is not symmetric since

are arrows from 2 to 3 and from there is an arrow from 4 to 3
3 to 4 but not conversely but no arrow from 3 to 4

MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF A SYMMETRIC RELATION

Let
A = {a1, a2, …, an}.
A relation R on A is symmetric if and only if for all
ai, aj ∈ A, if (ai, aj) ∈R then (aj, ai)∈R.
Accordingly, R is symmetric if the
elements in the ith row are the same as the elements in the ith column of the matrix
t
M representing R. More precisely, M is a symmetric matrix.i.e. M = M

EXAMPLE

The relation R = {(1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,3)}

 on A = {1,2,3} represented by the following matrix M is symmetric.
1 2 3
1 ⎡0 0 1 ⎤
M = 2 ⎢⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥
3 ⎢⎣1 0 1 ⎥⎦

TRANSITIVE RELATION

Let R be a relation on a set A.R is transitive if and only if for all a, b, c ∈A,
if (a, b) ∈R and (b, c) ∈R then (a, c) ∈R.
That is, if aRb and bRc then aRc.
In words, if any one element is related to a second
and that second element is related to a third, then the first is related to the third.
Note that the “first”, “second” and “third” elements need not to be distinct.

REMARK
R is not transitive iff there are elements a, b, c in A such that
If (a,b) ∈R and (b,c) ∈R but (a,c) ∉R.

EXAMPLE
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1, R2 and R3 on
A as follows:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
R3 = {(2, 1), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3,4)}
Then R1 is transitive because (1, 1), (1, 2) are in R then to be transitive relation (1,2)
must be there and it belongs to R Similarly for other order pairs.
R2 is not transitive since (1,2) and (2,3) ∈ R2 but (1,3) ∉ R2.
R3 is transitive.

DIRECTED GRAPH OF A TRANSITIVE RELATION

For a transitive directed graph, whenever there is an arrow going from one point
to the second, and from the second to the third, there is an arrow going directly from
the first to the third.

EXAMPLE
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define relations R1, R2 and R3 on A by the
directed graphs:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
R2 = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
R3 = {(2, 1), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3,4)}
 1 1 2
2

4 4 3
3
R1 is transitive R2 is not transitive since there is
an arrow from 1 to 2 and from 2
2 to 3 but no arrow from 1 to 3
1 directly

4
3
R3 is transitive

EXERCISE:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and define the null relation φ and universal relation
A ×A on A. Test these relations for reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties.
SOLUTION:

Reflexive
(i) ∅ is not reflexive since (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4) ∉ ∅.
(ii) A × A is reflexive since (a,a) ∈ A × A for all a ∈ A.
Symmetric
(i) For the null relation ∅ on A to be symmetric, it must satisfy
the implication:
if (a,b) ∈ ∅ then (a, b) ∈ ∅.
Since (a, b) ∈ ∅ is never true, the implication is vacuously true or true by default.
Hence ∅ is symmetric.
(ii) The universal relation A × A is symmetric, for it contains
all ordered pairs of elements of A. Thus,
if (a, b) ∈ A × A then (b, a) ∈ A × A for all a, b in A.
Transitive
(i) The null relation ∅ on A is transitive, because the
implication.
if (a, b) ∈ ∅ and (b, c) ∈ ∅ then (a, c) ∈ ∅ is true by default,
since the condition (a, b) ∈ ∅ is always false.
(i) The universal relation A × A is transitive for it contains all ordered pairs of
elements of A.
Accordingly, if (a, b) ∈ A × A and (b, c) ∈ A × A then (a, c) ∈ A × A as well.
EXERCISE:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and
R = {(0,2), (1,1), (2,0)} be a relation on A.
1. Is R reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?
2. Which ordered pairs are needed in R to make it a reflexive and transitive relation.
SOLUTION:
1. R is not reflexive, since 0 ∈ A but (0, 0) ∉R and also 2 ∈ A but (2, 2)
∉R.
R is clearly symmetric.
R is not transitive, since (0, 2) & (2, 0) ∈ R but (0, 0) ∉R.
2. For R to be reflexive, it must contain ordered pairs (0,0) and (2,2).
For R to be transitive,
we note (0,2) and (2,0) ∈ but (0,0) ∉R.
Also (2,0) and (0,2) ∈R but (2,2)∉R.
Hence (0,0) and (2,2). Are needed in R to make it a transitive relation.
EXERCISE:
Define a relation L on the set of real numbers R be defined as follows:
for all x, y ∈R, x L y ⇔ x < y.
a. Is L reflexive?
b. Is L symmetric?
c. Is L transitive?
SOLUTION:
a. L is not reflexive, because x < x for any real number x.
(e.g. 1 < 1)
b. L is not symmetric, because for all x, y ∈R, if
x < y then y < x
(e.g. 0 < 1 but 1 < 0)
c. L is transitive, because for all, x, y, z ∈R, if x < y
and y < z, then x < z.
(by transitive law of order of real numbers).
EXERCISE:
+
Define a relation R on the set of positive integers Z as follows:
for all a, b ∈Z+, a R b iff a × b is odd.
Determine whether the relation is
a. reflexive b. symmetric c. transitive
SOLUTION:
Firstly, recall that the product of two positive integers is
odd if and only if both of them are odd.
a. reflexive
R is not reflexive, because 2 ∈ Z+ but 2 R 2
for 2 × 2 = 4 which is not odd.
 b. symmetric
R is symmetric, because
if a R b then a × b is odd or equivalently b × a is odd
( b × a = a × b) ⇒ b R a.
c. transitive
R is transitive, because if a R b then a × b is odd
⇒ both “a” and “b” are odd. Also bRc means b × c is odd
⇒ both “b” and “c” are odd.
Now if aRb and bRc, then all of a, b, c are odd and so a × c is odd. Consequently
aRc.
EXERCISE:
Let “D” be the “divides” relation on Z defined as:
for all m, n ∈Z, m D n⇔ m|n
Determine whether D is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. Justify your answer.
SOLUTION:

Reflexive
Let m ∈Z, since every integer divides itself so m|m ∀ m ∈Z therefore m D m ∀ m ∈Z
Accordingly D is reflexive

Symmetric
Let m, n ∈ Z and suppose m D n.
By definition of D, this means m|n (i.e.= an integer)
Clearly, then it is not necessary that = an integer.
Accordingly, if m D n then n D m, ∀ m, n ∈Z
Hence D is not symmetric.
Transitive
Let m, n, p ∈Z and suppose m D n and n D p.
Now m D n ⇒ m|n ⇒ = an integer.
Also n D p ⇒ n|p ⇒ = an integer.

We note = p * ⎛ =p(an
⎞ int) *⎛(an
n ⎞int)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
m = an int⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ m⎠
⇒ m|p and so mDp
Thus if mDn and nDp then mDp ∀ m, n, p ∈Z
Hence D is transitive.
EXERCISE
Let A be the set of people living in the world today. A binary relation R is
defined on A as follows:
for all p, q ∈A, pRq ⇔ p has the same first name as q.
Determine whether the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and/or transitive.

SOLUTION

a. Reflexive
Since every person has the same first name as his/her self. Hence for all
p ∈ A, pRp. Thus, R is reflexive.
b. Symmetric:
Let p, q ∈A and suppose pRq.
 ⇔ p has the same first name as q.
⇔ q has the same first name as p.
⇔ qRp
Thus if pRq then qRp ∀ p,q ∈A.
⇒ R is symmetric.
c. Transitive
Let p, q, s ∈A and suppose p R q and qRr.
Now pRq ⇔p has the same first name as q
and qRr ⇔ q has the same first name as r.
Consequently, p has the same first name as r.
⇔ pRr
Thus, if pRq and qRs then pRr, ∀ p, q, r ∈A.
Hence R is transitive.
EQUIVALENCE RELATION
Let A be a non-empty set and R a binary relation on A. R is an equivalence relation if,
and only if, R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
EXAMPLE
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1,1), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (4,4)}
be a binary relation on A.
Note that R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, hence an equivalence relation.
CONGRUENCES
Let m and n be integers and d be a positive integer. The notation
m ≡ n (mod d) means that
d | (m – n) {d divides m minus n}.There exists an integer k such that
(m – n) = d ⋅ k
EXAMPLE
c. Is 22 ≡ 1(mod 3)? b. Is –5 ≡ +10 (mod 3)?
d. Is 7 ≡ 7 (mod 3)? d. Is 14 ≡ 4 (mod 3)?
SOLUTION
a. Since 22-1 = 21 = 3×7.
Hence 3|(22-1), and so 22 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
b. Since – 5 – 10 = - 15 = 3 × (-5),
Hence 3|((-5)-10), and so - 5 ≡ 10 (mod 3)
c. Since 7 – 7 = 0 = 3 × 0
Hence 3|(7-7), and so 7 ≡ 7 (mod 3)
d. Since 14 – 4 = 10, and 3 / 10 because 10 ≠ 3⋅ k for any integer k.
Hence 14 ≡ 4 (mod 3).
EXERCISE
Define a relation R on the set of all integers Z as follows:
for all integers m and n, m R n ⇔ m ≡ n (mod 3)
Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
SOLUTION
1. R is reflexive.
R is reflexive iff for all m ∈Z, m R m.
By definition of R, this means that
For all m ∈Z, m ≡ m (mod 3)
Since m – m = 0 = 3 ×0.
Hence 3|(m-m), and so m ≡ m (mod 3)
⇔ mRm
 ⇒ R is reflexive.
2. R is symmetric.
R is symmetric iff for all m, n ∈Z
if m R n then n R m.
Now mRn ⇒ m≡n (mod 3)
⇒ 3|(m-n)
⇒ m-n = 3k, for some integer k.
⇒ n – m = 3(-k), -k ∈Z
⇒ 3|(n-m)
⇒ n ≡ m (mod 3)
⇒ nRm
Hence R is symmetric.
3. R is transitive
R is transitive iff for all m, n, p ∈Z,
if mRn and nRp then mRp
Now mRn and nRp means m ≡ n (mod 3) and n ≡ p (mod 3)
⇒ 3|(m-n) and 3|(n-p)
⇒ (m-n) = 3r and (n-p) = 3s for some r, s ∈Z
Adding these two equations, we get,
(m – n) + (n – p) = 3 r + 3 s
⇒ m – p = 3 (r + s),where r + s ∈Z
⇒ 3|(m – p)
⇒ m ≡ p (mod 3) ⇔ m Rp
Hence R is transitive. R being reflexive, symmetric and transitive, is an
equivalence relation.