DEBRE-BRHAN SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSTY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTEMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

A PROJECT PAPER SUBMITED TO IN PARTIAL FULLFULIMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCINCE
IN CHMICAL ENGENERRING

CHARACTERIZATION AND PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM

CASTOR SEED USING SODIUM HYDROXIDE AS A CATALYST.

PREPARED BY: -
ALEMITU GETAW
ATEFRACHEW SEYFU
TADESSE MUNYE
YIDENEKU YIBELITAL
ZEWIDITU BELAY

ADVISOR:
ENKUAHONE ABEBE (Assis prof)

JUNE, 2015
DEBRE-BRHAN, ETHIOPIA
ACKNOWLEDEGMENT
Praise to the almighty God who has guided us through and has given us strength of determination
to carry out this work.

At finishing of this journey, we realize that we did not do it alone; however we were surrounded
by caring people who encouraged, exhorted, and supported us to pursue the race. We would like
to take this space to acknowledge them.

First, we owe our profound gratitude to our responsive and supportive advisor associate prof
Enkuahone Abebe, who has been with us starting from the commencement up to the closure of
our work with his magnificent assistance and guidance.

We would like to acknowledge chemical engineering laboratory worker for supporting us on

laboratory equipment by giving detail instruction how we have to use it.

Furthermore; we would like to thank all the staffs and friends of the department of chemical
engineering at Debre Brhan University for their support and corporation.

Lastly, we are thankful from our bottom of heart to all of our family members, for their unending
empathy, support and love.
ABSTRACT
Oil can be produced from different raw materials like vegetables, castor seed, soya been & rape
seed. Castor oil is one of the most important oil that has diversified uses. After the crude castor
oil extracted, usually the residue is used for fertilizer. In this research work, oil is extracted using
solvent extraction technique and then used for synthesis of biodiesel by reacting with methanol
in the presence of sodium hydroxide catalyst.

The refined oil mainly characterized by physical parameters (density, color & specific gravity)
and with some chemical characteristics (pH, saponification number and acid value). The physical
analysis gives the following results; light yellow for color, 965 kg/m3 and 0.965 densities and
specific gravity respectively. At the same time, the data analysis gives us 0.869 mg of NaOH per
gram of castor oil (acid value) and 6.34 pH value at 21 oc then, biodiesel were synthesized by
reacting refined castor oil with methanol in the presence of NaOH catalyst.

Lastly, market study for biodiesel plant and design work with detail economic feasibility analysis
and rough social and environmental impacts have been assessed. Based on the market study
result, by taking 4.35% of the total demand, we arrived on decision of a plant capacity of 3,000
tons of biodiesel per annum. During a production of this capacity of biodiesel, it is possible to
get 6,014.97 tons of castor oilcake. The economical evaluation of the project shows that the plant
has payback period (2.3 years), breakeven point (30.5%), rate of return (28.5%), net present
value (113,004,200 ETB) and profitability index (2.6 >1), and hence all of these project
profitability measures indicates that the project is viable .Besides, the process is environmentally
friendly and it enables the farmers in arid areas to be involved in castor seed plantation which
again contributes for Carbon dioxide sink.
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURE
LIST OF ACRONYMS
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Biodiesel is the potential biofuel that can easily being produced from vegetable oil. Biodiesel has
become an interesting alternative fuel over conventional diesel for decades. Biodiesel is suitable
to be used in diesel engine due to the similar properties to conventional diesel in terms of power
and torque and none or very minor engine modification is required [1]. Moreover, biodiesel is
biodegradable which will results in less environmental impact upon accidental release to the
environment [2].

Biodiesel has many important technical advantages over conventional diesel such as inherent
lubricity, low toxicity, and derivation from a renewable and domestic feedstock, superior flash
point, negligible Sulphur content and lower exhaust emissions [3]. Biodiesel had been used
widely as a blend with diesel. The use of biodiesel as diesel blends will promote cleaner
emission with less soot particles and whiter smoke. It also helps in reducing engine wear by
lubrication and produces less Sulphur emission. A biodiesel lifecycle study in 1998 which was
jointly sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
concluded biodiesel reduces carbon dioxide emissions by 78 percent compared to petroleum
diesel. The CO2 released into the atmosphere when biodiesel burned is recycled by plants, which
produce more oxygen [4].
Among the common vegetable oils used as feedstock for the production of biodiesel are soybean,
rapeseed, castor, jatropha and palm oil. Castor oil is one of the promising feedstock for biodiesel
production. Castor oil is produced by means of extraction from castor bean. Castor oil is
distinguished by its high content (over 85%) of ricinoleic acid. No other vegetable oil contains so
high a proportion of fatty hydroxyacids. Castor oils have high molecular weight (298), low
melting point (5˚C) and very low solidification point (–12˚C to –18˚C) that make it industrially
useful, most of all it is has the highest and most stable viscosity of any vegetable oil [5].

The chemical structure of castor oil is of great interest because of the wide range of reactions it
affords to the oleo chemical industry and the unique chemicals that can be derived from it. These
derivatives are considerably superior to petrochemical products since they are from renewable
sources, bio-degradable and eco-friendly [6]. Recent research had concerns in the using of castor
oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production. As castor oil is non-edible, there is no issue of
competition with the food market and it can be the promising source of feedstock for biodiesel
production.

In this study, the base-based catalyzed transesterification of castor oil was carried out to produce
biodiesel from castor seed, to determine the optimum reaction condition like reaction
temperature, reaction time, catalyst concentration, and oil to alcohol molar ratio for the
production of castor biodiesel. Then, the fuel properties such as density, flash point and calorific
value was analyzed and compared to conventional diesel.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Biodiesel must be exploited from all possible alternatives to mitigate countries dependence on
petroleum imports that may cause toxicity and SO 2 emission. Also the price of petroleum
adversely affects its own role in economic growth of the country. Diesel is the most important
transport fuel in Ethiopia as practically all the commercial freight and public transport runs on it.

One main issue is that around 65% of Ethiopian export earnings are to pay for the import of
petroleum products. However, to import petrol diesel from abroad it may lead economic crisis
and environmental pollution. This pollution has been the cause of numerous health problems
including asthma and cancer. Therefore, in order to overcome these problems, research for
developing alternative biomass for bio-energy has become increasingly important. Hence, due to
its adaptability castor is widely distributed in Ethiopia and can grow on non-fertility soil than
other crops. So, Ethiopia has great opportunity to produce this crucial product. Castor oil’s
excellent solubility in methanol makes it ideal for biodiesel production that shows easy to
produce this fuel. Therefore; this project will address the problem of economic feasibility of
biodiesel depends on the price of crude petroleum, environmental friend and the cost of
transporting diesel over long distances to remote areas in the country.
 1.3. Objectives

1.3.1. General objectives

The objective of this study was to produce biodiesel from castor seed by using sodium hydroxide
as a catalyst.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

 To extract oil from castor seed and then produce biodiesel using oil
 To characterize castor seed oil.
 To determine the optimum conditions/parameters.
 To determine the biodiesel physicochemical properties.
 To estimate economic feasibility of producing biodiesel.

1.4. Significance of the study

The concept of substituting biodiesel produced from plants’ oils native to the country,
particularly inedible oils (castor seed oil), is novel to the country and indispensable to mitigate
the overwhelming energy problems in a sustainable way. Generally, the results of the study will
be used as base-line information for further studies.
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. History of Biodiesel
Despite being a relatively new fuel alternative, triglycerides have actually used in diesel engines
for decades. Dr. Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine in 1892, which he presented at the
Paris Exposition of 1900 [7]. Unbeknownst to those attending, the diesel engine presented ran
exclusively on peanut oil. Dr. Diesel had been approached by the French government to explore
the possibility of using vegetable oils as fuels. Although the diesel engine did run on peanut oil at
the exposition, several problems were discovered after having used peanut oil to power the
engine. These problems included the formation of deposits that increase friction and eventually
lead to wear of the engine. In addition, the high viscosity of peanut oil led to ignition lag and
reduced efficiency (less power per stroke), and a greater demand for fuel. Many suggestions
were made in an effort to improve diesel engine performance when using vegetable oils as fuel.
These suggestions included micro dilutions, catalytic cracking, thermal decomposition, dilution,
and transesterification. Micro dilutions would be a “transparent, thermodynamically stable
colloidal dispersion” made with vegetable oils, esters, and a co-solvent, or vegetable oils, an
alcohol, a surfactant, and a cetane improver [8].

Catalytic cracking or Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is a process in diesel processing in which
heavy oils are pushed through a metal chamber under extreme pressure and heat conditions,
along with a catalyst (alumina, silica, or zeolites). FCC breaks or “cracks” the larger, heavier oils
into smaller, simpler units [9]. Thermal decomposition, thermolysis or pyrolysis, is a process in
which larger molecules are broken down by intense heat in the absence of oxygen or nitrogen
[8]. Dilution of vegetable oils is possible with diesel, ethanol, or other solvents, and can affect
properties such as flash point and viscosity.

Transesterification is a process in which biodiesel can be made from a triglyceride and alcohol
source, usually with some sort of catalyst and heat source. Currently, transesterification is the
primary reaction in producing biodiesel on a larger scale [10].
The poor economy of the 1920s made petroleum diesel a more attractive fuel for transportation
due to its lower cost. Diesel engine systems were then modified in order to optimize performance
using petro diesel as the fuel. Ideas for using alternative fuel sources to power diesel engines
were not seriously pursued until the energy crises of the 1970s [11].

2.2. RAW MATERIAL FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

2.2.1. Edible plant oils

Biodiesel has been predominantly (more than 95 %) produced from edible vegetable oils
(biodiesel first generation) all over the world, which are easily available on large scale from the
agricultural industry [12]. Currently, biodiesel is mainly prepared from rapeseed in Canada,
soybean in US, sunflower in Europe and palm in Southeast Asia [13]. However, continuous and
large scale production of biodiesel from edible oils has recently been of great concern because
they compete with food materials [14]. Knowing that, nearly 60 % of humans in the world are
malnourished [15].

The largest biodiesel producers were the European Union, the United States, Brazil, Indonesia,
with a combined use of edible oil for biodiesel production of about 8.6 million tons (7.8 million
hectares were used ) in 2007 [16]. The estimated increase in edible oil use for biodiesel
production was 6.6 million tons from 2004 to 2007, which would attribute 34 % of the increase
in global consumption to biodiesel [16].

Between 2005 and 2017, biodiesel use of edible oils is projected to account for more than a third
of the expected growth in edible oil use [17], which means rise of biomass price, increase in
water requirement and problem in water availability, and particularly, more land somewhere in
the world will be converted into farmland, thereby releasing GHG emissions. Because of these
disadvantages, researchers have sought other renewable resources for biodiesel production.

2.2.2. Non-edible plant oils

Technologies are being developed to exploit cellulosic materials for the production of biodiesel
(biodiesel, second generation) such as leaves and stems of plants, biomass derived from waste,
and also, oils seeds from non-edible plants.
Non-edible biodiesel crops are expected to use lands that are largely unproductive and those that
are located in poverty stricken are a sand in degraded forests. Moreover, non-edible oil plants are
well adapted to arid, semi-arid conditions and require low fertility and moisture demand to grow.
Added to this, non-edible oils are not suitable for human food due to the presence toxic
components in the oils [18]. For all these reasons, the use of non-edible oils as raw material is a
promising way in biodiesel production.

There are a large number of oil plants that produce non-edible oils. From a list of 75 plant
species containing oil in their seeds or kernels, 26 species were reported by Azam et al., [19] as
potential sources for biodiesel production. The important non edible oil plants are jatropha,
karanja, tobacco, mahua, neem, rubber, sea mango, castor, cotton [19]. Feedstock such as,
jatropha, moringa and castor oils are the most often used in biodiesel production.

The non-edible oils plant are called to solve the problem of competition with food production.
However, the problem of water requirement, water availability, and mainly, the quantity of GHG
generated by the great rate of exploitable land could not be solved using this raw material.

2.2.2.1. Castor Oil

A colorless or pale yellowish oil extracted from the seeds of the castor-oil plant, Castor
(Ricinuscommunis L) is cultivated around the world because of the commercial importance of its
oil which is used in the manufacture of a number of industrial chemicals like surfactants, greases
and lubricants, specialty soaps, surface coatings, cosmetics and personal care products,
pharmaceuticals, etc. composition of castor seed oil is stated in table 1.
Table 1 the Chemical Composition of Castor Oil

Components Composition (%)

Ricinoleic Acid 89.5
Linoleic Acid 4.2
Oleic Acid 3
Stearic Acid 1
Palmitic Acid 1
Dihydroxystearic Acid 0.7
Linoleic Acid 0.3
 Eicosanoic Acid 0.3
[20]
Among vegetable oils, castor oil is distinguished by its high content (over 85%) of ricinoleic
acid. No other vegetable oil contains so high a proportion of fatty hydroxyacids. Castor oils
unsaturated bond, high molecular weight (298), low melting point (5°C) and very low
solidification point (−12°C to −18°C) make it industrially useful, most of all for the highest and
most stable viscosity of any vegetable oil.
Table 2 Properties of Castor oil

Properties Castor oil

FFA (%) 0.264
Density(Kg/m3) 962.8
Fire point(CO) 335
Cloud point(CO) 15.8
Specific gravity 0.9628
Calorific value (KJ/Kg) 35684.5
Flash point(CO) 298
Kinematic value (KJ/Kg) 109.53
[20]

2.2.3. Used edible oils

There are several end-uses for used edible oil (commonly called Waste Cooking Oil, ‘WCO’),
such as the production of soaps or of energy by anaerobic digestion or thermal cracking.
However, because of the poor quality of soap produced from WCO, a large amounts of WCO are
illegally dumped into rivers and landfills, causing environmental pollution. Hence the
management of such oils and fats pose a significant challenge because of their disposal problems
and possible contamination of the water and land resources.
The production of biodiesel from WCO to partially substitute petroleum diesel is one of the
measures for solving the twin problems of environment pollution and energy shortage [21]. Also,
in order to reduce the cost of biodiesel production, WCO would be a good choice as raw material
since it is cheaper than virgin vegetable oils and other feedstock [22].
The used edible oil is categorized by its Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content. If the FFA content of
WCO is < 15 %, then it is called ‘yellow grease’; otherwise, it is called ‘brown grease’ [23].The
amount of WCO generated in each country is huge and varies depending on the use of vegetable
oil.

2.2.4. Microalgae

Microalgae as a raw material for biodiesel (biodiesel third generation) has been reviewed
extensively in recent years [23]. They are photosynthetic microorganisms that convert sunlight,
water and CO2 to algal biomass [24].
The microalgae have long been recognized as potentially good sources for biofuel production
because of their high oil content (more than 20 %) and rapid biomass production. Algae biomass
can play an important role in solving the problem between the production of food and that of
biofuels in the near future. The cultivation of microalgae does not need much land as compared
to that of terraneous plants.

Due to their high viscosity (about 10–20 times higher than diesel fuel) and low volatility,
microalgae do not burn completely and form deposits in the fuel injector of diesel engines [25].
The transesterification of microalgae oils will greatly reduce the original viscosity and increase
the fluidity.

2.2.5. Animal fats

Animal fats used to produce biodiesel include tallow [26], choice white grease or lard [27], fish
fat (in Japan) and chicken fat. Compared to plant crops, these fats frequently offer an economic
advantage because they are often priced favorably for conversion into biodiesel.
Animal fat methyl ester has some advantages such as high cetane number, noncorrosive, clean
and renewable properties. Animal fats tend to be low in FFAs and water, but there is a limited
amount of these oils available, meaning these would never be able to meet the fuel needs of the
world.

2.3. Description of castor (Ricinus communis L.)

Castor has numerous industrial uses, namely; for production of paints, and varnishes, nylon type
synthetic polymers, resins and lubricants, cosmetics, textile dyeing, insecticides, in leather
industry as well as for medicinal purposes-as a laxative. Leaves of the castor plants have been
used for feeding silkworms and cattle, as human food (where fresh green food is scarce), the
branches and stem can be used for the production of low grade paper as well as for fuel. The
residual meal after oil extraction contains 5% nitrogen that used as a fertilizer, and 30-45%
protein that, if detoxified, can be used as a feed [28]. It is the only oilseed used in Ethiopia for
lighting. The people in the rural made a hole in a seed and threaded 9 or 10 on thin sticks of
wood, 15 cm long. The seed on top is lit and fire creeps slowly downwards [29].

Figure 2.2: castor seed

The castor oil plant grows in tropical climates, with temperatures in the range 20–30 ℃; it cannot
endure frost. It is an industrial oilseed which contains more than 45% oil, which is rich (80–90%)
in an unusual hydroxyl fatty acid, ricinoleic crop grown worldwide. Its oil with more than 80%
ricinoleic acid makes it a chief raw material for numerous industrial applications and biodiesel
production. The comparative advantage of Castor is that its growing period is much shorter than
other oil crops [30].

2.4. Conventional Biodiesel Production Technologies

Vegetable oils are the most widely used raw materials for biodiesel production. The fact that
vegetable oils are renewable and have energy content close to diesel fuels make them an
attractive raw material for biodiesel [25]. Vegetable oils can be directly used with diesel engines,
but certain drawbacks make them unsuitable for use over a prolonged period. Techniques like
pyrolysis (or thermal cracking), micro emulsions and transesterification can be used to convert
vegetable oils to biodiesel. The following sections give in-depth information on each of these
methods, and their merits and challenges.

2.4.1. Direct Use of Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oil was proposed to be used as an alternative to petroleum in the 1980’s [31].
Vegetable oils have high heat content (about 88% of D2 fuel), they are biodegradable, have low
aromatic content and are readily available. But on the downside, they have high viscosities,
lower volatilities and the unsaturated hydrocarbon chains are reactive. Although, vegetable oil
can be directly used in compression engines for a short term, its long term use poses many
problems. The major problem arises from the high viscosity of vegetable oil [25]. In long term
engine tests, injector coking, higher carbon deposits, sticking of piston rings, thickening and
gelling of engine lubrication oil and other issues have been reported [32].

2.4.2. Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis or thermal cracking involves the breaking of long chains of carbon-, hydrogen and
oxygen- containing compounds (mainly biomass) into smaller molecules at high temperature and
in the absence of oxygen. A wide range of raw materials, like vegetable oils, animal fats, and
natural fatty acids can be pyrolyzed. The organic components in these materials start
decomposing at around 350 °C – 550 °C in the absence of oxygen, and continue decomposing as
the temperature rises up to 700 °C – 800 °C [33]. Pyrolysis studies were reported in literature as
early as 1947. Tung oil calcium soaps were subjected to thermal cracking to yield crude oil. The
crude was further refined to produce diesel fuel, gasoline and kerosene [34].

Based on the operating conditions, pyrolysis can be classified as conventional (slow) pyrolysis,
fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis. Conventional pyrolysis is carried out at 276 °C – 676 °C. The
process is characterized by long gas residence times (7-8 minutes) and low heat transfer rates,
which affects the quality of the fuel produced. Fast pyrolysis is characterized by high heat
transfer, high heating rates, and short residence times. The reaction occurs within the temperature
range of 576 °C – 976 °C [33]. In case of flash pyrolysis, the reactants undergo rapid
devolatilization at temperatures to the order of 776 °C – 1026 °C. Flash pyrolysis is
characterized by very short gas residence times (less than 1 second) and high heating rate of
particles [35]. Even though the process is fast, it has some technological shortcomings like poor
thermal stability, presence of solids in the oils, corrosive nature of oil, dissolved char in oil and
the production of pyrolytic water as a by-product [36]. Since pyrolysis undergoes various
reaction pathways and a variety of reaction products can be obtained from pyrolysis, pyrolytic
chemistry is rather difficult to characterize [37].

2.4.3. Micro emulsions

A microemulsion can be defined as a clear and thermodynamically stable dispersion of two

immiscible liquids, which contains a certain amount of surfactant or a surfactant and a
cosurfactant [38]. Microemulsion droplets are small with diameters within the range of 100 to
1000 °A. Vegetable oils with an ester or a dispersant, or a vegetable oil, alcohol and a surfactant
could form a microemulsion. Although the presence of alcohol in the microemulsion improves
latent heat of vaporization and cools the combustion chamber, reducing the nozzle coking effect,
micro emulsions have lower volumetric heating values as compared to diesel [39].

Ziejewski et al., prepared a microemulsion with 53.3% of alkali refined and winterized sunflower
oil, 13.3% of 190-proof ethanol and 33.4% of 1-butanol. In their engine tests they found that the
fuel mass ratio increased due to higher density and viscosity of the microemulsion. Since the
heating value of the microemulsion was 19% lower than that of diesel, a lower energy input and
consequently a lower power output was observed. One of the major problems reported was the
difficulty in starting the engine even at room temperature [40]. Although microemulsion show a
considerable promise as low viscosity fuel blends with vegetable oils, their cetane numbers are
lower and they have low heating values as compared to D2 grade diesel fuel [41].

2.4.4. Transesterification

Transesterification is a reaction where one ester is transformed into another ester by the
interchange of the alkoxy moiety [42]. The process is also known as alcoholysis, since the
alcohol from the ester is replaced by another alcohol. The process is similar to that of hydrolysis,
except the fact that an alcohol is used instead of water [43]. Figure 2.3 represents the general
mechanism of transesterification.
Figure 2.3: General Transesterification mechanism
When triglycerides are subjected to transesterification, the reaction yields fatty acid esters (of the
respective alcohol reacted) along with glycerol as the by product. The reaction proceeds in three
steps, with diglycerides and monoglycerides forming in subsequent steps and finally the esters
along with glycerol in the last step [44]. The mechanism of transesterification is discussed in
detail in chapter 3. More than often the transesterification reaction is catalyzed by bases, acids or
enzymes [45].
a) Base-Catalyzed Transesterification

The most commonly used commercial process for biodiesel production is base-catalyzed
transesterification. This is due to the fact that base-catalyzed transesterification reactions precede
at considerable faster rates as compared to acid-catalyzed transesterification reactions. Also, base
catalysts are far less corrosive to the equipment than acid catalysts [46]. Although base catalysts
like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are widely available and
inexpensive, their ability to catalyze transesterification is limited when the oil has a high free
fatty acid (FFA) content [47]. FFA’s are made up of a long carbon chain disconnected from the
glycerol backbone. The alkali catalyst can react with the FFA to form soap [48]. This side
reaction is undesirable since soap formation hinders the production of fuel grade biodiesel,
resulting in high product separation costs. Although homogenous base catalysts are able to
catalyze the transesterification reaction at low reaction temperature and atmospheric pressure, are
widely available and inexpensive, and produce high yields, their use is limited to the oils where
the FFA content is no more than 0.5% by weight and acid value less than 1 mg KOH/g [49].

Solid base catalysts, also known as heterogeneous base catalysts like basic zeolites, alkaline
earth metal oxides and hydrotalcites have been developed and used for biodiesel production in
the past. Alkaline earth metal oxides like calcium oxide have recently attracted much attention
since it possesses high basicity, dissolves very slowly in alcohol and can be synthesized from
relatively inexpensive sources like limestone and calcium hydroxide [50]. Although these
catalysts separate easily from the liquid reaction products since they are in solid form, an extra
purification step may be needed in certain cases. Some researchers have found that these
catalysts can dissolve to some extent in the reaction products and may form other compounds,
for example, calcium oxide can react with glycerol to form calcium diglyceroxide, which is
soluble in biodiesel [51]. Further, catalysts like calcium oxide are rapidly hydrated in air. The
catalyst may undergo poisoning due to the chemisorption of water and carbon dioxide on the
active surface sites, affecting the performance of the catalyst. Magnesium oxide (MgO) is among
the other options for heterogeneous base catalysts. It can be synthesized by direct heating of
magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide and can catalyze the transesterification reaction,
but only at higher reaction temperatures (above 180 °C) [52]. At lower reaction temperatures and
pressures, the catalyst loses its activity [50]. Strontium oxide is another metal oxide that is highly
active. Although it is soluble in the reaction medium, research suggests that using just 3%
catalyst by weight, the reaction can produce 90% yields of methyl esters in 30 minutes at 65 °C,
even with the specific surface area of the catalyst being as small as 1.05 m2/g [53].

b) Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification

Liquid base-catalyzed transesterification has certain limitations with respect to the presence of
free fatty acids (FFA’s), soap formation and catalyst separation. To overcome these limitations,
liquid acid catalysts have been proposed for the transesterification reaction. Sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) are the most commonly used homogeneous acid catalysts
[50]. It has been reported that acid catalysts can be used where the free fatty acid content of the
raw material is higher. In other words, unlike alkali catalysts, acid catalysts do not get affected
by the presence of free fatty acids [46]. On the downside, acid-catalyzed transesterification
reactions have slower reaction rates with relatively lower conversion ratios; need a catalyst
separation step, and have environmental as well as corrosion related problems [48].
Due to these limitations, researchers focused on exploring solid or heterogeneous acid catalysts
for transesterification. Solid acid catalysts are unaffected by the presence of free fatty acids
(FFA’s), can catalyze esterification and transesterification reactions simultaneously [36], are
easy to separate from the reaction products, regenerate and recycle, and reduce the problems
associated with corrosion even in the presence of acid species. A solid acid catalyst having an
interconnected porous structure with a high concentration of acid sites and a hydrophobic surface
is ideal for transesterification. The pore system minimizes the diffusion problems for molecules
with larger chain structures and the high concentration of acid sites helps the reaction to proceed
at faster rates [47].

c) Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification

Enzymes can be used to catalyze the transesterification reaction. Both intracellular and
extracellular lipases can be used for enzymatic production of biodiesel. In both cases the enzyme
is immobilized to be reused. Also, immobilizing the enzyme eliminates the issues with catalyst
separation from final products [54].

This process operates at a much lower temperature (50 °C) as compared to other processes. On
the downside, the commercial application of enzyme catalyzed transesterification is limited due
to the fact that the costs of these catalysts per kg ester produced are high compared to those of
alkali catalysts. Slow reaction times and low yields also limit enzymatic transesterification [55].
Enzyme catalyzed transesterification remains an active area of research wherein researchers are
focusing on improving the yields and minimizing the reaction times. From the studies so far, vast
data have been collected and the efforts to optimize the process continue. Along with
optimization, focusing on other aspects like efficient recovery and utilization of glycerol
byproduct can make the process economically feasible and environmentally friendly [55].

2.4.5. Supercritical Processes

Performing the esterification in supercritical conditions has been studied initially as a method to
solve the problem of miscibility of oil and methanol that hinders the kinetics in normal
conditions. Since the critical coordinates of methanol are Tc = 239 oC and Pc = 80 bar, raising
the temperature and pressures at sufficiently high values is necessary. Studies conducted in Japan
demonstrated the feasibility of producing biodiesel by the esterification of rapeseed with
methanol without a catalyst working around 350°C and 200 bars at molar ratio methanol to oil of
42:1 for reaction times below 4 min.

The advantage of avoiding a catalyst is obvious. However, the conditions of pressure and
temperature are severe and need special equipment. Recent research showed the real yield can be
reduced by thermal degradation of biodiesel, namely of unsaturated fatty esters. For this reason,
lowering the reaction temperature and pressure is highly desirable.
Due to the absence of the catalyst the process flow sheet employing the supercritical technology
should be much simpler, but in exchange the manufacture of hardware is much more demanding.
Effective energy integration is also necessary. Despite these advantages the industrial
implementation of supercritical esterification has not been reported [50].

2.5. Production process of biodiesel by transesterification

The vegetable oil used to make biodiesel has to be extracted from its oil crop and in some cases
pre-treated before it can undergo transesterification to produce a mixture of biodiesel and
glycerol. These products and unreacted reactants have to be separated and purified to obtain the
final product of biodiesel.
Figure 2-1 is a simplified schematic presentation of the earth to engine process; the process
involved are discussed in greater detail the following section.
Biodiesel
Crude pre-treated biodiesel
Oil Vegetable crude and
Crop Vegetable Oil vegetable Trans - glycerol
Oil pre- Oil Separation and
oil esterific
treatment purification
extraction ation

Protein oil cake glycerol

Figure 2.1: schematic presentation of ‘earth to engine’ process

2.5.1. Vegetable Oil Extraction

Vegetable oil extraction from oilseeds can be done by either chemical or physical extraction.
Chemical extraction uses solvent extracts while physical extraction uses a number of different
types of mechanical extraction methods such as expeller, screw or ram press. Chemical
extraction produces higher yields, is quicker and less expensive and is used for large scale
extraction process. Oil extraction of oilseeds also produces and oilcake (or meal) which is
considered a valuable livestock feed product.

2.5.2 Oil Pre-treatment

Most crude vegetable oils, with the exception of palm and soybean oil, can be fed directly to the
transesterification process without and pre-treatment. Due to their high phosphatides content,
palm and soybean oil need to be degummed. This refers to the removal of phosphatides.
Phosphatides raise the level of phosphorous in the fuel which could cause the deactivation of the
exhaust catalyst. Oils with a high free fatty acid (FFA) content, >5%, need to undergo DE
acidification. This entails the removal of excessive free fatty acids in the oil to less than 1mg
KOH/g equivalent. These free fatty acids reduce the catalyst, especially alkaline, activity and
hinder the glycerol and biodiesel separation process. The degumming and DE acidification
processes can be conducted concurrently by adding an alkaline catalyst such as NaOH which
reacts with the FFA to form soap and in the presence of hot water causes the phosphatides to
swell. Both these products can be precipitated. If the acid number of the oil is very high, such as
in waste vegetable oils, an acid catalyzed pre-esterification of the free fatty acids with methanol
or ethanol is recommended.

The final pre-treatment step is dehydration, to remove all traces of water in the oil. Traces of
water in the oil decrease the conversion of alkaline catalyzed transesterification and harm the
acid catalyzed reaction. Dehydration is done either by low pressure distillation or by passing a
stream of nitrogen through the oil.

2.5.3 Transesterification

Transesterification is the chemical reaction whereby the glycerin is removed from the
triglyceride (castor oil) by reaction it with an alcohol to form an ester (biodiesel) and glycerol as
by-product. If methanol is used in the reaction, the resulting product is a methyl ester and ethanol
will produce an ethyl ester.

An excess of alcohol shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side of the reversible reaction.
Methanol is the preferred alcohol used for the reaction on large scale.
Regardless of which alcohol is used, some form of catalyst has to be present to achieve high
yields under relatively mild conditions. The two most common process options are either acid or
alkali catalyzed transesterification reaction. We performed base catalyzed transesterification.

Not surprisingly, alkaline catalysis is by far the most commonly used reaction type for biodiesel
production. It is very important for the reaction mixture to be homogenized during the initial
stages of the process so that the transesterification can proceed properly. This can be achieved by
either vigorous mixing, low frequency ultrasonic irradiation or by using a common solvent. Once
a sufficient amount of methyl esters and partial glycerides has been formed, they serve as a
common solvent for alcohol and oil; this is no longer a problem.

2.5.4 Separation and Purification

After the transesterification step the glycerol layer has to be separated water or acid solution
washing. However, this method is not recommended by from the reaction mixture. Phase
separation occurs spontaneously if methanol is used in alkali catalyzed helpful: Adding water,
extra glycerol or hexane to the mixture, cooling the reaction mixture or extraction of the esters
by centrifugation. Once the glycerol and ester phase have been separated, each phase needs to be
purified.
Methanol is recovered from the ester phase by Vacuum distillation.

Removal of glycerol and partial glycerides from the ester phase is achieved by water or acid
solution washing. However, this method is not recommended by because of ester losses due to
hydrolysis. They state that glycerol and glyceride should be removed by converting into
triglycerides with the reverse transesterification reaction. These triglycerides can then be easily
removed from the ester phase and recycled back to the feed of the transesterification reactor.
This reverse reaction is achieved by adding an alkaline catalyst and heating the mixture to a
temperature of 80 to 100 oc. The methanol released during the reaction can be recovered by
distillation.

Methanol
Mixing

KOH

Transesterifi Methanol
Castor oil Purification Biodiesel
cation recovery

Separation of Methanol Glycerol

H3PO4 Neutralization
solid recovery
Removal of free fatty acids from the ester phase, if necessary, is done by distillation as methyl
ester has a lower boiling point than FFA. Due to the catalyst’s solubility in water, it is during the
water washing stage. However, if traces of catalyst remain in the ester phase, suggest contacting
the ester phase with cation exchange resin under anhydrous conditions to remove the catalyst
from the ester phase or alternatively adsorbents such as silica gel or synthetic magnesium silicate
can be added.
Purification of the glycerol phase also needs to take place due to the fact that the glycerol phase
contains fatty acids, soaps and traces of the desired FAME. The first step is to add phosphoric
acid to decompose the soaps into FFA which are insoluble in glycerol and form a separate phase
which is then separated. Otherwise the resulting separated solids have to be considered as waste
products. The resulting FFA can either be two hours at 200 oc to produce triglycerides. Both these
products can be recycled back into the feed of the transesterification reactor.

2.6. Variables affecting transesterification reaction

Transesterification of oil produces biodiesel that forms the top layer, while the denser byproduct
glycerol forms the bottom layer in the reaction vessel. Transesterification could be alkali or acid-
catalyzed, based on the nature of the catalyst used. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification proceeds
faster than the acid-catalyzed transesterification, and hence is most commonly used in industries
[56]. Various factors affect the process of transesterification, and some of the important ones are
described in the next section.

i. Catalyst type and concentration

Catalyst type and catalyst concentration are the most important factors in the transesterification
reaction. Commonly used and very effective alkali catalysts are sodium hydroxide, sodium
methoxide, potassium hydroxide, and potassium methoxide [57]. In a previous study,
methanolysis of beef tallow was studied with catalysts NaOH and NaOMe [58]. The results
indicated that NaOH was significantly better than NaOMe. Sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide are generally used for alkaline transesterification in concentrations from 0.4 to 2 %
(wt/wt) of oil. Methanolysis or methanolysis of most soybean oil with 1 % (wt/wt) of potassium
hydroxide gives the best yields and lowest viscosities of the esters [59]. Generally, increasing
catalyst concentration (in range 0.5 to 1.5 % wt/wt) has a curvilinear effect on the conversion
obtained, with yield inhibited at high catalyst concentration. The best yield is obtained at about 1
% (wt/wt) catalyst concentration and a reduction in yield is observed as catalyst concentration is
increased. The reduction in yield is due to reversible reactions being favorable at high catalyst
concentrations.

ii. Molar ratio of alcohol to oil and type of alcohol

The molar ratio of alcohol to oil is another important variable affecting the yield of biodiesel
from oil. Based on reaction stoichiometry, only three moles of alcohol are required to trans
esterify a molecule of triglyceride and produce three moles of fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel)
and a mole of glycerol. Generally, 100-200 % excess alcohol is used, which drives the reaction
in the forward direction and favors biodiesel production. However, very high molar ratio of
alcohol to vegetable oil is avoided, which might interfere with the phase separation of biodiesel
and glycerol post transesterification reaction. Additionally, when high molar ratios are used, the
reverse reaction is favored, lowering the yield of esters. In a previous study, the
transesterification of Cynara oil with ethanol as an alcohol source was studied at molar ratios of
alcohol to oil between 3:1 and 15:1. The conversion increased as the molar ratio increased up to
a value of 12:1. The best conversions were obtained at molar ratios between 9:1 and 12:1. For
lower molar ratios, the reaction was not completer and for higher molar ratios, the yield of esters
decreased because of improper phase separation [60]. However, the optimal molar ratio will vary
from one oil source to another.

Methanolysis is faster (due to higher reactivity of methoxide ion) and easier (because of effective
phase separation) than ethanolysis. During ethanolysis, stable emulsions are formed, which tends
to keep more of the glycerol in the biodiesel phase, hence complicating separation and
purification of biodiesel. With higher alcohols, such as butanol, the phase separation is even
more complicated [61].

iii. Effect of temperature and reaction time

Temperature influences the rate of the reaction and percentage conversion [57]. In one study
refined oil was transesterified with methanol, with a 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 1 %
(wt/wt) NaOH, and three different reaction temperatures [62]. After 6 minutes, yields of 94, 87
and 64 % were obtained respectively for 60, 45 and 32 °C. However, after an hour, yields were
similar at 60 and 45 °C and only slightly lower at 32°C. Conversion increases with reaction time.
In the same study, the effect of reaction time on conversion was also studied. For cottonseed,
soybean, sunflower and trans esterified peanut oil, with methanol to oil molar ratio 6:1, 0.5 %
(wt/wt) sodium methoxide catalyst, and 60°C reaction temperature, an approximate percentage
yield of 80 % was obtained after a minute for sunflower and soybean oils. After 60 minutes, the
yield was similar (93 to 98 %) for all four oils studied. With beef tallow, the reaction was slow
during the first minute possibly due to initial mass transfer limitations of methanol in the beef
tallow. However, the reaction proceeded at a faster rate from 1 to 5 minutes, with the highest
conversion reached at about 15 minutes.

iv. Mixing intensity

Mixing is an important transesterification factor as low molecular weight alcohols like methanol
and ethanol are immiscible with oil at the room temperature. Hence, the reaction mixtures are
often agitated mechanically to facilitate mass transfer of alcohol into the oil. In a prior study, the
effect of mixing on transesterification of beef tallow was studied [63]. The results showed that
the reaction did not proceed without mixing the two reactants, however, when NaOH-methanol
mixture was added to the melted beef tallow in the reactor with continuous mixing, stirring speed
was found to be insignificant suggesting that the mixing speeds studied were way above the
threshold requirement of mixing. A mixing speed of 600 rpm was concluded as optimum in some
previous studies.

v. Purity of Reactants

Impurities present in the vegetable oil also affect ester conversion levels significantly. The
vegetable oil (refined or crude oil) is filtered before the transesterification reaction. The oil
settled at the bottom of the tank during storage would give lower yield because of deposition of
impurities such as wax and gums [59].
 2.7. Biodiesel Properties and Specification Standards

2.7.1. Physicochemical properties of oils and their impact on the

production and properties of biodiesel

The fuel properties of biodiesel are influenced at large by the amounts of each fatty acid
composition and the alcohol moieties in the feedstock used to produce the esters among which
the largest fractions of fatty acids for each of the biodiesel is a potential indication of the rest of
the properties [64].

Generally, the major fuel properties as, cetane number (with relation to combustion and exhaust
emissions), heat of combustion, melting point, and viscosity of neat fatty compounds increase
with increasing chain length and decrease with increasing unsaturation (iodine value) [7]. Hence,
it appears reasonable to enrich certain fatty esters with desirable properties in the fuel, possibly
oleic acid, in order to improve the properties of the whole fuel [7]

2.7.2. Biodiesel specification standards

Table 3 Standard Specifications of Biodiesel: USA and European

Property Unit USA EU

EN 14214

Density at 15oc Kg/m3 - 860 – 960

Kinematic viscosity at 40oc mm2/s 1.9 -6.0 3.5 - 5.0

o
Flash point C ≥ 120 ≥ 130
Sulfur content,100% wt% ≤ 0.05 ≤ 0.01

Sulphated Ash wt% ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.02

Water content mg/Kg - ≤ 500
Total contamination mg/Kg - ≤ 24

Water and sediment % vol. ≤ 0.05

Corrosion (Cu) at 50oc - ≤ No.3 class 1

Cetane number - ≥ 47 ≥ 51
Acid number Mg KOH/g ≤ 0.8 ≤ 0.5
 Oxidation Stability ,110oc hours ≥6

Methanol content wt% ≤ 0.2

Ester content wt% ≥ 96.5
Carbon Residue,100% wt% 0.05 max

Triglycerides wt% ≤ 0.20

Di-glycerides wt%
Mono-glycerides wt% ≤ 0.02
Free glycerol wt% ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.25
Total glycerol wt% ≤ 10
Iodine value gI /100g2 ≤ 120
Phosphorus mg/Kg ≤ 10 ≤ 10

Source:[34]

2.8. Biodiesel Development and consumption of petroleum diesel in

Ethiopia
Although production of bio-diesel is not yet started, various types of plant species which can be
used for producing bio-diesel grow in the country. Favorable air condition and suitable soil type
for bio-diesel development is available. Castor, which is very important feed-stock for bio-diesel
grows in many parts of the country.

2.8.1. Past Supply and Present Demand of petroleum diesel

Bio-diesel is a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic renewable resources. Bio
diesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a
bio-diesel blend. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or no
modifications. Bio-diesel is better for the environment because it is made from renewable
resources and has lower emissions compared to petroleum diesel. Its use decreases dependence
on imported oil and contributes to the country’s economy. Bio diesel can be used in its pure
form (100% bio diesel) or blended with diesel fuel. Therefore, the consumption of diesel fuel is
considered in estimating the demand for bio- diesel. The consumption of petroleum fuels during
1995-2004 is shown in Table 2.1 [33].

The consumption of diesel fuel has increased over the years from 460,584 tonnes in 1995 to
796,044 tonnes in 2003. On the average, 632,918 tonnes of diesel fuel is consume annual in the
country during the reference period. Accounting, on the average, for about 51.4% of all the
petroleum fuels consumed, diesel fuel constitutes the major petroleum fuel consumed in the
country.

Bio-diesel can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a bio diesel blend.
According to knowledgeable people, in the context of developing countries like Ethiopia,
about10% bio diesel could be blended with petroleum diesel. However, the demand for biodiesel
is conservatively estimated at 10% of the average consumption of petroleum diesel in the
country. Thus, the present demand for bio-diesel is set at 38,128 thousand litters.
Table 4 Consumption of Petroleum Fuels (Tonnes), 1995-2004

Year Diesel fuel Petroleum fuels

1995 460,584 1,004,927
1996 495,141 1,060.162
1997 539,309 1,109,062
1998 561,309 1,122,450
1999 631,133 1,204,025
2000 687,041 1,301,144
2001 682,749 1,294,104
2002 754,260 1,411,159
2003 796,044 1,405,643
2004 720,918 1,405,249
Average 632,918 1,231,793

2.8.2. Forecasted Demand

The average annual rate of growth of the consumption of petroleum diesel in the
country during 1995–2004 is computed to be 5%.

Table 5 Projected Demand for Bio Diesel („000 Litters)

Year Forecasted Demand

2007 38,128
 2008 40,034
2009 42,036
2010 44,138
2011 46,345
2012 48,662
2013 51,095
2014 53,650
2015 56,332
2016 59,149
2017 62,106
2018 65,212
2019 68,472
2020 71,896
2021 75,491
2022 79,265

2.8.3 Pricing and Distribution

A combination of both direct and indirect distribution channel is recommended for the product.
Direct sale for those end users with bulk purchase and the use of distributors and retailers for
other segments of the market is recommended as the appropriate channel of distribution.

2.8.4 Plant Capacity

Based on the market study and period required for project implementation and full capacity
attainment, the envisaged plant will have annual production capacity of 3,409,090 litter or
3,000,000 kg.

2.8.5 Production Program

Production will commence at 75%, and then will grow to 90% and 100% in the second year and
third year and then after, respectively. Detail of the production program is shown in Table below.
 Table 6 production program

Year 1 2 3-10
Capacity utilization (%) 75 90 100
Production (kg) 2,250,000 2,700,000 3,000,000
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Materials and Equipment
The equipment and material used during the experimentations were; magnetic stirrer to
homogenize more, beaker to transfer one sample to the other, separating funnel to separate
glycerol from biodiesel, water bath for heating purpose, thimble used to put the extracted
material in the extractor, digital weight balance for measuring the weight of castor and other
necessary materials, rotational viscometer for measuring the viscosity of biodiesel, soxhlet
extractor to extract oil from crushed sample using hexane, thermometer to measure the
temperature, heat source for heating purpose, simple distillation to separate hexane from oil,
glove to protect our hand from chemicals, and oven to dry the material what we need.

Chemicals used during the experimentations were; hexane for extraction of oil, methanol for the
reaction of oil, sodium hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and as catalyst, phosphoric
acid for degumming oil, and sodium chloride to help settle out the soap formed.

3.2 Experiment
Experiments were conducted in a laboratory-scale setup developed at Debre Berhan University-
Department of Chemical engineering laboratories.

3.2.1 Seed Preparation

The unit operations involved to prepare were:

Clearing: The castor beans had some foreign materials and dirt which was separated by hand
picking.
Drying: The cleaned beans were sun dried in the open, until the casing splits and sheds the
seeds. The beans were further dried in the oven at 105 0C for 5 hours to a constant weight in
order to reduce its moisture content, which was initially at about 5 to 7%.
Winnowing: The separation of the shell from the nibs (cotyledon) was carried out using hand in
order to achieve very high yield.
Grinding (size reduction): Mortar and pestle were used to crush the beans into a paste (cake) in
order to weaken or rupture the cell walls to release castor oil for extraction.
 3.2.2 Determination of Moisture Content of the Seeds

200g of the cleaned sample was weighed and dried in an oven at 105°C for 5hrs and the weight
was taken after every 1hrs. The procedure was repeated until a constant weight was obtained.
After each 1 hours, the sample was removed from the oven. It was then removed and re-weighed.
The procedure was repeated for three samples in triplicate. The percentage moisture in the seed
was calculated from the formula:
W 1−W 2
perecent moisture= ∗100 …………………………………………… (Eq.1)
W1
Where
W1 = original weight of the sample before drying;
W2 = weight of the sample after drying

3.2.3 Oil extraction and determination of the seed oil content (% w/w)

Oil extraction was conducted at the DBU chemical engineering laboratories by implementing
soxhlet extraction method.

Extraction of castor oil. 70 gram of crushed castor bean were placed into a round bottom flask
contain 0.2 liters n-hexane and the equipment was heated at 90 OC. When the solvent (hexane)
was boiling the vapor rises through the vertical tube into the condenser at the top, the liquid
condensate drips into the filter paper thimble in the center, which contain the solid sample to be
extracted. The extracted seeps through the pores of the thimble and fills the siphon tube, when it
flow down into the round bottom flask. This was allowed to continue for four hours .It was then
removed from the tube, dried in the oven, cooled in the desiccators, solvent removed using
simple distillation weighed to determine the amount of oil extracted. The experiment was
repeated in triplicate. The weight of oil extracted was determined for each replicate, and the
mean value was recorded and the percentage of oil extracted was determined using (Eq.2).
Sample weight was taken dry base, based on the moisture content determined.

mass of oil
percent oil= ∗100 [25]……………………………………………… (Eq.2)
mass of seed

3.2.3 Purification of Crude castor Oil

A. Degumming
The extracted crude castor oil contains phosphatides, gums and other complex compounds which
can promote hydrolysis (increase in free fatty acid) of vegetable oil during storage. During
transesterification process, these compounds can also interfere. Therefore these compounds are
removed by degumming process. The oil was degummed by the addition of boiling water (gum
dissolve in hot water). The oil was heated to 70ºC and, 3% of distilled water (which first was
heated to approximately 90ºC) and mixed. The mixture was stirred for 2 minutes and allowed to
stand in the separating funnel. Thereafter, the aqueous layer was removed. The procedure was
repeated to ensure removal of most gums.
B. Neutralization
For neutralization about 400g of degummed oil was poured into a beaker and heated to 70 OC,
after which 0.068 gram NaOH was added and stirred to uniform solution for one hour. Then the
solution was transferred into a separating funnel and allowed to stand for 1h; the soap formed
was separated from the oil. Hot water was added again and again to the oil solution until the soap
remaining in solution was removed. The neutralized oil was then drawn off into beaker and dried
for 24 hours at 103Oc to remove the moisture from the oil.

3.2.2 Characterization of Purified castor Oil (Physicochemical

Properties)

3.2.2.1 Determination of Specific Gravity

An empty container was weighed, and then container was filled with water and weighed. At last
the container was then filled with the same volume of oil as that of the water and weighed. The
specific gravity is calculated with formula shown below;
W 3−W 2
specific gravity = ………………………………………………………………. (Eq.3)
W1
Where
W3 = weight of container and oil
W2 = weight of empty container
W1 = weight of equal volume of water

3.3.2.2 Determination of Kinematic Viscosity

Rotational viscometer was used to determine the viscosity of oil, and the sample was kept in the
water thermostat bath until it reaches the equilibrium temperature of 40 OC. After maintaining the
equilibrium temperature, the rotational viscometer tip was inserted to the sample and the reading
was taken from the controller. The kinematic viscosity is then equal to the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to density of the oil.
ν
µ= ………………………………………………………………………………………. (Eq.4)
ρ
Where
µ=kinematic viscosity, mm2/s
ν=dynamic viscosity, mPa.sec and
ρ=density, kg/m3

3.2.2.3. Determination of pH Value

2g of the sample was poured into a clean dry 25ml beaker and 13ml of hot distilled water was
added to the sample in the beaker and stirred slowly. It was then cooled in a cold-water bath to
25°C. The pH electrode was standardized with buffer solution and the electrode immersed into
the sample and the pH value was read and recorded.

3.2.2.4. Determination of Refractive Index

Refractometer was used in this determination. Few drops of the sample were transferred into the
glass slide of the refractometer. Water at 30°C was circulated round the glass slide to keep its
temperature uniform. Through the eyepiece of the refractometer, the dark portion viewed was
adjusted to be in line with the intersection of the cross. At no parallax error, the pointer on the
scale pointed to the refractive index. This was repeated and the mean value noted and recorded
as the refractive index.

3.2.2.4. Determination of Acid Value

25ml of diethyl ether and 25ml of ethanol was mixed in a 250ml beaker. The resulting mixture
was added to 10g of oil in a 250ml conical flask and few drops of phenolphthalein were added to
the mixture. The mixture was titrated with 0.1M NaOH to the end point with consistent shaking
for which a dark pink color was observed and the volume of 0.1M NaOH (V 0) was noted. Free
Fatty Acid (FFA) was calculated as:
Vo
FFA= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ( Eq 5 )
Wo∗2.82∗100
Where
100ml of 0.lM NaOH = 2.83g of Oleic acid,
W0 = sample weight;
Then Acid Value = 2*FFA.

3.2.2.5. Determination of Saponification Value

Indicator method was use as specified by ISO 3657 (1988). 2g of the sample was weighed into a
conical flask; 25ml of 0.1N ethanoic potassium hydroxide of was then added. The content which
was constantly stirred was allowed to boil gently for 60min. A reflux condenser was placed on
the flask containing the mixture. Few drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added to the warm
solution and then titrated with 0.5M HCl to the end point until the pink colour of the indicator
just disappeared. The same procedure was used for other samples and blank. The expression for
saponification value (S.V.) is given by:
56.1 N (Vo−V 1)
S.V= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … ..(Eq 6)
M
Where:
V0 = the volume of the solution used for blank test;
VI = the volume of the solution used for determination;
N = Actual normality of the HCl used; M = Mass of the sample.
 3.2.3 Biodiesel Production Procedure

3.2.3.1. Determination of Quantity by Mass of methanol required for

Transesterification

Given:
Alcohol / Oil ratio = 9:1
Molecular mass of castor oil used = 960 g/mole
Molecular mass of Ethanol used = 32.07 g/mole
mole of methanol
=6
mole of oil
Mole of methanol = 6*mole of oil
Mass of methanol = 6*molar mass of methanol *mole of oil
Therefore, 18 g of methanol was required to react with 90 g of Castor oil to balance for the
Alcohol / Oil Molar Ratio.

3.2.3.2 Catalyst / Alcohol Production

18 g of methanol was measured and poured into a beaker and 1.0 g of NaOH was carefully added
to the beaker container via a funnel. The container was shocked for a few times by for about 2
minutes until the NaOH completely dissolved in the methanol, forming sodium methoxide
thereafter.

3.2.3.3 Transesterification Reaction

90 g of Castor oil was measured out in a beaker, pre-heated to the required temperature (60°C)
and poured into the blender. With the blender switched off, the sodium methoxide from the
beaker container was carefully poured into the castor oil. The blender lid was secured tightly and
switched on. The mixture was left to blend for 100 minutes at moderate speed before the blender
was switched off.

3.2.3.4 Settling

The mixture was poured from the blender into a separatory for settling. The reacted mixture was
allowed to stand overnight while phase separation to occur by gravity settling into (an expected)
clear, golden / pale liquid biodiesel is expected on the top with the light brown glycerol at the
bottom of the bottle. The next day, the castor oil biodiesel/ester at the top to was carefully
decanted into a beaker leaving the glycerol at the base.

3.2.3.5 Washing

For washing, two separatory were used in with half a litre of tap water added for each of the five
washes carried out. A small 2mm hole was pierced in the bottom corner of each of the two
bottles and the hole covered securely with duct tape. The biodiesel was poured into one of the
wash bottles. Half-litre of fresh water was added and the cap screwed on tightly. The bottle was
turned on its side and rolled about until oil and water were well mixed and homogenous. After
washing and settling, the water was drained off from the bottom of the bottle by removing the
duct tape from the hole. The hole was blocked again when it reached the biodiesel. The biodiesel
is to be transferred to the second wash bottle; fresh water was added and washed again. The first
bottle was cleaned and the duct tape replaced. The process was repeated five times until water
added became as clear as it was, showing no presence of anymore soap in the biodiesel.
The reason for washing is because the castor oil biodiesel might present un-reacted alcohol,
catalyst, or glycerin. Un-reacted alcohol decreases the flashpoint of biodiesel, Biodiesel with
0.2% alcohol does not meet ASTM fuel standards, washing reduces alcohol levels below 0.2%,
and washing was also used to remove any soap present in the biodiesel.
The procedure was repeated by varying reaction temperature, time and alcohol to oil molar ratio.

3.2.4. Determination of Optimum Parameters

3.2.4.1. Effect of NaOH Concentration on Castor Oil Biodiesel Yield

Most researchers have used 0.1 to 1.2 % (in relation to oil mass) of catalyst for biodiesel
production. To investigate the possible effect of catalyst concentration on yield of castor oil
biodiesel, different concentrations of NaOH (0.5 %, 0.75 %, 1.0 %, 1.25 %, and 1.5 % by mass
of castor oil) were used to produce castor oil biodiesel. The castor oil quantity, methanol
quantity, reaction temperature and reaction time used with the different NaOH concentrations
were held constant at 20.0 g, 12.9 g, 60º C and 120 minutes respectively. The number of levels
considered for the NaOH concentration implies 5 batches of experimental runs.
 3.2.5. Methods for Biodiesel Characterization (Physio-Chemical
Properties of Biodiesel)

3.2.5.1. Determination of Specific Gravity (SG) and Density

W 3−W 2
specific gravity = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …( Eq 7)
W1
Where,
W3 = weight of container and biodiesel
W2 = weight of empty container
W1 = weight of equal volume of water
Then density of biodiesel = specific gravity * density of water

3.2.5.2. Determination of Kinematic Viscosity

The viscosity of the castor oil was measured using rotator viscometer. The kinematic viscosity is
then equal to ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the biodiesel observed. The device will
detect the viscosity with vibration. During vibration, there is a shear force between the tip and
the fluid. It will read the dynamic viscosity which is resistance to flow. The observed kinematic
viscosity was 31.5mm2/sec which is in agreement with literature data.

3.2.5.3. Determination of Saponification Number

A weighted amount of biodiesel (W) was added to 25 mL of 0.5N methanolic sodium hydroxide
solution. The mixture was heated, and as soon as the ethanol boils, the flask was occasionally
shaken using magnetic stirrer until the oil was completely dissolved, and the solution was boiled
for half an hour.
After the oil was completely dissolved, 5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added and the
hot soap solution obtained was slowly titrated with 0.5N hydrochloric acid (and volume Va was
recorded).Then a blank determination was carried out upon the same quantity of potassium
hydroxide solution at the same time and under the same conditions (and volume Vb was
recorded). The final result was calculated using equation below.
56.1∗N∗(Vb−Va)
sponification number … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … ..(Eq 8)
W
Where:
W= weight of oil taken in gram.
 N= normality of HCL solution
Va = volume of HCL solution used in the test in milliliter.
Vb= volume of HCL solution used in blank in milliliter.

3.2.5.4. Ash content of oil

Ash content of oil was determined using a furnace. A 20 g of oil was added in a burning cup.
Then, the sample was placed in a furnace. A furnace was located at a temperature of 500 C for 1
hour and after burning the residue sample was weighted and ash content was calculated.
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Castor Seed Preparation, Oil Extraction and Purification
Obtained results for various tests carried out on the samples during castor seed preparation, oil
extraction and purification were tabulated below.

4.1.1. Moisture Content Determination

Table 7 Determination of Moisture Content

Time (h) Weight of sample one Weight of sample two Weight of sample three
(trial 1) (trial 2) (trial 3)

0 200 200 200

1 192.13 194.17 .193.93
2 191.12 192.01 192.54
3 190.8 191.51 191.04
4 189.05 191.2 189.01
5 189.05 191.2 189.01

Table 8 Determination of Average Moisture Content

Trial Sample weight Difference Moisture Average moisture

Before drying After drying content (%) content (%)
1 200 189.05 10.95 5.475 5.12
2 200 191.2 8.8 4.4 JJ
3 200 189.01 10.99 5.495 CVB

The results obtained for the percentage moisture content, 5.12% shows similarity to the report [3]
who reported a moisture content of the range of 5 to 7 percent.

4.1.2. Purification

In order to remove impurities, gums like substances and to purify the castor seed oil, we have
done degumming and neutralization processes. The total amount of purified castor oil obtained
from extraction with hexane is 500ml liter out of 1.4kg of prepared castor seed.
A. Degumming
It is the removal of phosphatides, gums and other complex compounds the extracted crude castor
oil. Hence, based on the method discussed in previous chapter; 3% of distilled water by volume
is required for degumming the crude castor oil.
Amount of distilled water required = 0.03* amount of castor oil
= 0.03*500ml = 15ml
Thus 15ml of distilled water was used to degum 500ml of crude oil.
B. Neutralization
Neutralization was performed after the acid value or amount of FFA of the oil was determined.
0.869
%FFA=
2
FFA = 0.435% of the oil.
Mass of FFA in 500ml of oil = 500ml*0.9*0.435*10-2 = 1.96 g of FFA
The FFA was neutralized by using NaOH, and one mole of NaOH neutralizes one mole of FFA.
Thus,
mass FFA X
=
Molecular mass of FFA Molecula mass of NaOH
1.96 x
=
937.7 40
x = 0.084 g of NaOH
Therefore, to neutralize 500ml of oil 0.084 gram of NaOH were used.

4.2. Physicochemical Properties of Purified Oil

The specific gravity, density, kinematic viscosity, acid value, free fatty acid composition, and
saponification number of the purified castor oil were determined and the results are given in
table 3 and 4.
Table 9 Physical property of crude and refined castor oil
Property Crude Castor Oil Refined Castor Oil
Specific gravity 0.9587 0.9587
Viscosity at 28°C [St] 9.42477 6.4842
Refractive Index at 28°C 1.4686 1.4674
PH 6.11 6.34
Colour Amber Amber
Table 9 presents a comparison between the physical properties of the crude and refined castor oil
obtained in this work. The specific gravity values for both crude and refined oil are obtained to
be the same, (0.9587). This is in agreement with the standard reported in literature [8].
Differences were observed between the value obtained for the viscosity of the crude and refined
oil. The value of the viscosity of the crude castor oil (9.42477 mm 2/s) was found to be outside
the recommended standard range of 6.3 – 8.8 mm 2/s [8], while the refined oil’s viscosity of
6.4842 mm2/s is quite within range. This may be attributed to the fact that some impurities and
other components were removed during refining. The refractive index analysis shows that there
is no significant difference between the value obtained for crude oil, 1.4686 and that of the
refined oil, 1.467. Comparing this result with the ASTM values that ranges from 1.476 – 1.479, a
little difference is noticed. However, this little difference can be considered being within an
acceptable experimental error range that can be attributed to the presence of some impurities and
other component of the crude oil mixture. Thus, the refractive index of both crude and refined
castor oil was in agreement with ASTM specification.

Also, the pH value of the crude oil which was found to be 6.11 indicate that the oil is more acidic
compared to 6.34 pH obtained for the refined oil. This may be as result of degumming and
Neutralization carried out during the refining process.

Table 10 Chemical property of crude and refined castor oil

Property crude castor oil refined castor oil

Acid Value [mg NaOH/g of Oil] 1.148 0.869
Saponification Value [mg KOH/g of Oil] 185.83 181.55
Iodine Value [g I2 /100g of Oil] 87.72 84.4

The chemical properties analysis shown in Table 10 indicates that the acid value of crude and
refined oil is 1.148mg NaOH/g of oil and 0869mg NaOH/g of oil respectively. The value is
higher in crude oil due to free fatty acid present; while it less for the refined oil as a result of the
chosen strength 0.1M of NaOH used in the treatment of the crude oil, which must have
neutralized some of the free fatty acid present in it. In addition, both values fall within the range
specified in literature [8]. Table 10 shows the results for the saponification value of the crude and
refined oil that were found to be 185.83mg KOH/g of oil and 181.55mg KOH/g of oil
respectively. This shows that, for the crude oil, more alkaline would be required to enable it
neutralize the available freely fatty acid liberated by the oil, when compared with the refined oil.

Table 11 Determination of percentage oil extracted

Determination Value(g)
Weight of empty flask (M1) 108.6
Weight of thimble (W1) 3.13
Weight of sample + thimble (W2) 103.13
Weight of Sample (W2-W1) 100
Weight of empty flask +Oil (M2) 160.15
Weight of Oil (M2-M1) 51.55
2nd Weight of Sample 35.1
3-rd Weight of Sample 40.2
4-th Weight of Sample 50

The result obtained from the percentage oil content 35.7% fall within the range of the percentage
oil content (30 – 55%) of castor beans found in literature ([1, 2]), depending on the variety.
Though, something close to 100% yield (basing on 55% oil content of the castor bean) would
have been expected, the mode of extraction is a very important parameter affecting the yield as
reported [7]. It is reported that the best available method for extraction of castor oil at present is
by the use of hydraulic pressing ([1, 3, and 7]).

Table 12 ASTM specification for Quality Castor Oil

Property Ranges Selected
Specific gravity 20/25°C 0.957-0.968 0.962
Refractive Index, nD 1.476-1.479 -
Saponification Value 175-187 181
Iodine Value 82-88 85
Viscosity at 25°C 6.3-8.8 St -
Acid Value 0.4-4.0 3
Colour (Gadner) Not darker than 2-3 3.0 (Maximum)
The saponification value of both crude and refined castor oil, are highly comparable with the
result specified for quality castor oil [8] as shown in Table 12. The refined oil was then ready for
reaction to produce biodiesel.

4.4. Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel

Table 13 Physicochemical Properties of purified castor oil biodiesel

Properties Castor oil biodiesel Biodiesel standard Diesel Standard

Color Pale yellow
Specific gravity at 250C 0.9 0.885 0.835
Viscosity mm2/s at 230C 11.6 4.08 at 400C 3.8 at 400C
FFA Weight% 0.435 Trace -
Saponification value (mg of
212 - -
NaOH/gm of oil)

4.5 Percent yield

Table shows that the run order, temperature, amount of catalyst and yield found. The maximum
transesterification yield of biodiesel was 95.9% at temperature of 60 oc for the reaction time of
100 minute and 20% oil of methanol and the minimum yield obtained was at maximum catalyst
amount.

Table 14 Experimental results of biodiesel yield

Std Run Block Factor 1 Factor 2 Yield

 A:Temprature (oc) catalyst (% of oil) %
3 1 Block 50 0.5 80.5
1
2 2 Block 50 0.5 80.8
1
1 3 Block 50 0.5 81
1
6 4 Block 60 0.5 88.2
1
4 5 Block 60 0.5 88.7
1
5 6 Block 60 0.5 88.9
1
8 7 Block 70 0.5 84.2
1
9 8 Block 70 0.5 84.3
1
7 9 Block 70 0.5 84.6
1
10 10 Block 50 1 82.7
1
11 11 Block 50 1 83.9
1
12 12 Block 50 1 84.1
1
13 13 Block 60 1 95.5
1
14 14 Block 60 1 95.9
1
15 15 Block 60 1 96.7
 1
16 16 Block 70 1 90.5
1
18 17 Block 70 1 90.4
1
17 18 Block 70 1 90.7
1
20 19 Block 50 1.5 60
1
19 20 Block 50 1.5 60.5
1
21 21 Block 50 1.5 60.9
1
24 22 Block 60 1.5 73.3
1
22 23 Block 60 1.5 73.8
1
23 24 Block 60 1.5 73.5
1
26 25 Block 70 1.5 66.2
1
27 26 Block 70 1.5 66.5
1
25 27 Block 70 1.5 66.9
1

4.6. Statistical analysis

Table 15 Analysis of variance for biodiesel

Source Sum of Mean F

squares DF Square value Prob > F
 Model 3230.7 8 403.85 2276.38 < 0.0001 significant
7
A 556.67 2 278.33 1568.9 < 0.0001
B 2647.7 2 1323.89 7462.45 < 0.0001
9
AB 26.32 4 6.58 37.09 < 0.0001
Pure Error 3.19 18 0.18
Cor Total 3233.9 26
7

The Model F-value of 2276.38 implies the model is significant. There is only a 0.01% chance
that a "Model F-Value" this large could occur due to noise.

Values of "Prob > F" less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case A, B,
AB are significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not
significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to support
hierarchy), model reduction may improve your model.

Table 16 Model adequacy measures

Std.Dev. 0.42 R-Squared 0.9999

Mean 80.49 Adj R-Squared 0.9986
C.V 0.52 Pred R-Squared 0.9978
PRESS 7.18 Adeq Precision 146.257

The "Pred R-Squared" of 0.9978 is in reasonable agreement with the "Adj R-Squared" of 0.9986.
"Adeq Precision" measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. Your
ratio of 146.257 indicates an adequate signal. This model can be used to navigate the design
space.

Final Equation in Terms of Coded Factors:

Yield = +80.49 - 5.56* A[1] + 5.57* A[2] + 4.09* B[1] + 9.56* B[2] + 1.74*A[1]B[1] -
1.54*A[2]B[1] - 0.92*A[1]B[2] + 0.42 * A[2]B[2]

Normal Plot of Residuals

99

95
90
Normal % Probability

80
70

50

30
20

10
5

-2.52 -1.41 - 0.29 0.82 1.94

Studentized Residuals

The normal probability plot, (Figure4.1), indicates the residuals following a normal distribution,
in which case the points follow a straight line. This indicates the model satisfies the assumption
of ANOVA.

4.7. Interaction effect of factors on the yield of biodiesel

DESIGN-EXPERT Plot
Interaction Graph
Yield B: amount of catalyst
96.7
X = A: temperature
Y = B: amount of catalyst

Design Points 87.525

B1 0.5
B2 1

Yield
B3 1.5
78.35

69.175

60

50 60 70
A: temperature
5. Material and Energy balance

5.1. Material Balance

The process selected for the manufacture of the biodiesel were essentially continuous. Provisions
for possible shutdowns for repairs and maintenance were incorporated into the design of the
process by specifying plant operation for 300 calendar days per year. A survey by the market
division has indicated that the company could hope to attain 4.3 percent of the diesel market if a
plant with an annual production of 3,409,090.9 litter biodiesel or 3000 tons were to be built.
3,000,000 kg / year
daily production of biodesel= =10,000 kg /day
300 day / year
Assumptions
The calculation are based on the following assumption.
1. Due to fluctuating nature of the commodity price, all prices at the end of May 2019 are
used. Although this might not reflect an annual average, the results for different feedstock
price can be obtained from sensitivity analysis.
2. Exchange rate of 1 US$ =28birr.
3. Plant operating hours of 7920/year, which means the plant runs for 330 days per annum.
4. A castor oil to biodiesel conversion in the transesterification reactor of 95%.
5. Average densities of all liquids are tabulated below

Table 17 Densities of all commodity

Item Density (kg/m3)

Castor oil 917
Biodiesel 880
Methanol 792
Glycerol 1100

6. Castor seed yields 40% oil, 55% oilcake, and 5% loss. This information obtained from
the experiment.
7. Methanol recovered from the process is not recycled. The reason for this is that the
recovered methanol is only 99.8% pure and might affect the reaction rate of the
 transesterification reaction due to sensitivity of alkali (NaOH) catalyst to water. This is
done not to underestimate the production cost. However, results showing the cost
implication of recycling methanol are also shown in the calculations.
8. There is no market for glycerol and it cannot be sold as a byproduct. This assumption is
based on the fact that there is currently an oversupply of glycerol in the world market.
9. All fixed capital is deprecated at 10% per annum straight line method.

Note: The material balance was started from the last unit operation, since the information
available were the amount of biodiesel produced per day, and using this information by applying
backward calculation the amount of raw materials needed were determined. For ease of
understanding we putted the material balance from the first unit operation to the last unit
operation.

5.1.1. Material balance on castor seed preparation

 The oil expelled contains 0.05-0.1% by mass residue which can be normally considered
as solid meal.
 The cake contains 5% by mass oil
The seed contains 10% and assuming all the water is pressed as oil together with the oil.

(i) Material balance on drier

Mwe

Mcseed = 46,091.7kg/day Dryer Mdried castor

13%moisture 10%moisture

Where
Mcseed = mass flow rate of castor seed
Mwe = mass flow rate of evaporated water
Mdried castor = mass flow rate of dried castor
Over all material balance

Mcseed = Mew + Mdried castor

46,091.7 kg/day = Mew + Mdried castor……………………………………………... (Eq5.1)

Component material balance for water:

0.13*46,091.7 = Mew + 0.1*Mdried castor……………………………………………

(Eq5.2)

Solving equation 5.10 and 5.11 simultaneously

46,091.7 kg/day = Mew + Mdried castor kg/day subtract

0.13*46,091.7 kg/day = Mew + 0.1*Mdried castor

40,099.77 kg/day = 0.9*Mdried castor

Mdried castor = 44, 555.3 kg/day
Thus Mew = 46,091.7 kg/day – 44,555.3 kg/day = 1536.4 kg/day

(ii) Material balance on de-hulling machine

Mdriedcastor = 44,555.3 kg/day

Mdcastor
25% shell De-hulling

Mshell

Where
Mdriedcastor = mass flow rate of dried castor seed
 Mdcastor = mass flow rate of deshelled castor
Mshell = mass flow rate of shell
Similarly performing material balance all over the system

Mdried castor =Mshell + Mdcastor

44,555.3 kg/day = Mshell + Mdcastor……………………………………. (Eq5.3)

Making material balance for shells

0.25Mdried castor = Mshell + 0

0.25Mdried castor = S….……………………………………………………… (Eq5.4)

Also similarly solving equation 5.3 and 5.4 simultaneously we will have:

44,555.3 kg/day = Mshell + Mdcastor

0.25Mdried castor = Mshell

( 44,555.3−0.25∗44,555.3 ) kg/day=Mdcastor

kg
Mdcastor=33,416.5
day

Mshell = 0.25*44,555.3 kg/day = 11,138.8 kg/day.

5.1.2. Material balance on oil production

(iii) Material balance on

solvent extractor and distillation.

Mhexane

Solvent
Mdcastor = 33,416.5 kg/day Mhexane
extractor Distillation

Moilcake
Mcrude oil
Where
Mdcastor = mass flow of prepared seed in kg/day.
Moilcake = mass flow rate of oilcake in kg /day.
Mhexane = mass flow rate of hexane in kg/day.

The extractor is seen as a closed unit with only castor seed entering and crude oil and oilcake
leaving. All hexane and other utilities used are included in the operations costs and are not
included in the mass balance. Thus the overall mass balance on extractor and distillation unit
becomes

Mdcastor= Moilcake+ Mcrude oil … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(Eq 5.5)

And castor seed contain 40% oil and 55% oilcake and 5% lost.
Mcrude oil=0.4∗Mdcastor
Mcrude oil = 0.4*33,416.5 kg/day
Mcrude oil=13,366.6 kg /day
33,416.5 kg/day = Moilcake + 13,366.6 kg/day
Moilcake = 20,049.9 kg/day.

(iv)Material balance on degumming tank (mixing tank) and centrifuge.

Approximately 12.5 percent of extracted oil is phospholipid or gum. And soft water with an
amount of 3 percent of crude oil is used.

MH3PO4 Msoft water

Degumming
Mcrude oil =
Centrifuge MDoil
13,366.6 kg/day

Mgum water
Where:
MH3PO4 = mass flow rate of phosphoric acid in kg/day.
Mcrude oil = mass flow rate of crude oil in kg/day.
Msoft water = mass flow rate of soft water in kg/day.
Mgum water = mas flow rate of water and gum mixture in kg/day.
MDoil = mass flow rate of degummed oil in kg/day.

Overall mass balance on degumming process

All water used for degumming process is removed during centrifugation with gum and other
impurities. Thus
Mcrude oil=Mgum+ MDoil … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(Eq 5.6)
Mgum=0.125∗Mcrude oil
Mgum = 0.125 *13,366.6 kg/day
Thus Mgum = 0.125*13,366.6 kg/day = 1670.8 kg/day
MDoil = 13,366.6 kg/day – 1,670.8 kg/day = 11,695.8 kg/day
(v) Material balance on neutralization tank.
R1-COO-CH + NaOH R1-COONa + H20
FFA Base Soap Water

MNaOH Mwash water

Neutralization
MDoil = 11,695.8 kg/day Centrifuge MNoil

Msoap stock

Where
MNaOH = mass flow rate of NaOH catalyst in kg/day
Mmethnol = mass flow rate of methanol in kg/day.
MDoil = mass flow rate of degummed oil in kg/day.
Msoap stock = mass flow rate of soap stock in kg/day.
MNoil = mass flow rate of neutralized oil in kg/day.
Overall material balance on refining tank and centrifuge.
MDoil+ MNaOH + Mwash water=MNoil+ Msoap+Wwater … … … … … .(Eq 5.7)
But, mass of NaOH needed for neutralization is determined using
mass of FFA MNaOH
= … … … … … … … … … …(Eq 5.8)
molecular weight of FFA molecular weight of NaOH
From experiment we know that:
mass of FFA =0.435 %MDoil
mass of FFA =0.00435∗MDoil Substitute this equation in to equation 5.8.
0.00435∗MDoil MNaOH
=
937.7 40
MNaOH =0.000186∗MDoil … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (Eq5.9)
And from the experiment we know that percentage of soap in the oil.
Msoap=10 %MDoil
Msoap=0.1∗MDoil … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(Eq5.10)
Substitute equation 5.10 and 5.9 in to equation 5.8. And assume that all amount of water used for
washing during refining the degummed oil leaves from the centrifuge with soap. Thus equation
5.2 becomes.
MDoil+0.000186∗MDoil=MNoil+0.1∗MDoil
0.9 MDoil= MNoil
MNoil=0.9∗11,695.8kg /day .
MNoil=10,526.3 kg/day
Thus MNaOH = 0.000186*11,695.8 kg/day = 2.2 kg/day and
Msoap = 0.1*11,695.8 kg/day = 1169.6 kg/day

5.1.3. Material balance on biodiesel production

(vi)Material balance on transesterification reactor and separator.

Overall mass balance on transesterification reactor

Input = output

MNoil + Mmethanol + MNaOH = Mbiodiesel + Mglycerol…………………. (Eq5.11)

The mixture is fed to the transesterification reactor have a conversion of 95% of castor oil has to
biodiesel takes place. Thus;
Mbiodesel = 95% of MNoil
Mbiodesel = 0.95*MNoil
Mbiodiesel = 0.95*10,526.3 = 10,000 kg/day
Mmethanol = 20% MNoil
Mmethanol = 0.2*10,526.3kg/day
Mmethanol = 2105.6 kg/day

Mmethanol MNaOH

Transesterification and Mbiodiesel

MNoil =
separation
10,526.3 kg/day

Mglycerol

MNaOH = 1% MNoil
MNaOH = 0.01*10,526.3 kg/day
MNaOH = 105.3 kg/day

Substituting the known variables in to equation 5.11 and find the unknown.
10,526.3 kg/day + 2105.6 kg/day +105.3 kg/day = 10,000 kg/day +Mglycerol
Mglycerol = 2737.2 kg/day. This glycerol is crude glycerol, which contains soap, catalyst, water,
methanol and pure glycerol.

Generally from material balance it was possible to conclude that 46,091.7 kg/day of castor seed
were needed to produce 10,000 kg/day of biodiesel.
Table 18 mass balance of the 10,000 kg/day biodiesel production plant using castor seed.

IN Castor seed kg/day

Seed 46,091.7
Methanol 2105.6
Sodium hydroxide 107.9
Total 48,305.2
OUT Biodiesel 10,000
Water removed 1536.4
Castor shell 11,138.8
Oilcake 20,049.9
Glycerol 2737.2
Gum 1670.8
Soap 1169.6
Total 45,302.7
 5.2. Energy balance
Energy balance is performed in unit operations such as drying, solvent extractor, distillation,
degumming, neutralization and transesterification reactor. Since those unit operations require
much amount of energy.
Table 19 specific heat capacity data for all streams

Mass (kg/day) Cp (KJ/kg. k)

Castor Seed 462 2.08
Crude Oil 134 6.104
Refined oil 105.3 6.526
Biodiesel 100 7.205
N-hexane 1,117 2.244
Sodium hydroxide 1.075 0.72

Water 4.18
Methanol 21.06 2.529

5.2.1 Energy for seed drying

The seeds are allowed to dry and go through deshelling for more the moisture inside the seed and
shell respectively. So as to do so the seed should be inserted in to dryer which is operates up to
80 °c. The energy required is sensible energy to raise only the temperature.

Q = McpΔT

46,091.7 kg
∗2.08 KJ
day
Q= ∗55 K
kg . K

Q = 5,272,890 KJ/day
5,272,890 KJ
∗1 day
day
∗1 hr
24 hr
∗1 minute
60 minute
60 sec

Q = 61 KW.

5.2.2 Energy required in Degumming

Water spayed at 60 Oc. Since the energy required in the degumming section is fulfilled by
addition of the hot water the energy given to the system with hot water can be given by.
Q = MwcpwΔT, Mw =10% crude oil = 1,336.66 kg/day

1336.66 kg
∗4.18 KJ
day
Q= ∗( 60−20 ) K
kg . K

223,479 KJ
∗1 day
day
∗1 hr
24 hr
∗1 minute
60 minute
Q=
60 sec

Q = 2.58 KW.

5.2.3 Energy balance on neutralizer

As it has been discussed in the literature review neutralizer unit operation is an operation in
which free fatty acid are removed by forming the soap with the addition of alkaline compounds
such as caustic soda and steam is added with coils to facilitate the reaction and additionally the
water which has been added to dissolved NaOH initially before it was poured to the neutralizer
reactor should be evaporated.

The boiling point of the neutralized oil raised to 115 0c and the feed was at 30 0c before entering
the neutralizer .Therefore the heat required in this unit operation is amount of heat to evaporate
the water used to dilute the caustic soda and the heat absorber to raise the system temperature
from 20 0c to 115 0c.
Q = McpΔT, but mass flow rate of oil M =11,695.8 kg/day C p = 3.85KJ/kg.K, ΔT = 85 0c and
(neglecting the effect of NaOH on specific heat capacity change)

11,695 kg
∗3.85 KJ
day 3,827,188 KJ
Q= ∗85 K=
kg . K day

38,288.85 KJ
∗1 day
day
∗1 hr
24 hr
∗1 minute
60 minute
Q=
60 sec

Q = 44.3 KW

5.2.4 Energy balance on washer

The free fatty acid that doesn’t react with caustic soda and soap formed in the neutralization unit
does not completely removed in neutralization unit operation rather it will washed by hot water
in the washer unit operation .The hot water is sprayed at temperature 60 0c with a flow rate of 30
% of the oil used. The flow rate of the oil neutralized to washer is 11,695 kg/day. Therefore the
flow rate of hot water will be
0.3 * 11,695 kg/day = 3508 kg/day
The energy needed is to raise the temperature of this hot water from room temperature to 60 oc.
Q=McpΔT

kg
∗4.18 KJ
day 513,293 KJ
Q=3508 ∗( 60−25 ) =
kg . K day

513,293 KJ
∗1 day
day
∗1 hr
24 hr
∗1 minute
60 minute
Q=
60 sec
Q = 5.94 KW

5.2.5 Energy balance on the vacuum dryer

In the vacuum dryer, the energy required is both sensible and latent heat. The latent heat is the
heat required to up rise the water at the given pressure with the corresponding temperature

Let us consider minimum temperature different of ΔT min = 10-20 0c taking 20 0c between the cold
and the hot fluid while washing to operation the temperature of the mixture neutralized oil and
hot water will be 40 0c and as sensible heat ,the temperature range from 60 0c -100 0c to vaporize
water and at p=0.75 atm = 76 kpa vaporization temperature of pure water is 92 0c , but let us
consider the system temperature to be kept at 100 oc since the temperature of oil makes the
heater boiling point to be raise to 100oc.

Q = McpΔT + mwHv

M= mass flow rate of water leaved with the oil and oil flow rate assuming half the water added is
separated with soap and half is passed to the vacuum dryer.

Mw = mass flow rate water passed to the dryer = 1754 kg/day

Mmix = mass of oil + mass of water = (10,526.3 +1754) kg/day = 12,280 kg/day

Q = McpΔT +MwHv, H v at 100oc =2569 KJ/kg, Cpmix = 3.85KJ/kg.K

12,280 kg kg
∗3.85 KJ ∗2569 KJ
day day
∗60 K +1754 =7,342,775 KJ /day
kg . K kg
7,342,775 KJ
∗1 day
day
∗1 hr
24 hr
∗1 minute
60 minute
Q=
60 sec

Q = 84.9 KW
 5.2.6. Heat of reaction

Chemical reactions are accompanied by evolution or absorption of energy. The enthalpy change
(difference between the total enthalpy of formation of the products and that of the reactants) is
called the heat of reaction ∆Hr:
∆ H r =( v r H fr + v s H fs + … )−( v a H fa + v b H fb +… ) … … … … … … … … .. Eq 12
Where Hfi are the enthalpies of formation of components i. The reaction is exothermic if heat is
produced by the reaction (negative heat of reaction) and endothermic if heat is consumed
(positive heat of reaction). The magnitude of the effective heat of reaction depends upon
temperature and the phases of the reactants and product. To estimate the dependence of the heat
of reaction on temperature relative to a reference temperature T0, the following expression can be
used, provided there is no phase change:
T
∆ H r ( T )=∆ H r ( T O ) +∫ ∆ CpdT … … … … … … … .
TO

∆ Cp=( v r cpr + v s cp s+ … ) −( v a cpa + v b cpb +…)

Where cpi are the heat capacities of component i. The heat of reaction can be measured by using
calorimetry.
Heat of reaction for Transesterification reactor
The quantity of the energy released or absorbed in this reaction is calculated using bond energies
released and absorbed in a particular reaction. Whenever any chemical reaction occurs, reactant
bonds break and energy is released. Then products form new bonds and energy is consumed. If
the energy released is more than the energy required, then it qualifies as exothermic reaction,
otherwise it is an endothermic reaction.

The standard bond enthalpy (Ho) is the energy required to break one mole of the reactant’s bonds
and can be used to calculate overall heat of a reaction, as described in the following equation:
Ho (heat of reaction) = sum of the bond enthalpies for bonds broken in the reaction - sum of the
bond enthalpies of the bonds formed in the reaction.
Reaction1.2: Transesterification
Reaction 1.2 above shows reactions taking place where one molecule of triglyceride (from castor
oil extract) reacts with three molecules of methanol to produce three molecules of methyl ester
(biodiesel), while one molecule of glycerol separates.
Finally, this bio-diesel molecule produced in the reaction is used to produce energy through
combustion in machines. Given the bond energies and chemical structure of the biodiesel, one
can calculate the amount of energy released on the complete combustion of one molecule of
biodiesel (methyl ester).

Glycerol or Glycerin

Glycerol is a trihybrid alcohol (containing three -OH hydroxyl groups) that can combine with up
to three fatty acids to form monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides. Fatty acids may
combine with any of the three hydroxyl groups to create a wide diversity of compounds.
Monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides are classified as esters which are compounds
created by the reaction between acids and alcohols that release water (H2O) as a by-product.

Structure of Biodiesel molecule [7]:

 Table 20 Average Bond Enthalpies of various bonds involved in the reaction:

Bonds ∆Hb (kJ/mole)

C-H 413
C-C 348
C=O 799
O=O 495
C-O 358
O-H 463
C=C 599

Calculations of the reactant side compounds:

Energy of oil or triglyceride

Bonds broken and heat energy absorbed from surroundings, endothermic change:

(74x C-H) + (2x C=C) + (3x C=O) + (6x C-O) + (48x C-C)

(74x 413) + (2x 599) + (3x 799) + (6x 358) + (48x 348) = 53,009 KJ/mol

Energy of methanol

Bonds broken and heat energy absorbed from surroundings, endothermic change

(3x C-H) + (1x C-O) + (1x O-H)

3x ((3x 413) + (1x 358) + (1x 463)) = 6,180 KJ/mol

Total energy of bond broken = 53,009 + 6,180 = 59,189 KJ/mol

Calculations of the product side compounds:

Energy of product (biodiesel)

Bonds formed and heat energy needed and given to the reactor system, endothermic change:

( 34∗C−H ) + ( 1∗C=O )+ ( 1∗C−O ) + ( 15∗C−C )+(23.5∗O=O)

( 34∗413 ) + ( 1∗799 )+ (1∗358 ) + ( 15∗348 ) +(23.5∗495) = 32,051.5 KJ/mol

Energy of product (glycerol)

Bonds formed and heat energy needed and given to the reactor system, endothermic change.

( 5∗C−H ) + ( 3∗C−O )+ (2∗C−C )+(3∗O−H )

( 5∗413 )+ (3∗358 ) + ( 2∗348 ) + ( 3∗463 )=5,224 KJ /mol

Total energy of bond formed = 32,051.5 + 5,224 = 37,275.5 KJ/mol

Energy released = Energy of bonds broken - Energy of bonds formed

Energy released = 59,189 – 37,275.5 = +21,913.5 KJ/mol (positive sign demonstrates the
reaction is endothermic).

Now we know that 21,913.5 KJ/mol of energy is absorbed when one mole of triglyceride is
reacted with three mole of methanol. Energy absorbed is depicted by the positive sign.
6. Equipment Design and Specification
Equipment design for this preliminary process evaluation involves determining the size of the
equipment in terms of the volume, flow per unit time, or surface area. Some of the calculations
associated with the extraction, and transesterification unit are presented in the following to
indicate the extent of the calculations which are sometimes adequate for a preliminary design.

Storage tanks are sized depended on daily requirement; they can store and the assumption that
the plant works for 3 shifts and 8 hour with 10% safety factor for the volume. And for the tanks
it should be given 10 days allowance for storage.

6.1. Equipment Sizing

Storage (Holding) Tank:
Storage tanks and silo are needed to store raw materials, intermediate product, byproducts and
end products such as; raw castorseed, Hexane, water, crude oil, methanol, catalyst (NaOH),
methoxide, glycerol, and biodiesel.
Storage bin (silo)
From material balance, mass of castor seed consumed per day is 46,091.7 kg/day.
mass of castor seed
Thus V soybean =
density of soybean
Density of castor bean is 577 kg/m3
46,091.9
V castor bean consumed = = 79.88 m3/day
577

V storage bin for castor seed = V castor bean consumed per day*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
m3
V storage bin = 79.88 *10 day
day
V storage bin = 798.8 m3 = 28,200 ft3
One storage bins with holding volume of 28,200 ft3 is used to handle the raw castor bean

Hexane tank
From material balance, mass of hexane needed and recycled per day is 100,249.5 kg.
 mass of hexane
Thus V hexane =
density of hexane
And density of hexane is equal to 680 kg/m³
100,249.5
V hexane used and recycled = = 147.4 m3/day
680
V hexane tank = V hexane used per day*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 1 days
V hexane tank = 147.4 m3⁄day*1 day = 147.4 m3/day
Considering 10% volume allowance.
V hexane tank = 147.4 m3 +0.1*147.4 m3 = 162.14 m3 = 42,832.5 gallon.
One hexane storage tank with holding volume of 42,835.2 gallon is used

Degumming tank (mixing tank)

From material balance, mass crude oil produced per day is 13,366.6 kg.
mass of crude oil
Thus V crude oil =
density of crude oil
And density of soybean is equal to 960 kg/m³
13,336.6
V crude oil = = 13.9 m3/day
960
V soft water =3%V crude oil = 0.03*13.9 m3/day = 0.417 m3/day
V degumming tank = (V crude oil + V soft water)* storage day
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
V degumming tank = (13.9 + 0.417) m3/day*10 day = 143.17 m3
Considering 10% volume allowance
V degumming tank= 143 m3 + 0.1*143 m3 = 157 m3 = 41,475 gallon.
Five degumming tanks with capacity of 8,295 gallon for each are used.

Refining tank
This tank is charged with degummed oil, sodium hydroxide and soft water.
mass of degummed oil
Thus V degummed oil =
density of degummed oil
And density of degummed oil is equal to 960 kg/m³.
11,695.8
V degummed oil = = 12.2 m3/day
960
 mass of NaOH
V NaOH =
density of NaOH
And density of NaOH = 980 m3/kg
2.2
V NaOH = = 2.24*10-3 m3/day
980
V soft water = 3%*V degummed oil = 0.03*12.2 m3/day = 0.366 m3/day
V refining tank = (V degummed oil + V NaOH + V water)*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
V refining tank = (12.2 + 1.033*10-3 + 0.366) m3/day *10 day = 125 m3
Considering 10% volume allowance.
V tank of refined oil = 125 m3 + 0.1*12.5 m3
V tank of refined oil = 137.5 m3 = 36,323.4 gallon
Five degumming tanks with capacity of 7,264 gallon for each are used.

Refined oil storage

From material balance, mass refined oil produced per day is 105.3kg.
mass of refined oil
Thus V refined oil =
density of refined oil
And density of refined oil is equal to 960 kg/m³.
10,526.3
V refined oil produced = = 10.96 m3/day
960
V refined oil produced = V refined oil produced per day*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
V tank of refined oil = 10.9 m3⁄day*10 day = 109.6 m3
Considering 10% volume allowance.
V tank of refined oil = 109.6 m3 + 0.1*109.6 m3
V tank of refined oil = 120.56 m3 = 31,848.33 gallon
Two refined oil storage tank with holding capacity of 15,924 gallon for each are used

Methanol storage
From material balance, mass methanol needed for reaction per day is 2105.6 kg.
mass of methanol
Thus V methanol =
density of methanol
And density of methanol is equal to 791 kg/m³.
2105.6
V refined oil produced = = 2.66 m3/day
791
V methanol tank = V methanol needed per day*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
V methanol tank = 2.66 m3⁄day*10 day = 26.6 m3
Considering 10% volume allowance.
V methanol tank = 26.6 m3 + 0.1*26.6 m3
V methanol tank = 29.2 m3 = 7,714 gallon
One methanol storage tank with holding capacity of 7,714 gallon is used

Biodiesel storage
From material balance, mass biodiesel produced per day is 10,000kg.
mass of biodiesel
Thus V biodiesel =
density of biodiesel
And density of methanol is equal to 880 kg/m³.
10,000
V biodiesel produced = = 11.4 m3/day
880
V biodiesel tank = V methanol needed per day*storage period in days
Assume storage period in day is 10 days
V biodiesel tank = 11.4 m3⁄day*10 day = 114 m3
Considering 10% safety factor (volume allowance).
V biodiesel tank = 114 m3 + 0.1*1.14 m3
V biodiesel tank = 125.4 m3 = 33,127 gallon
Two biodiesel storage tank with holding capacity of 16,564 gallon for are used.
Hexane Pump
Known information
Capacity of hexane charged to the extractor (Q) = 147.4 m3/day = 0.041 m3/sec.
Positive displacement pump is used to transport hexane to extractor,
Density= 680kg/m3
Head = 4 m
Materials of construction is cast steel, since it is corrosive.
The useful power is the rate at which useful energy is transferred to the flow medium. The SI
unit of useful power is kW which is (kJ/s). The useful power is calculated using Equations 6.1
and 6.2.
N  m Y ……………………………………………………………………………… (Eq 6.1)
And Y = Hg
Where: H=Head, Y= Specific Work, g=gravitational acceleration N = useful power
Since mass flow rate is the product of density and volume flow rate m=ρQ
N  QY
N = ρQgH ……………………………………………………………………………... (Eq 6.2)
Thus
3
kg m m KJ
N=680 3
∗0.041 ∗4 m∗9.81 2 =1.094
m s s se
N = 1.04 KW .

Oil pump
Known information
For pumping oil from the storage to the reactor a reciprocating type of pump (positive
displacement pump) is used since the oil has high viscosity.
Positive displacement pump is used to move refined oil to reactor.
Density= 960 kg/m3
Head = 5m
Materials of construction is carbon steel
Capacity of oil transferred from neutralizer to refining tank = 10.96 m3/day = 0.003 m3/sec.
3
960 kg m m KJ
N= ρQgH= 3
∗0.003 ∗9.81 2 ∗5 m=0.14
m s s se
N = 0.14 KW

Biodiesel pump
Known information.
Density= 880 kg/m3
Head = 5 m
Materials of construction is carbon steel

Capacity of biodiesel transferred from separator to storage tank = 11.4 m3/day = 0.0031 m3/sec
3
880 kg m m KJ
N= ρQgH= 3
∗0.003 ∗9.81 2 ∗5 m=0.12
m s s se
N = 0.12 KW

Dryer
The volume of clean castor bean fed to the dryer is calculated as follows;
Thus V castor bean = 79.88 m3/day
Assume drying period in day is 5 hr. = 0.2 day
V dryer = 79.88 m3/day *0.2 = 15.97 m3 = 564.2ft3
And also volume of dryer
V dryer = π r 2 h
564.2 = π r 2 h Assume height of dryer = 5 m = 53.8 ft2
2
r =564.2 /π∗h
r2 = 564.2/3.14 *53.8
r2 = 3.33 ft2
r = 1.83 ft.
 Area of the drum dryer evaluated from the volume.
Area of dryer = π r 2
Area of dryer = 3.14*1.832
Area of dryer = 10.4 ft2
 6.2. Selected Equipment Design

6.2.1. Liquid Storage tank design (pressure vessel design)

The pressure vessel is designed for storage of the final product which is biodiesel. The total
amount of biodiesel produced and going to be stored is with a mass flow rate of 10,000 kg/day
(from material balance).

Let us consider to design a tank with capacity that can hold and day product. Therefore the
capacity will be determined to be.

100 kg
m= ∗10 day=1000 kg of biodiesel
day

The density of biodiesel is 880 kg/day based on the experimental out put

Therefore the volume of the tank that will be going to be designed is

m 1000 kg 3
V= = =1.14 m , taking safety factor of 15 %
ρ kg
880 3
m

V = 1.15*1.14 m3 = 1.31 m3

To minimize the safety factor the pressure applied on the bottom surface of the vessel let us take
5% volume of the tank is to be conical shape. The vessel has therefore two sectional one
cylindrical at the top and frustum of cone at the bottom.

V1 =0.95*1.31 m3 = 1.245 m3

V2 = 1.31 m3 – 1.245 m3 = 0.0665 m3

6.2.1.1 Cylindrical body of vessel design

The cylindrical body of the vessel will be designed in such a way that to resist some amount of
the of the pressure applied due to internal pressure of biodiesel and atmospheric pressure applied
externally if closed and can have influence internally during checking the product.
 H : D=1

Where “H” is height of cylinder and “D” is diameter of cylinder

The height to diameter ration will be determined based on the two logical assumptions.

1. If the diameter is very larger if occupies large spaces although it minimize pressure
applied by increased surface area and if also increased stability.

2. If the height is very large relation to the diameter, it will be affected by any external
pressures such as wind pressure and its stability will minimized.

For very larger volume it is advisable to use vertical vessel with height to diameter ratio greater
than 1 but for smaller volume horizontal vessel are preferable.

For our case let us consider the ration to be 1

H: D =1 this enables us to determine the height and diameter of the vessel.

22 2
∗D
7
Vc= Ab∗h=π r 2 h= ∗h
4

22 3
∗D
7
Vc=
4
28Vc 3
=D
22

D=
√
3 28∗Vc
22

D=
√
3 28∗1.245
22

D = 1.16 m and since H = D, H= 1.16 m

Let us calculate the internal pressure applied by liquid due to height which is called hydraulic
(Ph) and can be calculated as

P h. = 𝜌𝑔ℎ Where; Ph. = hydraulic pressure, 𝜌=density of liquid that will be stored, g =
gravitational acceleration and h = height (level of) the fluid

Since design is made at the bottle neck let us assume that the vessel be full of biodiesel at some
instant.

kg m N
Ph=880 3
∗1.16 m∗9.8 2 =10,003.84 2
m s m

Consider the atmospheric pressure for design pressure, Pd

Pd = Ph+ Patm = 10.003 kpa +101.325 kpa =111.89 kpa

Since we are going to determine the optimum thickness of the vessel, the vessel thickness is

depending up on the pressure applied and the pressure applied increased when we goes from top

to bottom of the vessel and it is possible to design a vessel with variable thickness starting from

top to bottom but for simplicity of design let us consider uniform thickness and the thickness is

given by

PiDi
t=
2 f − pi
Where, pi = internal design pressure, f = design stress, Di = internal diameter and t = thickness

the value of “f” depend upon the material construction of vessel since the biodiesel should be

kept clean the material selected is stainless stability (321) its permissible stress is 165 N/mm 2 for

temperature range of 0 to 50 temperature.

Another factor that should be considered here again to design at the bottom neck is called
welding factor (f).The value of joint factor used in design will depend up on the joint and amount
of radiography required by code. The use of lower joint factor in design though saving cost on
radiography will result in thicker, heavier, vessel and the designer must balance any cost saving
on inspection and fabrication must balances.

Since the decision of selecting once own joint types is the designer’s attitude. Let as choose

single weld but joint with bonding strips with 100% degree of radiography 100% to optimizes

the cost and ability of resistance ,the joint factor will be 0.9 and the minimum of the vessel to

PiDi
resist the applied pressure is given by t= For more reliability, it is given by
2 f − pi

kN
10.003 2
∗1.16 m
mm
t=
N kN
2∗165 2
−10.003 2
mm m

N
10,003 ∗1.16 m
m2 −5
t= =3.52∗10 m
N N
2∗165∗106 2 −10,003 2
m m

t = 0.0352 mm

This value of vessel thickness show that the raw material selected is highly selective and the
storage temperature is at low temperature. Therefore we will take the thickness of the vessel
from standard given as follow.
 Table 21 relations between diameter of vessel and its thickness

Vessel diameter (m) Minimum wall thickness (mm)

1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3 10
3 to 3.5 12
Source
Since our diameter is 1.16 m, the optimum thickness of our vessel will be
7mm.

6.2.2 Neutralizer Reactor design

Consider continuous stirred tank reactor. The following assumption were taken for simplicity of
the design.
 Perfect mixing obtained
 Constant volume or density of solution (reaction mixer) is obtained
 The Reactor is isothermal
 The heat capacity is constant

The physical configuration looks like the following which operate for both mixing agitation and
reaction.

Fi Fj

Fo
Figure 1 reactor configuration.
In order to design the reactor and mixture for this process, the volumes were first determined
using the mass balance. The volume of all the components entering the reactor were added
together to give the total liquid volume of the reactor (equivalent of one batch). For preventing
the chances of any overflow, reactors were designed to 90% fill capacity; therefore, the reactor
sizes were 1.10 times greater than the liquid volume. The diameters and heights of various
reactors can be determined using following equation:

D= √ 4 V / πRCITATION 13 ZE ¿ 1033[65]
3

… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . Eq 6.1
Where,
D = Reactor diameter (m)
V = Reactor volume (m3)
R = Reactor H/D factor = 1.2
The reactor height H is given by:
H=D∗R = 1.2*D
Stainless was also chosen for the transesterification reactor, because of the corrosive caustic
being used as a catalyst.

The volume of the reactor was obtained in the sizing section that is V = 13.2 m 3 and we used 5
reactor to do neutralization and they sizes 2.64 m3 of each.
Let us consider among the total volume of the reactor 2 m3 is designed to be cylindrical and
0.64 m3 is conical bottom.

6.2.2.1 Cylindrical section design

V= Ab *H
22 2
∗D
7
V = A b∗H =π r 2 H= ∗H
4

Considering, H: D = 1.2, H = 1.2 D

22 2
∗D
7
Vc= ∗1.2 D
4
 26.4 3
∗D
7
Vc=
4

28Vc 3
=D
26.4

D=
√
3 28∗Vc
26.4

D=
√
3 28∗2
26.4

D = 1.28 m and H = 1.2*1.28 = 1.54 m or using equation 6.1 we can calculate diameter of the
reactor.

D= √ 4 V / πR
3

D=
√
3 4∗2
3.14∗1.2

D = 1.28 m

The impeller diameter of the mixing shaft can be determined using the following constraint such

That , where d=diameter impeller [31]

Dt = diameter of reactor vessel.

Taking the ration to be 0.45 as an optimum value

d
=0.45 thus d=0.45∗Dt=0.45∗1.28=0.57 m
Dt

d = 0.57 m

Let us choose two impellers are optimum for this size of reactor. The gap between the two
impellers will be
H 1.54
= =0.77 m
2 2

The gap between the bottom flat head of two reactor vessel with bottom end of baffle is given

d 0.57
= =0.285 m
2 2

The gap between the bottom conical head and the bottom edge of the impeller of shaft is given
by

H 1.54
= =0.256 m
6 6

The offset between the baffle and the reactor wall is given by

W Dt 1.28
Offset = , Where W = =
6 12 12

Offset = 0.0177 m

Power requirement of for mixing

The power ration of shaft motor in any mixing reactor can be given as follow as a rough
estimation in relation to the vessel size whatever the mixture is.

Table 22 relation table for power and tank size

Tank size gallons 1 5 10 30

Motor (Hp) 0.5 1 2 3
Source: [31]
Extrapolating the motor power for our capacity of vessel which is 2.64 m3 = 574 gallons, the
power will be obtained as,

V (gallons) Power (Hp)

10 2
30 3
574 ?p

After extrapolating motor power needed was obtained.

P = 30.2 Hp, Using conversion factor
1 Kw =1.341 Hp
Hp∗1 kw
power required=30.2 =22.5 kw
1.341 Hp
In most of the reactor the number of baffle used are 2 up to 4. Further increase in number of
baffles increases energy consumption in the reactor and minimizing the number of baffles
decrease again the efficiency of the reactor. Let us choose a baffles number of 3 to be the
optimum number of baffles .and let as construct the impeller types will propeller which is easy
to construct and suitable in most of any viscosity ranges.

The power number for these types of impeller can range from 0.33-0.37 with baffle number of 3-
8. The whole date can be given as follows.

Table 23 types of impellers with number of baffles and power number

Types No of baffle Np
Propeller 0 0.3
Propeller 3-8 0.33-0.37
Turbine vertical blade 0 0.93-1.08
Turbine vertical blade 4 3-5
Pitched turbine 450 0 0.7
Pitched turbine 450 4 1.3-1.4
Anchored 0 0.28
Source [31]

Taking the average value of power number to be the optimum value such that

0.33+0.37
Np= =0.35
2
Mathematically, the power number, Np is given by

13
P∗1.523∗10
Np= 3 5
sN d

Where; Np is power number, p is power, d is diameter of impeller, and s is specific gravity of

impeller.
S =specific gravity of the mixture,

density of mixture 965

s= = =0.965
density of water 1000

The unknown variable is N, and after rearranging by.

13
3 P∗1.523∗10
N= 5
sNp d

Where, d = 0.57 m*39.37in/m = 22.44 in

13
3 22.5 kw∗1.523∗10
N= 5
0.965∗0.35∗22.44

N = 5628.4 rpm

This value of N indicates that higher degree agitation and it is possible to take the superficial of
the shaft to be 1 ft/sec.

power
Power = FD *VP, FD = , by assuming the superficial velocity for agitation is equivalent
Vp
to the particular velocity in the mixture.

Nm
22500
POWER 1 kw sec
FD= = =
Vp ft 1 ft m
1 ∗0.3048
se sec ft

F D =73,818 N

The pressure applied due to this force can be calculated by, Ps = F/A
Where A= area where the impeller rotates and it is the spaces between the two impeller on the
shaft

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑L, where d is diameter impeller, L is gap height internal between the two impellers

A=3.14∗¿0.57 m * 0.77 m = 1.38 m2

 F 73,818 N
Ps= = =53,491 pa=53.5 kpa
A 1.38 m 2

Pressure applied by the mixture due to height can be determined as

kg m
Ph=ρgh=965 3
∗9.81 2 ∗1.54 m=14.6 kpa
m s

The total design pressure applied in the reactor shall to be consider the atmospheric pressure and
the sum will be

Pb = Pt =14.6 kpa + 53.5 kpa +101.325 kpa = 169.4 kpa

The thickness of the reactor vessel should be designed to resist this pressure and can be
calculated as

PiDi
t r=
2 fj− pi

The material of construction for the reactor is selected to be stainless steel stabilized .the design
stress value at operating temperature 1150c is interpolated as follow

Table 24 interpolation table for design stress value of stainless steel.

T(0C) F(N/mm2)
100 145
115 ?
150 130

By interpolating the permissible stress of stainless steel at 115 0c is F = 140.5 N/mm2

PiDi
t r= ,let take j=0.85
2 fj− pi

169.4 kpa∗1.28 m
t r=
2∗0.85∗140,500 kpa−169.4 kpa
t r=¿ 1 mm and by considering 10% corrosion allowance.

t r=¿ 1.1*1 mm = 1.1 mm

This is very small and the minimum thickness for vessel with diameter of 1m is 5mm, therefore
let us taket r=5 mm .

6.2.2.2. Head design

The end of cylindrical vessel are enclosed by heads of volume shapes .the principal types of
heads are; flat plate heads, hemispherical heads, elliptical heads, Tories spherical head The order
of resistance of higher pressure is in order of their list. But as if has been seen in the pressure
design exist standard ,this show that the pressure is high from expected and in the head design
modification should done on material selection , since there is a contact between the reacting
mixture and the head.

Let us choose to construct the head from carbon steel mainly in head design we are going to
design the thickness of the head, the diameter of the heads is equivalent with the external
diameter of the vessel. The external diameter of the vessel D O = D+2t Where DO = outside
diameter D = internal diameter

The thickness of the head is given by

t h=cpDe √ pi/f Where, C p = design constant depending upon the edge constraint, De =
nominal plate diameter, f = design stress and th = closure thickness

The nominal plate diameter can be taken as outside vessel diameter

De=Di +2t

De = 1. 28 m + 2*0.005 m = 1.29 m

f = 1.764mf=135N/mm2 for carbon steel

Cp =0.4 by selecting bolted cover with a full

t h=0.4∗1.29 m
√ 169,400
135∗106
th = 0.018 m = 18.3 mm
Adding 10% corrosion allowance, the thickness of the heads will be, th = 1.1*18.3 = 20.13 m
7. Capital Investment costs
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be supplied to
purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service facilities must be
obtained, and the plant must be erected complete with all piping, controls, and services. In
addition, it is necessary to have money available for the payment of expenses involved in the
plant operation.

The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the fixed-
capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of the plant is termed the working
capital. The sum of the fixed-capital investment and the working capital is known as the total
capital investment. The fixed-capital portion may be further subdivided into manufacturing
fixed-capital investment and nonmanufacturing fixed-capital investment.

7.1 Fixed capital investment cost

Fixed costs mainly come from facility and hardware costs. They are divided into TPDC, TPIC,
and contractor fees and contingency. TPDC includes items like facility installation, processing
pipe connections, and instrumentation; and TPIC includes engineering and construction fees.
TPC is estimated by total TPDC and TPIC. Additionally, the summation of TPC, CFC, startup
costs and working capital is total capital investment for the whole producing line. The fee to
purchase the facility is used as the base to estimate fixed costs and is calculated using different
multipliers

1. Purchasing cost of equipment

The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several predesign methods for estimating capital
investment. Sources of equipment prices, methods of adjusting equipment prices for capacity,
and methods of estimating auxiliary process equipment are therefore essential to the estimator in
making reliable cost estimates. The estimation can be done by using cost index, and Estimating
Equipment Costs by Scaling.
 Table 25 purchase equipment cost of equipment in 2014

N Equipment Quantity Type variable Material cost in 2014

o (ETB)
1 Conveyor 1 Screw width carbon 570,000
steel
2 Storage bin 1 cone, bottom, ft3 carbon 900,800
large steel
3 De hulling 1 carbon 600,000
machine steel
4 Grinder 1 large cone crusher carbon 500,000
steel
5 Hexane tank 1 horizontal, fuel gallon cast steel 1,000,000
storage
6 Extractor 2 liquid-liquid carbon 1,000,000
extractor steel
7 Degumming tank 5 vertical, cone top gallon stainless 900,000
and bottom, small steel
8 Neutralizer 2 vertical, cone top stainless 800,000
and bottom, small steel
9 Vacuum oil drier 2 drum, double carbon 909,000
vacuums steel
10 Refined oil 2 API, cone roof gallon carbon 800,000
storage steel
11 Methanol storage 1 cone, bottom, gallon carbon 400,000
large steel
12 Methoxide 1 cone, bottom, carbon 600,000
storage large steel
13 CSTR reactor 2 stainless 806,000
 steel
14 Decanter 2 carbon 1,000,000
steel
15 Heater 1 carbon 770,000
steel
16 Wash column 2 carbon 907,000
steel
17 settler tank 1 carbon 1,000,000
steel
18 Vacuum ester 1 drum, double carbon 1,000,000
drier vacuums steel
19 Biodiesel storage 2 gallon carbon 1,090,000
steel
20 Hexane pump 2 chemical cast iron 100,000
injection, fixed
speed
21 Oil pump 5 Positive cast iron 250,000
displacement
22 Biodiesel pump 2 Positive cast iron 130,000
displacement
Total equipment purchase cost 16,032,800

Source: www.matche.com
Cost index

A cost index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the cost at that time
relative to a certain base time. If the cost at some time in the past is known, the equivalent cost at
the present time can be determined by multiplying the original cost by the ratio of the present
index value to the index value applicable when the original cost was obtained.
index value at present time
Present cost=orginal cost ( )
index value at tie orginalcost obtained
The most common of these indexes are the Marshall and Swift all-industry and process-industry
equipment indexes.
Since the cost index of 2019 is not available we take the cost index of 2017.
Table 26 marshal and swift installed equipment index

Year Annual Index

2009 521.9
2010 550.8
2011 585.7
2012 584.6
2013 567.3
2014 576.1
2015 556.8
2016 541.7
2017 535.3
2018/19 535.3

We choose 2014 as the base year

Index at 2019
Present cost (2019) = original cost (2014)*
Index at 2014
Estimating Equipment Costs by Scaling
It is often necessary to estimate the cost of a piece of equipment when no cost data are available
for the particular size of operational capacity involved.

( )
x
capacity of Eqpt a
Cost of Equip a=Cost of Eqpt b
capacity of Eqpt b

The cost-capacity concept should not be used beyond a tenfold range of capacity, and care must
be taken to make certain the two pieces of equipment are similar with regard to type of
construction, materials of construction, temperature and pressure operating range, and other
pertinent variables.

By applying those two techniques we had done the updated purchase equipment cost.
 Table 27 updated purchase equipment cost

No Equipment Quantity Cost Cost Cost in 2014 Cost

index index in (ETB) in 2019 (ETB)
in 2014 2019
1 Conveyor 1 576.1 535.3 570,000 529632.0083
2 Storage bin 1 576.1 535.3 900,800 837004.409
3 De hulling machine 1 576.1 535.3 600,000 557507.3772
4 Grinder 1 576.1 535.3 500,000 464589.481
5 Hexane tank 1 576.1 535.3 1,000,000 929178.962
6 Extractor 2 576.1 535.3 1,000,000 929178.962
7 Degumming tank 5 576.1 535.3 900,000 836261.0658
8 Neutralizer 2 576.1 535.3 800,000 743343.1696
9 Vacuum oil drier 2 576.1 535.3 909,000 844623.6764
10 Refined oil storage 2 576.1 535.3 800,000 743343.1696
11 Methanol storage 1 576.1 535.3 400,000 371671.5848
12 Methoxide storage 1 576.1 535.3 600,000 557507.3772
13 CSTR reactor 2 576.1 535.3 806,000 748918.2434
14 Decanter 2 576.1 535.3 1,000,000 929178.962
15 Heater 1 576.1 535.3 770,000 715467.8007
16 Wash column 2 576.1 535.3 907,000 842765.3185
17 Settler tank 1 576.1 535.3 1,000,000 929178.962
18 Vacuum ester drier 1 576.1 535.3 1,000,000 929178.962
19 Biodiesel storage 2 576.1 535.3 1,090,000 1012805.069
20 Hexane pump 2 576.1 535.3 100,000 92917.8962
21 Oil pump 5 576.1 535.3 250,000 232294.7405
22 Biodiesel pump 2 576.1 535.3 130,000 120793.2651
Total equipment purchase cost 14897340.46
 7.1.1 Direct cost

Direct cost is the type of fixed capital investment costs that directly applicable for plant erection.
Before we are going to estimate the direct cost first of all identifies the process type. And the
plant is solid liquid processing plant.

7.1.2 Indirect cost

Indirect costs are expenses which are not directly involved with material and labor or actual
installation of complete facility.

 Fixed Capital investment (FCI) = Direct cost + Indirect cost

FCI = DC + IC
 Total capital investment (TCI) It is the sum of fixed capital investment and working
capital
 TCI= FCI + WC but WC = (10-20) % TCI, taking 15%
TCI= FCI + 0.15 TCI
TCI – 0.15TCI = FCI
TCI (1-0.15) = FCI
0.85TCI = FCI
TCI = FCI/0.85

7.2. Working capital

The working capital (WC) is the total amount of money invested in the raw materials and
supplies cost carried in stock, finished product in stock, semi-finished product in stock and other
requirements.

The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of money invested in (1)
raw materials and supplies carried in stock, (2) finished products in stock and semi-finished
products in the process of being manufactured, (3) accounts receivable, (4) cash kept on hand for
monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries, wages, and raw-material purchases, (5)
accounts payable, and (6) taxes payable.
The working capital is 10-20 % total capital investment (TCI), assume 15%

WC = 0.15*TCI
 Table 28 total capital investment table

Item Percentage (% of E ) Costs in

ETB
Purchased equipment (delivered) 100 14897340.46
Purchased equipment installation 39 5809962.78
Instrumentation (installed) 13 1936654.26
Piping (installed) 31 4618175.543
Electrical (installed) 10 1489734.046
Buildings (including services) 29 4320228.734
Yard improvements 10 1489734.046
Service facilities (installed) 55 8193537.254
Land 6 893840.4277
Total direct plant cost D 293 43649207.55
engineering and supervision 32 4767148.948
construction expense 34 5065095.757
Total indirect plant cost I 66 9832244.705
Total direct and indirect plant cost 359 53481452.26
(D+I)
Contractor's fee (about 5% of D+I ) 18 2681521.283
Contingency (about 10% 0f D+I ) 36 5363042.566
Fixed - capital investment (FCI) 413 61526016.11
Total - capital investment (TCI) FCI/0.85 72383548.36
Working capital (WC) 15%TCI 10857532.25

7.3. Total Production cost

Determination of the necessary capital investment is only one part of a complete cost estimate.
Another equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling the
Products. These costs can be grouped under the general heading of total product cost (TPC). The
latter, in turn, is generally divided into the categories of manufacturing costs and general
expenses. Manufacturing costs are also known as operating or production costs. Further
subdivision of the Manufacturing costs is somewhat dependent upon the interpretation of direct
and indirect cost.

Total product cost (TPC) = Manufacturing costs (MC) + General expense (GE)

7.3.1. Manufacturing costs

Total manufacturing cost refers to the cost of the day to day operation of a biodiesel plant and is
divided in to two categories: variable manufacturing cost and indirect manufacturing cost and
general expense.

Manufacturing cost = Direct production costs + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs
A. Direct production costs
1. Raw material (10-15) % of total product cost (TCI)
Raw material cost = 0.1*72,383,548.36 = 7,238,354.44 birr
2. Operating labor (10-20) % TPC
OL = 0.1*TPC
3. Direct supervisory and clerical labor (10-25) % of operating labor) = 0.1*OL
= 0.01*TPC
4. Utilities = 10%PEC = 0.1*14,897,340.46 = 1,489,734.046 birr/year
5. Maintenance and repairs = (2-10) %FCI = 0.03*FCI=0.03*61,526,016.11
= 1,845,780.483 birr
6. Operating supplies 15%M&R =0.15*1,845,780.483 = 276,867.0725
7. Laboratory charges (10-20% of operating labor) = 0.15*(0.1TPC) = 0.015TPC
8. Patents and royalties (0-6% of total product cost) = 0.01*TPC
 Direct production cost (DPC) = 10,850,736.44 + 0.135* TPC--------------------------
(Eq7.1)
B. Fixed charges
1. Depreciation 10% FCI = 0.1*FCI
2. Local taxes (1-4) % FCI = 0.01*FCI
3. Insurance (0.4-1) % FCI = 0.005*FCI
 4. Rent (8-12) % of value rented land and buildings – for the safe of promoting local
investors, in Ethiopia provide land free from taxes and rents.
Fixed charges (FC) = Depreciation + Local tax + Insurance
Fixed charges (FC) = 0.005*FCI = 0.005*61,526,016.11
FC = 7,075,491.853 birr
C. Plant overhead (5-15% of total product cost) = 0.05*TPC

 Manufacturing Cost (MC) = Direct production costs + Fixed charges + Plant overhead
= 10,850,736.44 + 0.135* TPC + 7,075,491.853 + 0.05*TPC
MC = 17,926,228.29 birr + 0.185* TPC------------------------
(Eq7.2)

7.3.2. General expense

General expenses (GE) = Administrative cost + distribution and selling costs + Research
and development costs + Financing/Interest
A. Administrative cost is 15%OL = 0.15*(0.1TPC) = 0.015TPC
B. Distribution and selling cost (2-20% of total product cost) = 0.02*TPC
C. Research and development cost (5% of total product cost) = 0.05*TPC
D. Financing (0-10% of total capital investment) = 0.01*TCI = 0.01*72,383,548.36 = 723,835.5
GE = 723,835.48 birr + 0.085TPC-------------------------------------------
(Eq7.3)

 Total product cost (TPC) = Manufacturing costs (MC) + General expense (GE)
TPC = 17,926,228.29 + 0.185* TPC + 723,835.48 + 0.085TPC
TPC = 18,650,063.77 + 0.27* TPC
TPC (1 - 0.27) = 18,650,063.77
0.73*TPC = 18,650,063.77
TPC = 25,548,032.57 birr/year.

Oilcake is valuable byproduct obtained from castor seed based plant and it is possible to reduce
production cost by selling the oilcake. Oilcake price depends on its protein content. Annually
produced oilcake as byproduct is
 kg
∗300 day
day
oilcake produced=20,049.9 =6,014,970 kg / year
year

Assume price of oil cake is 2 birr/kg

Annual income from oilcake = 6,014,970 kg/year * 2 birr/kg = 12,029,940 birr/year

Thus the total production cost becomes

TPC = (25,548,032.57 - 12,029,940) birr/year = 13,518,092.6 birr/year.

Table 29 total production cost table

Item Percentage cost in ETB

Raw material cost 10% TCI 7238354.836
Operating labor 10% TPC 1351809.2
Direct supervisory and clerical 10%OL 135180.92
Labor
Utilities 10% PEC 1489734.046
Maintenance and repair 3%FCI 1845780.483
Operating supplies 15% M&R 276867.0725
Laboratory charges 15%OL 202771.38
Patent and royalties 1%TPC 135180.92
Direct production cost 12675678.86
Depreciation 10%FCI 6152601.611
local taxes 1%FCI 615260.1611
Insurance 0.5%FCI 307630.0805
Fixed charges 7075491.852
Plant-overhead costs 5%TPC 675904.6
Administration 15%OL 202771.38
Distribution and selling 2%TPC 270361.84
Research and development 5%TPC 675904.6
Financing(interest) 1%TCI 723835.4836
General expense 1872873.304
Total production cost 13,518,092.00
8. Financial Analysis and Investment Appraisal
8.1. Profitability

8.1.1 Gross and net profit

Gross profit =Total sale revenue ( TSR ) −Totalproduction cost (TPC )

ButTotal sale revenue (TSR)=Selling price∗Total production Capacity
Plant operation day is 300 days. If the plant has 100% production level (Full capacity)
Therefore, Income from sale
Total revenue is obtained from the sale of biodiesel.
Total revenue = 3,000,000 kg/year *15 birr/day = 45,000,000 birr/year
Gross profit = 45,000,000 -13,518,092.6 = 31,481,907.4 birr/year
Gross profit = 31,481,907.4 birr/year

Net profit = Gross profit – Income tax = Gross profit – 35% Gross profit = 65% of gross profit
= 0.65*31,481,907.4
Net profit = 20,463,239.81 birr/year

Based on the projected profit and loss statement, the project will generate a profit throughout its
operation life. The annual net profit after taxes is 20,463,239.81 birr during the life of the
project.

8.1.2. Break-even Analysis

The break-even analysis establishes a relationship between operation costs and revenues. It
indicates the level at which costs and revenue are in equilibrium. To this end, the break-even
point for capacity utilization and sales value estimated by using income statement projection are
computed as followed.

At Break-even point:
Total production cost = Total sale revenue
Fixed cost + variable cost = Total sale revenue
Fixed cost + r*Q = s*Q
Where r, s = unit production cost and unit selling price respectively
Fixed cost = Q/(s - r) and r = TPC/Q = 4.5 Birr/kg
Fixed cost = Fixed charge + Plant overhead cost + General expense
= 7,075491.852 + 675,904.6 + 1,872,873.304 = 9,624,269.756 birr/year
¿ cost
QBE =
selling price−unit production cost
9,624,269.756 kg
QBE = =916,597.2
15−4.5 year
QBE =30.5 % full capacity .
The break-even point shows that, if the plant produce 30.5% of its full capacity the factory do
not have a profit at the same time do not have a loss. But if the plant produce above this point it
gains a profit and when it became far away from that point to the positive a profit become more
impressive until some point. And if the plant produce a biodiesel below the break-even point it
will loss.

8.1.3. Pay-back Period

The pay- back period, also called pay – off period is defined as the period required for recovering
the original investment outlay through the accumulated net cash flows earned by the project.
Accordingly, based on the projected cash flow it is estimated that the project’s initial investment
will be fully recovered within approximately 3 years.
¿ capital investement
pay−back period=
Net cash accural
Net cash accrual = Net Profit + Depreciation
= 20,463,239.81 birr/year + 6,152,601.611 birr/year
= 26,615,841.42 birr/year
61,526,016.11
pay−back period= =2.3 year
26,615,841.42
The plant return its fixed capital investment within 2 year and 3 months based on net profit.

8.1.4 Rate of return or Rate on investment

Net profit
ROR (ROI)=
Total capital investment
26,615,841.42
ROR ( ROI )= ∗100=28.3 %
72,383,548.36
The plant returns 28.3 % of the total capital investment per year.
 8.1.5 Projected cash flow of biodiesel factory PLC

*1000 ETB

Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Capacity - 75 90 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

utilization (%)
I. Cash inflow 0 42,772 51,327 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 64,268
Revenue - 42,772 51,327 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030 57,030
Salvage value - - - - - - - - - - 7238.35
II. Cash outflow 72,383.5 30433.4 30830.7 30690.3 29474.2 28258.2 16908.4 16908.4 16908.408 16908.4 16908.4
Investment cost 72,383.5 - - - - - - - - - -
RM & others - 5428.76 6514.52 7,238.4 7,238.4 7,238.4 7,238.4 7,238.4 7,238.35 7,238.35 7,238.35
Utilities - 1117.30 1340.76 1,489.7 1,489.7 1,489.7 1,489.7 1,489.7 1,489.73 1,489.73 1,489.73
Factory overheads - 506.928 608.314 675.90 675.90 675.90 675.90 675.90 675.90 675.90 675.90
Labor cost - 1013.86 1216.62 1351.8 1351.81 1351.81 1351.81 1351.8 1351.8092 1351.80 1351.80
92 92
Depreciation & - 6152.60 6152.60 6152.60 6152.60 6152.60 6152.60 6152.60 6152.6061 6152.60 6152.60
amortization 611 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 11 6111 6111
Loan re payment 10133.7 10133.7 10133.7 10133.7 10133.7 - - - - -
Interest rate 6080.22 4864.17 3648.13 2432.08 1216.04 - - - - -
Gross Profit (I- - 12,339.0 20,496.2 26,339. 27,555. 28,771. 40,121. 40,121. 40,121.53 40,121.5 47,359.8
II) 72,383.5 8 5 70 75 79 53 53 3 9
Cumulative cash - - - - 14,347. 43,119. 83,240. 123,362 163,483.6 203,605. 94,719.7
flow 72,383.5 60,044.4 39,548.2 13,208. 23 02 55 .08 1 14 7
5 7 2 52
cash flow -72,383 12,339.0 20,496.2 26,339. 27,556 28,772 40,121 40,121 40,121.53 40,121.5 47,359.8
discounting rate 1 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.69 0.63 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.4
present value - 11228.5 17011.8 20018.1 19013.4 18126.2 23270.4 20863.1 19258.334 17653.4 18943.9
(PV) 72383.5 6466 8439 7474 6558 2822 881 9623 98 7373 5442
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cash flow -72383.55 12,339.09 20,496.25 26,339.7 27,555.75 28,771.79 40,121.53 40,121.5 40,121.5 40,121.5
47,359.89
DF(r=9.5%) 1 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.69 0.63 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.40
i) PV -72383.55 11228.56 17011.8 20018 19013.4 18126.2 23270.4 20863.1 19258.3 17653.4 18943.9
1
DF= n where n: years and r: 9.5% (Source CBE)
(1+r )

PV=Cash flow * DF
ii) NPV = 113,004,200 (by addition of all PVs, including the initials investment outlay)
iii) NPVR (PI) =

PI =
∑ NPV ∈ FLOW = 185387.765 =2.6>1
∑ NPV OUT FLOW 72383.55
Since the net present value is positive and the net present value ratio is greater than 1 the project is acceptable and viable for
implementation.

Payback period calculation

Year 0 1 2 3 4
-13

Cumulative cash flow -72383.55 -60044.4 -39548.2 -13208.52 14,347.23

Yearly cash flow -72383.55 12,339.09 20496.25 26,339.7 27,555.75

13208.52
payback period=3 year + =3.47 year
27,555.75
Payback period of the plant is 2 year and 3 months based on gross profit. But based on the net
profit the Payback period of the plant is 3 years and 5 months.

8.2. Plant location, Plant layout and Environment

8.2.1. Plant location

Plant location may be selected based on orientation towards the market or towards resources
(raw materials). We select the location of the plant proximity to the raw material rather than
proximity to the market that is Amhara region in Gojjam around Debre Markos because there is
a bulk raw material transported and also Debre Markos is one of the major castor bean producing
administrative zone of Ethiopia the area is suitable for castor bean production. And also there is
availability of labor and all infrastructures.

8.2.2. Plant layout

 8.2.2. Economic and Social benefits

The project can create employment for many peoples. The project will generate dollar
19,960,479 million birr in terms of tax revenue. The establishment of such factory will have a
foreign exchange saving effect to the country by substituting the current imports. The project
will also create forward and backward linkage with the manufacturing sector and also generates
income for the Government in terms of payroll tax.

8.2.3 Environmental Impact Assessment

The production of biodiesel from castor does not use significant amount of chemicals except
hexane which is recycled. Biodiesel is the environmentally friendly product and it can replace
fossil fuel since it does not release pollutant gas when it is used for engine as energy source.
Hence, the impact on environment due to the production of biodiesel is negligible.
9. CONCLUSSION AND RECOMONDATION
9.1 CONCLUSION

Depending on the laboratory output, the oil content of the castor seed is 35.7% by mass and the
moisture content can reach to 10% by mass and among which it is possible to remove 5% by
drying. Drying the seed as much as possible enables the extraction process to be efficient.
Different solvents have different penetration abilities to extract the oil from the castor seed.
Further increasing of extraction time has no significant for economic benefits. The cake after it
leaves its oil with any mechanism of extraction can have additional application other than the
current application as a fertilizer as a protein for food manufacturing plant. Integrating the
biodiesel production and oil extraction plant together is more economically and environmentally
feasible rather than each individual can provide. Castor has twin applications on the processing
step other than the green field development namely for castor oil for biodiesel production and
castor meal. Investing on biodiesel with capacity 3000 ton/year can have a side plant of candle
production with capacity 277 tone/year. The integrated plant can create job opportunity for some
people starting from the seed farming up to seed processing for the final product. Mainly the
integrated plant can provide 11,300,000birr for the government in the form of tax with a payback
period of 2.53 years, present money value of 78305612.69 birr, net present worth value of
55556742.69 birr & and IRR of 53.92. These preliminary values show that simultaneous
production of candle and castor oil is feasible economically.

9.2 RECOMMENDATION

1.Ethiopia should install castor oil plant to export the castor seed by adding value and to
minimize the cost to import the castor oil for local consumption since it is the 4th largest castor
seed producing country in the world per annum and the second largest castor seed producing
country per hectare in the world.

2.Further deep study should be held on the use of the meal as proportioning raw material to the
normal wax for candle production.