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SS ONE SECOND TERM BIOLOGY NOTE


WEEK ONE: TISSUE AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM: i) Definition of supporting and systems.

ii) Types of skeleton Hydrostatic skeleton Exo (ecto) skeleton Endo – skeleton iii) Skeletal materials:- Chitin, cartilage
and bone iv) Functions of supporting tissues in plants and animals – protection, support, locomotion, strength, rigidity,
resistance to forces of wind and water.

WEEK TWO: VERTEBRATE SKELETON: i) Axial skeleton – The skull and vertebral column ii) Appendicular
skeleton – The limbs, sternum and ribs, limb girdle.

WEEK THREE: SUPPORTING TISSUE IN PLANTS: i) Types of supporting tissue in plants ii) Location of
supporting tissue in plants iii) Structures and components of supporting tissues in plants e.g. collenchymas,
paranchyma, xylem, phloem etc.

WEEK FOUR: A) NUTRITION IN ANIMALS B) MODE OF NUTRITION: i) Food substances – classes with
examples ii) Concept of balance diet and its importance iii) Food test i) Types of heterotrophic nutrition – holozoic,
saprophytic and parasite nutrition ii) Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms – filter feeding, fluid feeding and
deposit feeding.

WEEK FIVE: A) MAMMALIAN TEETH B) ENZYMES: i) Forms – milk and permanent teeth ii) Types – Incisors,
canines, premolar & molar iii) Structures of a tooth (canine / molar) iv) Dental formular and adaption – Herbivores,
carnivores and omnivores i) Definition of enzymes ii) Characteristic of enzymes iii) Types of digestive enzymes –
sources, location, substance acted upon and effect/products iv) importance / functions of enzymes.

WEEK SIX/SEVEN: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS A) COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM: i) Components of


an ecosystem - Biotic (living) and Abiotic (non-living) component - Aquatic and terrestrial component. ii) Definitions
of common terms in ecological studies – environment, population, biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
niche, habitat, biotic, community, ecosystem. i) Local communities (biomes) – Nigeria ecological region (sahel, sudan,
guinea savanna, tropical forest, swamp forest) ii) Major biomes of the world: Tropical forest, savanna, desert, shrub,
apro - alphine and swamps.

WEEK EIGHT: POPULATION STUDIES BY SAMPLING METHOD: i) Population size, population dominance,
population density ii) Factors affecting population iii) Ecological factors affecting aquatic and terrestrial habitat iv)
Importance of ecological factors to population of plant & animals.

WEEK NINE: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM: i) Definitions of autotrophy & heterotrophy ii) Definition of terms –
Producer, consumers, aquatic and terrestrial iii) Examples of producers and consumers.

WEEK TEN: TROPHIC LEVELS: i) Definition of food chain and food web ii) Non-cycle nature of energy transfer
iii) Nutrient movement (energy flow) in aquatic and terrestrial habitat. iv) Pyramid of number and energy v) Nature of
energy flow in food chain and food web.

WEEK ELEVEN: REVISION

WEEK TWELVE: EXAMINATION

WEEK ONE: SKELETON AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS


Skeleton is the bony framework of the body which provides support, shape, rigidity and protection to the soft tissue and
organ in animal. The skeleton of any animal depend on the position of the organism in the evolutionary trend help to
determine the advancement and development of organisms e.g. man is able to stand erect than other organism due to their
sophisticated skeletal build up.
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FORMS OF SKELETON
I. Cuticle:
Cuticle is composed of protein called chitin and a thin waterproof layer of wax. Chitin is a non-living substance, hence
animal with this type of skeletal structure undergo moulting or ecdysis. Cuticle is an exoskeleton which is located externally
on the body of the animal. Examples of organisms with this kind of the body structure are mainly Arthropods e.g. insect,
crab, scorpion, prawn and crayfish.
II. Bones:
Bones consist of a living bone cell called osteocytes, protein fibres called collagen and minerals which are mainly of calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate. A bone consists of a hard outer layer called shaft and a spongy or hollow cavity filled with
bone marrow. Animal that has bones include bony fish, toad, lizard and mammals.
III. Cartilage:
A cartilage is a tissue found in the skeleton of complex vertebrates. It consists of living cell called chondroblast, carbohydrate
and protein fibre. It is a very tough and flexible tissue that has great tensile strength. Examples of organisms which possess
cartilage are: cartilaginous fishes such as: Shark, rays and mammal.
Types of cartilage.
a. Hyaline cartilage: Trachea, bronchi and surface of moveable joint, nose.
b. Fibro- cartilage: between inter vertebral column.(c) Elastic cartilage: ear, epiglottis.
Types of skeleton.
1. Hydrostatic of fluid skeleton.
2. Exoskeleton.
3. Endoskeleton.
Hydrostatic Skeleton: is a type of skeleton possessed by soft bodied animal examples of organism with this type of skeleton
are earthworm and sea anemones.
Exoskeleton: is a type of skeleton which is found outside or external part of the body of some animals. Most invertebrates do
possess cuticle which is composed of chitin.
Endoskeleton: is the type of skeleton which is found inside the body of the animal. Endoskeleton exists in toad, lizard, birds
and mammals. Endoskeleton in mammal includes the skull, the vertebral alumni or backbone, ribs, and the bones of the fore
and hind limbs.
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ASSIGNMENT
(i)Which of this type of skeleton is most appropriate to the cockroach? (A) hydrostatic skeleton (B)endoskeleton
(C)exoskeleton (D) bony skeleton
(ii)Name one animal each that possess; hydrostatic, exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
WEEK TWO: VERTEBRATE SKELETON
The mammalian skeletal system is group into two major parts:
1. Axial skeleton which comprises of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.
2. Appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs girdles, pectoral and pelvic girdles and the limbs which is fore limbs
and hind limbs. The skull is made up of several flat bones joined together by means of joint called sutures. The three major
parts of the skull are: (i) Cranium or brain box. (ii) Facial skeleton (iii) Jaws (upper & lower)

Functions of the skull


1. It protects the brain.
2. It gives shape to the head.
3. It protects vital organs in the head e. g eye, nose, and ear.
4. It bears the teeth which help in grinding of food.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column is the central supporting structure of the skeleton; it is made up of five groups of bones called vertebrae
in mammals. In human it consists of 33 vertebrae. The vertebrae are held to one another with a strong ligament having
compressible cartilage pads called intervertebral disc between the consecutive vertebrae.

Types of vertebrae Man Rabbit Rat


Cervical 7 7 7
Thoracic 12 12 13
Lumbar 5 7 6
Sacral 5 3-4 4
Caudal 4 16 27-30
FEATURES OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
All vertebrae even though they have different function, have certain features in common.
1. Neural canal: This is the passage of the spinal cord.
2. Neural spine: This project upward dorsally for the attachment of muscles.
3. Trans verse processes: They project from the side of each vertebra for the attachment of muscles and ligament.
4. Centrum : It is a solid piece of bone below the neural canal.
5. Facet: This a small, smooth, flat or slight depressed on the bone usually in point of contact with another bone.
6. Zygapophysis : These are articular surfaces for the articulation of successive vertebrae, They are grouped into two
parts namely:
(a) Pre- zygapophysis facing inward and upward. (b) Post- zygapophysis facing outward and downward.
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE.
The cervical vertebrae are found in the neck region. The First vertebra is called atlas while the second one is called axis. The
third to the seventh bones are similar and they are the normal cervical bones. The atlas allows the head to nod and it fits into
the occipital condyles of the skull.
Characteristics of atlas.
1. It has a large neural canal.
2. It has a flat and broad transverse process.
3. The neural spine is very short, in some cases it may even be absent.
4. Centrum is absent.
5. It has a vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood vessels.
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ATLAS

Characteristics of Axis vertebrae.


1. It has a broad and flat centrum.
2. It articulates with the atlas through odontoid process.

.
3. It has a large flattered neural spine.
4. The transverse process is reduced to pin- like structure.
5. It has a vertebrarterial canal.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Thoracic vertebrae are found in the chest region.
Characteristics

1. It has a long and prominent neutral spine which project upward and backward.
2. It has a pair of short transverse processes.
3. There is presence of demifacet and articular surfaces for attachment of ribs.
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4. It has a large neural canal.


5. It has a large centrum.
Functions of the Thoracic vertebrae
1. It aids the attachment of the ribs.
2. It provides space for attachment of muscles of the shoulder and back to the neural spine.
3. It assists in breathing alongside with the ribs.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
The lumbar vertebrae are found in the upper abdominal region.
Characteristics
1. It has a large flattened transverse process.
2. It has a broad and flat neural spine.
3. It has a large and thick centrum.
4. It has well developed pre and post zygapophysis.
5. It also has two extra- paired projections called anapophysis & metapophysis for attachment of abdominal muscles.

Functions of the lumbar vertebrae.


1. The lumbar vertebrae provide attachment for abdominal muscles.
2. They bear considerable weight of the body.
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SACRAL VERTEBRAE
These bones are found in the lower abdominal region. In man, they are 5 in number and they are fused together to form the
sacrum.
Characteristics
1. It has a narrow neural canal.
2. It has neural spine which is reduced to a small notch.
3. It has a large centrum.
4The first sacral vertebra has a pair of transverse process which is large and wing like but the others are attached to
the muscles of the back.
5. The first sacral vertebrae have a small neural canal which gradually becomes narrower in the other vertebra.
They are joined with the pelvic girdle to provide support rigidity and strength.

CAUDAL VERTEBRAE
The caudal vertebrae are fused together is a solid mass of bone are found in the tail region.

RIBS AND STERNUM.


Twelve pairs of ribs and sternum form the rib cage in humans, the sternum is a single bone which consist of seven small
bones. The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae; however, in humans only the first ten pairs are attached to the sternum.
The last two pairs remain free and are known as floating ribs

Functions
1. The ribs and sternum protect the heart and the lungs.
2. They assist in respiration.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON PECTORAL/ SHOULDER GIRRDLE.


The pectoral girdle holds the upper limbs or arms to the axial skeleton. It consist many of four separate bones, two large
flat, triangular, bones called shoulder blade or scapula at the back and two small slender bone called collar bone or
clavicle in front. The scapula are attached to the vertebral column by muscles, each scapula has a depression called the
glenoid cavity into which the head of the upper humerus fits to form the shoulder joint. The calvicles are attached to the
scapula at one end and to the sternum and the other end.
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The pelvic griddles consist of two half which have joint to each other ventrally to form a sacrum. The line of fusion of
two half bones is called pubis symphysis .Each half is made up three bones namely ilium, ischium and pubis. The
ilium is the largest d the longest of the three bones.

Pelvic griddle or hips


Pelvic girdles or hip consist of two bones, the right and the left pelvic. These are joined to form sacrum at the back and held
together by cartilage at the back and in front to form a complete hip girdle. At the outer edge of each pelvic is a deep cavity
called acetabulum cavity into which the bone of the thigh bone or (femur) fits to form the hip joint.
The pelvic girdle consists of two halves which are joined to each other ventrally to form a sacrum. The line of fusion of the
two halves bones is called pubis symphysis, each halve is made up of three bones namely ilium, ischium and pubis. The
ileum is the largest and longest of the three bones. At the lower and of ischium and of ischium and pubis encloses an opening
or a hole called obturator foramen. It is through this hole blood vessels and muscles pass.

The limbs are made up of fore limbs i.e bones of the arm and limbs. The limbs of most vertebrates are built on the same
basic plan called pentadacty limb plan < 5 digit plan>.The fore limbs of mammals is made up of an upper arm bone which a
long bone called humerus. The humerus has a rounded head which fix to the glenoid cavity of scapula of the pectoral girdle.
The humerus are grooved- like surface called trochlea which join with ulna and radius are foliated by the bones of the wrist
called carpals which are followed by the bones of the digit called metacarpals or phalanges.

HIND LIMBS
The hind limbs are made up of the tight bone called Femur. The femur is the largest and the strongest bone in the body.
Very close to the femur and three projections called TROCHANTERS, they are important for the attachment femur to
muscle. At the distal end of the femur are two rounded knobs called condoyle for articulation. The Shank is made up
of two bones called Tibia and Fibula. The knee joint is found at the junction of the femur with tibia and fibular, the
there is a short bone called patella or knee cap. The inner tarsal’s project backward to form the heel bone.
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THE FEMUR
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IMPORTANT OF SKELETON
1. It gives support, shapes and rigidity to the body
2. Skeleton protect delicate organs of the body e.g the cranium protects the brain while the sternum
3. Protect the heart and the hung
4. Skeleton makes the body to move
5. The ribs and the sternum take part in respiration
5. The long bone marrow manufacture the raw blood cell
6. The skeleton provide space for attachment of muscle
7. The skeleton stores some mineral salt e.g calcium and phosphorus

ASSIGNMENT
1Which vertebra has a projection called odontoid process?(a)atlas (b)axis (c)thoracic(d)lumbar.
2Which of the following vertebra lacks centrum?(a)atlas(b)axis(C)thoracic(d)lumbar
3. What are the bones that make up the pectoral girdle?(a)hip bone(b)sacral vertebra (c)scapula and clavicle(d)caudal
vertebra
4. The thoracic vertebra can be readily recognized by its (a) long neural spine (b) large centrum(c) long transverse
processes (d) small neural canal (e) short neural spine
5. The appendicular skeleton is composed of the pectoral girdle.(a)pelvic girdle, fore and hind limb(b)pelvic and fore-
limb(c)lumbar vertebrae and pelvic girdle(d)lumbar vertebrae, fore and hind
6. Make a labelled drawing of the anterior view of a lumbar vertebra
7. State five of functions of skeleton

THE JOINTS

A joint is a place where two or more bones meet or articulated.


Types of Joint
Immovable joint
These are joints or regions where two or more bones are firmly attaches to one another or firmly fixed by ligament in
such a way that movement of these bones are not possible. Example of some places in the body where
Immovable joints are present are skull and pelvic girdle.
The immovable joint of the skull are called suture

MOVABLE JOINTS
They are joint or region of the body where movement of joint is possible. Most of the bones are held together by
movable joint
Types of movable joint
1. Ball and socket joint
These are joints that allow movement in all directions <3600>the joint are found in the shoulder and hip joint

2. Hinge joints
It is found at the elbows and knee it allow movement in only one direction
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Gliding and sliding joint


It allows gliding of the bones over one another. Example of this joint are found in the wrist and ankle
Pivot joint
Pivot joints are found in the neck between the atlas and axis. It permits nodding and rotation of one part of the body on
another
Structure of joint

The main part of the joint consist of the followings


Ligament
These are though partly elastic bands of tissue which hold two bones together at a joint
Tendons are extension of connecting tissue which joins muscle to the bones
Articular cartilage these are found at the surface of the bones at joint plays the role of cushioning by protecting them
from wear and tear during movement
Synovial Membrane is responsible for the secretion of synovial fluid
Synovial fluid is the fluid which lubricates the joint and thus reduces shock as well as friction between bones.
Capsule is the space which contain the synovial fluid
Movement
The skeleton can be move due to the muscular contraction. Muscles are joined to the bone by means of tendons.
Tendon transmit the pull from a muscle into the bone, antagonist pair of muscle work against each other moving the
same limb into opposite direction, thus the biceps bend the arm while the triceps straightened. The contraction of the
flexor muscle attains elongation of the biceps. The flexor muscle antagonistic pair i.e triceps the limbs while the
extensor muscle e.g triceps straighten the arm.

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON
1. It gives support, shape, and rigidity
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2. It protects the delicate organs of the body such as the brain, spinal cord and heart
3. It helps in movement
4. The bone marrows manufacture the red blood cells
5. It provides space for the attachment of the muscles
6. The ribs and sternum help the respiration
7. The skeleton stores some mineral salt e.g calcium and phosphorus
WEEK THREE: SUPPORTING TISSUE IN PLANTS:
SUPPORTING TISSUE IN PLANTS
1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma
4. Xylem
5. Phloem
Parenchyma
It is made up of living unspecialized plant cell that are rough spherical in shape. Parenchyma tissues are founds in the
cortex of stem, phloem. Root, leaf mesophyll, storage tissue and xylem
Function
1. It gives firmness and rigidity to the stem of herbaceous plant
2. It can store food and water
They are present in the leaf mesophyll to partake in the synthesis of food.
Collenchyma is found in the primary tissue of plants. The cells of collenchyma are living elongated and unevenly
thickened at the corner. The cells are flexible and these allow the bending and twisting strain to which the stem, root
and leaves of plant are often subjected. The collenchyma tissues are location in the cortex of stem and in the hypo
dermis just beneath epidermis.
Function
1. They provide strength and support in young drawing plant part such as stem, petiole and leaf
2. They give flexibility and resilience to the plant i.e enables the plant to bend without breaking
Sclerenchyma Tissue is composed of two type of cell namely sclerenchyma fiber and sclerenchyma sclereid. Both of
them consist of deal cell in which the cell walls are heavily thickened with deposit of lignin. (A lignin is substances
that provide mechanical strength). The cells of the fiber are narrowing polygonal, elongated with tapering end.
The lumens are small because of the thickened wall. The s-fiber are present in the outer region of the cortex and
pericycle of stem and in the vascular tissue
Sclerenchyma sclereid are heavily lignified cells which are spherical. They are present in all part of the plant e.g
cortex, pith, phloem, fruit and seed coat.
Function
-They provide mechanical strength
-They give flexibility to plant and prevent them from breaking easily
-They provide strength, rigidity, hardness and support to plants

XYLEM TISSUE
The xylem tissues are found in the vascular bundle especially the plant that undergoes secondary growth. There are
four types of xylem tissues namely:
-Xylem tracheid
-Xylem vessel
-Xylem fiber
-Xylem parenchyma
Of the four, first three are lignified and so provide mechanical support.
Xylem tracheids are non- living elongated tapering cell with thickened lignified wall with pith that allow the passage
of water and dissolve mineral salt.
Xylem vessel: - are long tubular structure that are formed by the fusion of several elongated cells which are joined
one on top of another.
Xylem fibers- are similar to the sclerenchyma fiber, they have narrow elongated cell with very thick wall.
Xylem parenchyma- is similar to parenchyma tissue. They are composed of cell with large vacuoles
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Function of Xylem Tissue


1. The xylem tissue provide support and shape to the plant
2. The major function of xylem tissue is to conduct water and dissolved mineral salt from the root to the leaves.

PHLOEM TISSUE

The phloem tissue are located within the vascular bundle of all plant, be it in the root, stem and leaf , they are made up
of four type of cells namely
1. P. sieve (phloem sieve tube)
2. Phloem parenchyma
3. Phloem companion cell
4. Phloem fiber
The phloem sieve tubes- are made up of elongated row of cylindrical cell which are arranged vertically. The cells are
living and they conduct mainly manufacture food.
Phloem parenchyma- is made up of parenchyma cell which offer strength and support to plant. The cell also helps in
food storage.
Phloem fibers- are special cells which are concerned with strengthening of the organs in which they are present.
Phloem companion cells- are small and short cell which are vertically elongated like the sieve tube. They assist in
conduction of food substance.

FUNCTION OF THE PHLOEM


1. The general function of the phloem is to conduct manufactured food from area of the synthesis (leaf) to the area
Where they are needed (i.e. stem root)
2. They also assist to provide support to the entire plant.

EPIDERMIS
The protective tissue of plant is the epidermal cell found on the leaf and stem and as piliferous cell in the root. The
epidermal layer is one cell thick with a protective cell. It prevents the inner cell from injury, infection and water less.
The epidermis cell does not contain chloroplast except in the guard cell which possesses chloroplast and therefore can
photosynthesis

CORTEX
The part of the stem between the epidermis and vascular bundle of a dicotyledonous stem is called
Cortex. The cortex is made up of three tissue which are (collenchyma) on the outside, a middle (parenchyma) and
inner (endoderm). The collenchyma is about three to four times thick while the parenchyma is made up of thin wall cell
with many spaces. Both cells provide strength and support. The endodermis is a single layer which is also referred to as
starch sheet.

Sclerenchyma.
This layer is found on the outer part of the vascular bundle. It consists of dead lignified cells. It aids to strengthen the
cell.

Vascular Bundles.
These are found in the inner part of the stem. It consists of the xylem, phloem and cambium. The xylem is responsible
for conduction of water and dissolved minerals salt from soil to the leaf through the root and stem. The phloem is
responsible for the conduction or transfer of manufactured food from the area of their synthesis to the other part of the
plant.
Cambium is found between the phloem and xylem. The cambium cell are constantly dividing cell. This increases the
size of cell which is called secondary thickening which is responsible for the increase in size of the trunks of many
trees.

Pith
It is the central part of the stem, it is large and made up of parenchyma and extend between the vascular tissue.
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Transverse section {T/S} dicotyledonous stem.

Difference between Dicot and Monocot plant.


No Dicto stem Monocot stem
1. The tissue below the epidermis is The tissue below the epidermis is sclerenchyma
collenchyma
2. The size of cortex is wide The size of the cortex is narrow
3. The pericycle is made up of sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma completely surround each vascular
which caps the individual bundle bundle
4. The vascular bundle is few which arrange in The vascular bundle are scattered all over the
a ring of cambium ground tissue
5. Cambium is present Cambium is absent
6. Secondary growth occurs Secondary growth does not occurs
7. Pith is present Pith is absent

T/S OF MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM.


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Different between Dicot and Monocot Root


No Dicot Root Monocot Root
1. It has only one star shaped xylem bundle It has many xylem bundle radially arranged
centrally located.
2. Pith is absent Pith is present
3. Few phloem bundles are present Many phloem bundles are present
4. Cambium is present Cambium is absent
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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF


The internal structure of a leaf consists of three main tissues:
1. The epidermis (the upper and lower epidermis)
2. The mesophyll consist of palisade and spongy mesophyll
3. The vascular bundle consists of mid –rib and veins
The epidermis is a single layer of closely packed cell found both on the lower and upper surface of the leaf. The
epidermis is lined with cuticle which prevents too much evaporation of water and protects the inner cell from
mechanical damage and diseases. The mesophyll is made up of parenchyma cell. The tissue between the upper and
lower epidermis is called mesophyll. The palisade mesophyll consists of one or two layers of elongated cell closely
packed. The cell contains numerous chloroplasts which are used for photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll is made up
of irregular cells that are loosely packed with lots of intercellular air spaces, air diffuse into the space. The carbon (iv)
oxide is absorbed for photosynthesis and oxygen is used respiration. The spongy cell contains fewer chloroplasts. The
mid- rib and vein are the vascular tissue consisting of xylem and phloem surrounded with few parenchyma. The
stomata are the opening in the epidermal layer of leaves through which air passes in and out of the leaves, the opening
and closing of the stomata are guarded by guard cell

ASSIGNMENTS
i. The joint between the atlas and axis allows for (a) rotatory movement only (b) up and down or nodding movement(c)
rotatory and nodding movement (d) no movement at all
ii. Jointed skeleton is absent in the (a) cockroach (b) spider(c) millipede (d) snail
iii. The substances manufactured by the leaves are transported other parts of the plants through
the.(a)xylem(b)companion cells(c)sieve tube(d)cambium
iv. The bones are joined together by (a) tendon (b) cartilage(c) ligament (d) synovial fluid
v. Which of the following is not a tissue found in plant?(a)epidermis(b)phloem(c)xylem(d)dermis
2. (a)What is a joint?
b. List four type of movable joints and mention one location in the mammalian body they can be found.
3(a) Make a well labelled diagram of a dicotyldonous stem showing the arrangement of the tissue.
b.Make a labelled drawing of 10-12cm long of a typical movable joint.

WEEK FOUR: A) NUTRITION IN ANIMALS B) MODE OF NUTRITION:


ANIMAL NUTRITION (FOOD SUBSTANCES)
MODE OF NUTRITION
1. Autotrophic Nutrition is the type of nutrition in which the organisms are able to manufacture their own food.
Organisms which can manufacture or synthesize their own food are called autotrophs. Autotrophic nutrition is carried
out by all green plants through the process of photosynthesis and by some certain bacteria through the process of
chemosynthesis.
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2.Heterotrophic Nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their own food but depends
directly on plants for their own food such organisms are called heterotrophs, most heterotrophs are fungi, protozoa
and some bacteria

There are various types of heterotrophic nutrition as follows

1. Holozoic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which solid complex food substances are ingested and
changed them into simple, soluble form during digestion. The processes involved holozoic nutrition includes
ingestion digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. These processes are applicable to simple animals
from protozoans such as Amoeba and Paramecium to complex organisms including man.

2. Parasitic Nutrition or Parasitism: This is an association between the organisms of different species in which
the smaller organisms called parasite depend on the larger partner called host for food and nutrients at the
expense of the host i.e. causing harm and diseases to the host. For example association between round worm
and man. Parasitic nutrition is also seen in plant where the plant parasite develops haustoriun with which it
absorbs nutrient from the host cassytha and cuscuta (dodder plant). Other are phytophtora black pod parasite
of cocoa.

3. Symbiotic Nutrition or Mutualistic Nutrition: This is a type of nutrition in which two organisms of different
species live together to derive mutual benefit from their association. The partners may be a plant to plant,
animal to animal e.t.c. examples of organism that engage in symbiosis are lichens (an association of algae and
fungus partnership). The green alga manufactures food for both organisms while the fungus protects the alga
and absorbs water from the atmosphere for the use of alga. Another example is hermit crab inhabiting on
molluscian shells carry other organisms on the skills. The organism may be a group of sea anemones which
afford concealment protection for the crab and themselves obtain transport, better oxygenation and possible
particles floating up while the crab is feeding.

4. Saprophytic Nutrition: This is a form of feeding in which the organism derives its food from the remain of
dead and decaying organic matter such as plant and animal. The organism is called saprophyte while the
process is called saprophytism. This mode of nutrition is exhibited by some bacteria, fungi and some animals.
Saprophytes secrete digestive enzyme onto the substrate (the organic matter) on which they feed digestion take
place outside the organism. This type of digestion is called extra cellular digestion and it is the process that
causes the decay. The extracellular enzymes the organism released to the food surface act only in the presence
of moisture and the chemical reactions are usually being speeded up by a rise in the temperature.

COMMENSALISM

Is an association between the organisms of different species in which only one partner benefit from the relationship
while the other neither gains nor suffers any harm. For example, the association between shark and remora fish.

CARNIVOROUS PLANT

These are plants which apart from being autotrophic and photosynthetic feed on insect or small animal to supplement
their protein needs. These insectivorous plants are found in nitrogen poor habitats, and they do trap insects as source
of nitrogen. The insects are attracted by their colour, scent or sweet secretion (nectar) of the plants. They also have
enzymes with which they digest the insects before being absorbed into their body. These plants include Venus fly trap
(Dioaea), sundew plant (Drosera), the pitcher plant (Nepenthes) and bladderwort (urtricularia).

FILTER FEEDING

Filter feeding is feeding mechanism being used by some aquatic animals to feed on tiny microorganisms in the water
called phytoplankton (plant) and zooplankton (tiny animal).These aquatic animals have to wallow in water through
sieve-like structure on their body in order to collect large quantity in the water current. Examples of filter feeders are
mosquito larva, mussels, duck, prawn, lobster etc.

FLUID FEEDING
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Fluid feeding is a method of feeding adopted by some animals which involve feeding on fluid material from plant
(nectar) or blood of animals or man. They have special mouth parts for piercing the skin of their prey e.g. mosquito.
Other insects such as aphids feed on the sap of plant whose mouth part is for piercing and sucking. Some larger
animals such as bees, butterfly and humming birds suck the nectar of flowers.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the following mode of nutrition

i. Commensalism ii. Parasitism iii. Symbiotic iv. Holozoic

2 Explain i. Fluid feeding ii. Filter feeding

Food is a complex energy-rich organic matter which living organism feed on to obtain nutrients and substances
necessary for life. Food substances are classified to six groups

(i) Carbohydrate (ii) Protein (iii) Fat and oils (iv) Mineral salts (v) Vitamins (vi) Water and roughages.

Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have general formula (CxH2O)y. carbohydrate
consists of simple sugar, starches, cellulose and glycogen. They are grouped into simple sugar or monosaccharide,
double sugar/disaccharides and poly saccharide. The common sources include yam, cassava, potatoes, bread, cereals
e.g. rice, maize e.t.c.

Simple sugar or Monosaccharide

These are the simplest sugar which consists of one molecule of simple sugars. They have general formula C 6H10O6.
Examples are glucose, fructose and ribose (C5H10O5) or galactose

Disaccharide/Reducing sugar

These are sugars which consist of two molecules of simple sugar which formed by condensation with the general
formula C12H22O11. Examples are sucrose, maltose and lactose

Sucrose: It is a non-reducing sugar which is formed from a molecule of glucose and a molecule of glucose is the main
source

Maltose: This is obtained from the condensation of two molecules of simple sugar. It is reducing sugar

Lactose (milk-sugar): It is a reducing sugar. It is obtained from the condensation of a molecule of glucose and a
molecule of galactose

Polysaccharide

These are complex carbohydrates. Examples are starch, cellulose, chitin and inulin.

1. Starch: It has the formula C6H10O5)n where n represent a large number. It is formed from the condensation of
numerous molecules of simple sugar. Examples of the sources of starch are yam, cereals, cassava and bread

ii. Cellulose: This is composed of several condensed unit of monosaccharides. It makes the cell wall of plant
source of cellulose include whole meal bread, cereals, fresh fruit and vegetables.

iii. Glycogen (Animal starch): This is the form which animals store their carbohydrate usually in the muscle or
liver
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Importance of Carbohydrate

i. It provides energy required by animals for their daily activities


ii. It provides heat during it oxidation used in maintain the body temperature
iii. It forms certain body part of arthropods (exoskeleton)
iv. The mucus which is an important lubricant in the body is formed carbohydrate
PROTEIN

Proteins are complex molecules and are made of smaller unit called amino acids. Proteins have to be digested to
amino acids before they are absorbed in the body of animal. The breakdown of proteins during digestion takes place
in the following

Protein Peptone Polypeptide Amino acid

Protein is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur, Sources of protein include both animal
source and plant source. The animal source includes milk, egg, fish, cheese, meat and chicken while the Plant sources
are beans, groundnut, soya beans and melon.

Importance of Protein

i. Protein is needed for growth of young ones


ii. It is used for the repair of worn out tissues or cells
iii. It aids reproduction
iv. It is used for the production of enzymes
v. It is needed for the production of hormone
vi. It is needed for body building57
FATS AND OIL

Fat and oils are also called lipids. They consist of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the amount of oxygen
in each lipid is very little e.g. tristearin, is C57H10O6. Fats are solid lipid at room temperature. Plant sources of oil
include groundnut, palm oil, soya beans oil; coconut oil and melon oil white animal sources of fat include butter, fish
or cod oil.

Fat and oil are hydrolysed during digestion to fatty acid and glycerol

Importance of Fat and Oil

i. Fat and oil provides more energy to animal than carbohydrate


ii. Fat supplies essential fatty acid to animal
iii. Fat and oil act as solvent for fat soluble vitamins
iv. They help in the maintenance of body temperature
v. They act as insulator to animal which help them to conserve heat
MINERAL SALT

Mineral salts are food substances that are required in traces for vital body process. They are taken in their ionic
forms. Animal takes in their elements mainly by feeding on plants or their products except a few of them such as
sodium chloride (table salt). Lack of mineral salts will result in nutritional deficiency. These mineral elements or salts
include phosphorus, calcium, iodine, manganese, fluorine, copper and cobalt.
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MINERAL SOURCE FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS


CALCIUM Milk, Cheese, Egg and (i) Bone and teeth formation (i) Rickets
Fish and development (ii) Osteomalacia
(ii) Needed for blood clotting (iii) Tooth decay
(iii) Normal Functioning of the
heart, nervous system and
muscle
PHOSPHORUS Milk, cheese, egg, fish (i) For strong development of i) Rickets
and wheat teeth and bone (ii) Osteomalacia
(ii) It forms part of DNA and (iii) Tooth decay
RNA
(iii) Needed for respiration
MAGNESSIUM Green, vegetables, (i) For muscle contraction Nervous disorder
milk, meat (ii) Needed for utilization of
iron
(iii) Needed for teeth and bone
POTASSIUM Fruits and other (i) Needed for functioning of It leads to muscle
Natural food the muscles paralysis
(ii) For transmission of
impulses in nerves
SULPHUR Beans, fish, meat & Constituent of proteins, amino Poor growth
egg acids and vitamin B
SODIUM & Table salt, fish fruit (i) Transmission of impulses (i) Dehydration
CHLORINE (ii) Maintenance of osmotic (ii) Muscle cramp
balance of the cell
IRON Eggs, liver, kidneys, (i) Formation of haemoglobin Anaemia
beans, vegetables in red blood cell
IODINE Sea foods (i) Required by the thyroid Goitre
gland to make thyroxine
MARGANESE Egg, Milk, Meat (i) Required for normal growth
(ii) Acts as co-factors in some
enzymatic reactions
COPPER Green vegetables, (i) It catalyses the use of iron Anaemia
eggs, milk, meat (ii) For proper respiration in
some aerobic organisms

VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic food substances which are needed in small quantities or traces for body normal growth and
healthy development in man and other animals. Absence or insufficiency of vitamin supply in diet may lead to
deficiency diseases

Groups of Vitamins.

(i) Fat Soluble Vitamins: These are vitamins that are soluble only in fat e.g. vitamins A,D, E and K

(ii) Water Soluble Vitamins: These are vitamins that are soluble in water e.g. vitamins B-complex and vitamin C.
some members of vitamin B2 (Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), b5 (Pantothenic) B6 (Pyridoxine), B12,
(cyanocobalamine), Folic acid e.t.c.
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VITAMIN SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY/SYMPTOMS


VITAMIN A Liver, eggs, fish, milk, (i) Required for (i) Night blindness
(Retino) palm oil, fresh vegetables normal growth of (ii) Reduced resistance to
cells and skin diseases
(ii) For proper vision
of the eye
VITAMIN B1 Yeast, unpolished rice, (i) Required for (i) Slow growth
milk, beans, palm wine normal growth (ii) Dermatitis
(ii) Formation of co-
enzymes involved in
cellular respiration
VITAMIN B2 Yeast, soya beans, egg, (i) Required for (i) Slow growth
milk, green vegetables growth healthy skin (ii) Dermatitis
and proper
functioning of the eyes
(ii) Formation or co-
enzymes involved in
cellular respiration
VITAMIN B3 Yeast, beans, milk, palm Needed for cellular Pellagra ( a skin disease and
wine, yam, vegetables respiration digestive problem
VITAMIN B12 Kidney, liver, fish, milk Formation of red Pernicious anaemia
blood cells
VITAMIN C Fresh fruits e.g. Orange (i) Aids wound Scurvy (characteristic by
(Ascorbic acid) and green vegetables healing bleeding gum, poor healing of
(ii) Helps to resist wood an low resistance of
infection infection)
VITAMIN D Fish, milk, egg, liver, Needed for strong Ricket, osteomalacia
Calciferol form in the skin by light bone and teeth
formation and
development
VITAMIN E Green vegetable, butter, Promotion of fertility Reproductive failure e.g.
(Ergo sterol) liver in animals sterility and pre mature
abortion
VITAMIN K Fresh green Aids blood clothing Haemorrhage
Phylloquinone vegetable/cabbage
spinach

WATER

Water is composed of two elements hydrogen and oxygen. Source of water available to animals include metabolic
water from food, drinking water from rivers, rain, pond e.t.c.

Importance of Water
(i) It is required for metabolic activities in the body
(ii) Water is necessary for digestion of food
(iii) It can be used for maintenance of body temperature
(iv) It is served as a medium of transportation of nutrients
(v) It helps in excretion of metabolic waste products from the body e.g. urine
(vi) It is the basis of body secretion from endocrine gland
(vii) It helps in the maintenance of the osmotic content of the body
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BALANCED DIET

This is a diet containing the correct proportion or the right amount of all six food substances required by an organism.
The balanced diet must contain the six food classes such as carbohydrate, proteins, fats and oil, minerals, vitamins and
water.

WEEK FIVE: A) MAMMALIAN TEETH B) ENZYMES:

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES: are organic catalysts which are complex protein substances that are manufactured by living
cells. They accelerate metabolic reactions without changing their composition in the process. Enzymes are produced
by both plants and animals. Enzymes may be named according to the process in which they are involved processes like
photosynthesis, respiration and digestion and enzymatic in nature.

Characteristics of Enzymes

(i) Enzymes are specific in their actions


(ii) Only small quantity of an enzyme is required to catalyse a reaction
(iii) Enzymes have a specific temperature range above or below which they work become inactive or denatured.
They work best at about 370c
(iv) Enzymes do not lose their chemical composition at the end of a reaction
(v) Enzymes are affected by the acidity and alkalinity (PH) of a medium. An enzyme which is active in an acidic
medium e.g. pepsin become inactive in alkaline medium and vice versa.
(vi) Enzymes are usually involved in reversible reaction
(vii) Enzymes are produced by glands of the system that require that activities e.g. digestive enzymes are
produced by various gland of digestive system
(viii) Substance called inhibitor can stop the activities of enzymes
(ix) The activities of enzymes can be enhanced when they are joined to a co-enzymes e.g inorganic subsistence
such as phosphorus.

CLASSES OF ENZYMES

(i) PROTEASES- These are protein digesting enzymes. They are present in the stomach e.g Renin and Pepsin
and also in the duodenum (Trypsin) and ileum (Erepsin). They all digest protein and break them into
smaller unit.
(ii) AMYLASE- They are enzymes which digest starches and sugars and convert them to glucose. Ptyalin or
Salivary amylase is produced by salivary gland in the mouth. It can converts starch to maltose.
Pancreatic amylase is produced in the pancreas. It converts starch to maltose, sucrose and lactose. It also converts
these double sugars to their final products. Maltose to glucose, sucrose to fructose and glucose and lactose to
galactose and glucose.

(iii) LIPASES- These are enzymes which convert and oils to fatty acid and glycerol. They are produced in the
pancreas and ileum.
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Digestive enzymes and functions

Enzymes Sources Location Substrate Effect/product


acted upon
Ptyalin Salivary gland Mouth Starch Partial hydrolysis of starch to
maltose
Renin Gastric gland Stomach Proteins It coagulate or curdle milk
Pepsin Gastric gland Stomach Proteins It convert solid protein to
peptones
Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Fat and oils It converts fat and oils to fatty
Lipase acid and glycerol
Amylase Pancreas Duodenum Starch It converts starch to maltose
Trypsin Pancreas Duodenum Proteins or It converts proteins or peptones
peptones to polypeptide
Erepsin Succus entricus Small intestine Poly peptide It converts polypeptide to amino
acid
ASSIGNMENT

1a. Define enzyme


b. State 5 characteristics of enzymes
WEEK SIX/SEVEN: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS A) COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM:

BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

Ecology is the study of living organisms (plants and animals) in relation to their environment. Ecology is divided into
two main branches.

(a) AUTECOLOGY- is the study of an individual organism or a single species of organism and its environment.
For example, the study of a single and its environment.
(b) SYNECOLOGY-is the study of the inter-relationship between groups of organisms or species of organisms
living together in an area. For example the study of different organisms in a river in relation to their aquatic
environment.
ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

HABITAT- is defined as any environment which an organism lives naturally e.g. Fish lives in water, land, air and
trees.
ENVIRONMENT- is the overall factor external and internal, living and non-living which effect on the organism.
ECOSYSTEM-is defined as the association between living components (plant and animals) with the non-living factors
of the environment.
COMMUNITIES of organism consist of the population of different kinds of organisms living together in an area or
habitat.
BIOMES are large easily recognizable terrestrial ecosystems consisting of plants and animals naturally living
together.
BIOSPHERE OR ECOSPHERE is the zone of the earth occupies by living organisms. It is a layer of life which exists
on the earth surface.
LITHOSPHERE is the solid portion of the earth. It is the outermost layer or zone of the earth crust. It is made up of
rocks and minerals materials.
HYDROSPHERE is the liquid or aquatic part of the earth of the earth or living world. It holds water in various forms
e.g. solid (ice), Liquid (water) and as gases. Examples of hydrosphere are lake, pools, spring, ocean or sea, ponds,
oasis, river and stream.
ATMOSPHERE- This is the gaseous portion of the earth. It is a layer of gases surrounding the earth.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE is defined as the specific portion of the habitat which is occupied by a particular species or
organism. It is the functional position of an organism in the community for examples; a caterpillar and aphid which
lives on the same plant occupy different position or ecological niche on the plant.
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POPULATION is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a given area. For
example, the total number of Tilapia fish in a pond constitutes the population Tilapia in that habitat.
Component of Ecosystem
The ecosystem comprises of the biotic component and abiotic component.
1. Biotic factor/component includes all living organisms in the environment often called biotic community. The biotic
population include:
(a) Food producer (autotrophs) e.g. green plant, protophyta and chemosynthetic bacteria
(b) Food consumer (heterotrophs) e.g. herbivore, carnivore and omnivore, protozoa and some bacteria.
(c) The decomposers are organism that cause the decay of dead plant and animals e.g. saprophytes such as
fungi and bacteria
The abiotic factors/component is the non-living factors in the physical environment. They are what
organisms need to stay alive. These factors include soil, water, temperature, humidity, light intensity, air
minerals salts etc. The abiotic factors control the activities of the biotic component just as the organism
also influence and control the abiotic environment.

2. Abiotic Factor: These are factors that which the organisms need to stay alive. They include.
a. Climate factor such as temperature, humidity, wind, sunlight, or light intensity.
b. Edaphic factors such as soil factors.
c. Inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon (iv) oxide, oxygen, a source of energy, water
current, turbidity.

The Local Biome of Nigeria.

The biome is the largest community of organism e.g. rainforest, guinea savanna. The local biotic community of Nigeria
can be grouped into two major zones.

1. Forest Zone: This is made up of vegetation having mainly trees and are divided into
A. Mangrove or swamp forest (salt and fresh water)
B. Tropical rain forest.
2. Savanna Zone: It’s made up of mainly grasses and it is divided into three
A. Southern guinea savanna
B. Northern guinea savanna
C. Sahel savanna
A. Mangrove or swamp forest: is found in areas along the coastal in states like Delta, Lagos, Cross-River, Akwa-Ibom,
Bayelsa, and Rivers.

Characteristics of Swamp Forest


I. It has tall wooden trees.
II. The plants have aerial roots.
III. It has ever green trees with broad leaves.
IV. It has a combination of salt and fresh water.
V. The swamp forest is found in areas of heavy and frequent rainfall with an annual rainfall of 250cm.
VI. Common plant species are red mangrove, white mangrove, raffia palm, coconut.
VII. Common animal species in this community include: Tilapia, oyster shell, crabs, snakes, birds and king
fishes.
B. Tropical rain forest: this biotic community is located in states like Ondo, Edo, Lagos, Ogun, Delta, Anambra,
Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom.

Characteristics of Rain Forest

I. It has tall trees with buttress roots.


II. It has evergreen and broad leaves.
III. The forest is made up of climbers, epiphytes, creepers and parasitic plants.
IV. It has little undergrowth due to canopy formed by the tall trees.
P a g e | 24

V. The plant species are not in pure stand i.e. trees are scattered.
VI. The biome have experienced rainfall over 200cm, high temperature and high relative humidity.
VII. Plant species include Iroko, Obeche, Mahogany, Walnut, Opepe And Ebony.
VIII. Animals commonly found in this area are chameleons, monkeys, birds, squirrels.
IX. Tropical rain forest has high temperature between 25°c-37°c with a small annual range of 2-3°c.

Savanna or Grassland: Grasslands are distinguished from the trees by their relative absence of trees and abundance
of grasses. The grass of the world is a translational biome between the forest and the desert.

A. Southern guinea savanna: This biotic community is found in states like Enugu, Oyo, Ebonyi, Osun,
Ekiti, Benue, Kogi and Kwara.

Characteristics of Southern Guinea Savanna

I. It is the largest of all communities in Nigeria.


II. It has a moderate rainfall between100-150cm annually.
III. It has tall grasses.
IV. It has tall trees with broad leaves.
V. The trees are scattered and deciduous i.e. they shed their leaves during dry season.
VI. Important plants include locust bean tree, Shea-butter, Isobelina.
VII. Important animal commonly present in the biome are antelope, lion, zebra and leopard.
B. Northern Guinea Savannah:- The biome is found in place like Plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Taraba,
Adamawa and Kano states.

Characteristics
1. It has low rainfall of about 50-100cm per annum
2. It has scatter and short deciduous trees
3. It has short but numerous grasses
4. Some of trees have thorns while other have thick bark
5. Some of the trees wither in dry season and sprout at the beginning of raining
6. Common plant species present in this area are Acacia, date palm, silk cotton plant, baobab
7. Common animal that can be found there, include: - Snakes, lizard, deer, lion, leopard, antelope e.t.c.
C. Sahel savannah:- The local biotic community can be seen or found in only the extreme Northern part of
Nigeria such as Bornu, Katsina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa

Characteristics
1. The biome has high temperature and very low rainfall below 50cm per annum.
2. It has short and scanty grasses.
3. It has tall shrubs or trees.
4. The grasses are fewer/ poorer and exist in patches.
5. It has much drought resistant and scattered plant
6. Important plant species include acacia, gum Arabic and date palm.

DESERT

A desert is a place of dryness or a place associated with dryness or acidity. The environment is usually hot with little
or no rainfall.
P a g e | 25

MAJOR BIOME OF THE WORLD

It is divided into the following:


1. Tropical rainforest
2. Savanna
3. Deserts
4. Shrubs
5. Afro-aphine
6. Swamp
Tropical Rainforest

The tropical rainforest of the world is located around the equator with latitude 50 North and South of the equator. The
forest is found in the amazon basin of South America, Zaire basin of central Africa, the coast of West Africa and
interior Malaysia.

Characteristics

1. The trees are of great varieties


2. There is abundance of tall hard woods e.g. iroko, obeche e.t.c.
3. There are various layers of trees i.e. upper, middle, lower and bottom storey.
4. It has abundance sunshine.
5. The forest trees have broad ever green leaves.
6. Relative humidity within the forest is very high.
7. It has annual rainforest of year.
8. Rainfall is throughout the year.
9. Tropical rain forest has a high temperature of between 25% - 370 within a small annual range of 20 - 30.
SAVANNA / GRASSLAND

Grassland is distinguished from the forest because of the presence of abundant grass: The savanna of the world is
grouped into two:-

i. Tropical grassland.
ii. Temperate Grassland.
i. Tropical Grassland:- is located between latitude 50 N and 200 S of the Equator. Areas where this grassland is
found include Central Africa/ North West, South America, Interior of Brazil, West Africa, East Africa, South – East
Asia and Northern Australia.

Characteristics

i. The tree grow there are deciduous.


ii. The tropical grassland has tall grasses.
iii. There is presence of short and scattered trees.
iv. It has annual temperature range of 110.
v. The temperature of tropical grassland ranges from 210 to 300
vi. The annual rainfall is between 600 to 1500mm.
vii. Temperature Grassland: it is found in the interior continent in Asia, North America, South America
(Argentina) and Australia.

Characteristics.

1. The grasses tend to have uniform height.


2. Temperature grassland has average rainfall of about 508mm.
3. It has hot summer with temperature of about 200.
4. The trees are scare in the temperature grassland.
5. The grasses are succulent.
6. The vegetation is associated with the temperate continental climate.
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DESERT

Deserts are generally associated with aridity or dryness. It is an environment that is usually very bet with little or no
rainfall.

TYPES OF DESERT

1. Hot Desert:- Hot desert of the world are on the western coastal of the continent within latitude 15 0 and 300 N
and S of the equator. Hot desert include Sahara desert in North Africa, Arabian desert in Arabia, Iranian desert in Iran,
Nambi and Kalahari desert in South Africa, great Australian desert in Australia, Atacama desert in south Africa
America.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOT DESERT


1. Hot desert has high temperature between 300 and 600
2. The deserts are associated with cold current
3. Vegetation is sparse or scanty
4. The vegetation include grasses, shrubs and herbs
5. Evaporation is high while relative humidity is very low
6. Aridity or rainlessness is common
2. Cold Desert:- They are located in the interior of the continent around latitude 450N and 600N and S of the
equator. Cold desert are found in the interior of Eurasia in North America and Patagonia in South America

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD DESERT


a. Cold desert has short and scanty grasses
b. Winters is cold with temperature below 70C while summers are hot below 380C
c. Rainfall is about 25cm due to long distance from the sea
d. It has drought resistant plant with woody stem and needle like or spiny to reduce evaporation
e. It has summer and cold winter
SHRUB
The shrub vegetation is found in semi-arid region, border land of tropical desert and the interior of the
continent. It is found in West Africa closed to Sahara Desert, North-East Brazil and Australia

Characteristics
a. It has low thorny trees with shrubs and herbs
b. It has drought resistant shrubs and aromatic plants and dwarf trees such as thorny acacia
c. The rainfall is very low
d. The shrub has very high temperature of over 300
e. The shrub has patches of grasses

AFRO-ALPINE
The Afro-alpine is kind of vegetation associated with high mountains or highlands. The Afro-alpine vegetation as it
relates to Africa is found in highland such as Cameroon Mountain, Kenya Highland and Kilimanjaro Mountain in East
Africa.
Characteristics
1. The peak of the mountain may experience ice- cap or permanent show.
2. The wind ward side of the mountain may have luxuriant forest type of vegetation.
3. Temperature and pressure of Afro alpine decrease with attitude.
4. Heavy rainfall is experience from the windward side of the mountain while lesser rainfall is experience on the
leeward side.
5. The leeward side may experience savanna type of vegetation.
6. Vegetation decreases with the height of mountain.
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Swamp / Mangrove Forest.


The swamp forests are usually found in tropics along coastal region and river mouth in West, East and
South Africa. Swamps are generally found along the coast all over the world.

Characteristics of Swamp Forest.

1. The dominant plants are white mangrove, red mangrove and raffia palm.
2. The trees have stilt root which grow downward and branch into mud surface.
3. Relative humidity in swamp is very high even close to 900.
4. It has high rainfall of over 2,500mm with re distinct season.
5. Animal commonly found include mud skipper, crap, tilapia fish.

ASSINMENTS

1. State the component of ecosystem


2. Define the following terms
I, Ecosystem (ii) niche (iii) community (iv) hydrosphere
3 .State five characteristics of mangrove forests
4 State the distinguishing features of the guinea savanna.
5. Explain the differences between (a) a biome and a habitat (b) a niche and a habitat.
6. Explain the following ecological terms (i) environment (ii) hydrosphere (iii) lithosphere.
7a.What is an ecosystem? (b) List three components of ecosystem
Ecological Management
Living organisms establish different living associations with others in order to obtain food or protection. Some of these
living associations are beneficial to one or both organisms in the relationship. Each exhibits the quality of tolerance and
possesses certain adaptive features for survival.
Types of Associations

a.Predation: is an interaction in which a free living organism kills another free living organism and eat it as food. The
killed is the predator for each example domestic’s cat kill rat for food.

b.Neutralism: is neither beneficial nor detrimental to either population. For example direct interactions between a
squirrel and a bird appear to be of this type neither services as food for the other nor do they compete for the same food
supply, yet they of the same forest community.

-Commensalism is a relationship between two partners which the commensal benefits while the other called host
neither benefited nor harm. The advantages derived its host frequently involves shelter, support, food or several of
these. A good example is the remora fish and shark. Remora picks the food debris while shark does not grain or lose
anything.

Parasitism: This is a type of association in which one organism called the parasite lives on or within another organism
known as the host and benefits from the association while harming or killing its host in the process. Parasites live on
the surface of the host’s body are referred to as ecto- parasite while the parasite live within is called endo- parasite.
Examples of ecto- parasites are tick, lice, mosquito, and tsetse fly have adaptive features like claw, hooks and suckers
with which they cling to their host.

Ecto- parasites of plant like mistletoe and dodder have attachment organ called haustoria which provides large area of
contact with the host, and make the host cell membrane permeable allowing nutrients to pass through it to the parasite,
this denying the plant needed nutrient for growth.

Mutualism or Symbiosis: This is a type of symbiosis in which both partners benefit and are unable to survive without
each other. The mutualist and each other’s, However, in a loose association, it is possible for the two partners to live
independently. The following are examples of organism.
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a.Lichen: It is a beneficial association between an alga and a fungus. In this association, the fungus gets organic carbon
and oxygen as nutrient and for respiration from its photosynthetic activities of alga. In return, the fungus protects the
alga from high light intensities; provide water and minerals to it with which the alga can grow.

b.Mycorrhiza: This is a beneficial association between plant roots and fungi in this association, the fungus lives inside
(endotrophic) or outside (ectotrophic) the root extending its hyphae into the soil. The hyphae function like root hairs
absorbing water, phosphorus and other nutrients from the soil into the plant while the fungus depends on
photosynthesis by the plant to provide soluble organic materials as its nutrient.

c.Root nodules and nitrogen fixing bacteria is a beneficial association between nitrogen fixing bacteria of the genus
Rhizobium and the roots of leguminous.

d. Another example is the relationship between the hermit crab and a kind of hydra called hydrachatina commonly
found on the occupied by hermit crab.The hydra feeds on the food particles obtained from the crab which gain nothing
from the association.

e.Epiphytism: The process involves two plants, one lives on the stem or branch of the other, where it seeks support. It
does not necessarily get nutrient directly from its host their nutrient are gotten from dead leaves or dead remains of
some small animals. Examples of epiphytes are fern, mosses and mistletoes.

ASSIGNMENTS

1a. Define the following

- Ecosystem
- Niche
- Biosphere
- Population
- Habitat
b. List the three components of ecosystem

2. Explain the followings terms ( i) commensalisms(ii) saprophytism (iii) parasitism


3. Give one example in each case
4. An association between algae and fungi is called (a) commensalism

WEEK EIGHT: POPULATION STUDIES BY SAMPLING METHOD:


Population is defined as the total number of organism of the same species living together in a given area at a particular
time.

Population size is defined as the total number of the species of the same species living in a given area or habitat.

Population density is defined as the number of individual organisms per unit area or volume of the habitat. It is
represented mathematically as:

Population density = Total population/ population size


Area of habitat

Population size = population density x Area of habitat

Population frequency - This is defined as the number of times organism occurs within a given area of an habitat.

Population dominance
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Method of Population Studies


i. Direct counting
ii. Tagging ( capture, release and recaptured )
iii. Quadrat sampling
iv. Use of transect.

1. Direct counting: This involves counting a particular species of organisms in a particular area. The complete
counting of individual in an area is called censor.

2. Tagging or (captured, release and recaptured) method: this is a method of capturing a known number of a
particular species of animal in a particular area. The captured animals are tagged or marked then released. After a
known period, the same numbers of those animals are captured again from that area. Suppose 200 rats are captured
in an area and the 200 rats are then tagged or marked and released. After two days another 200 rats are captured. If
the 200 rats captured after 2days, include 40 tagged ones, the total population of tagged and untagged rat in the
area is 1000.

T.P = 200/40 x 200 5


= 1000 rats

3. Quadrat sampling method: A quadrat is an ecological instrument to estimate population. It may be square,
circular or rectangular.

How to Conduct Population Studies with Quadrat


- Choose and locate the sample plot area.
- Identify the species of organism in the plot
- Measure the area with a measuring tape to know the area of the habitat. ( mapping out of the sample plot )
- Throw or loss the quadrat randomly at an interval for up to ten (10 ) times or above.
- After each throw, count the number of species with the area of quadrat.
- Record the number of organism in each throw.
- The population density of the species can be calculated by dividing the average number of times a species
occurs with the quadrat by the area of the quadrat.

Sampling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Number of goat
weeds per area of 15 10 12 20 6 18 19 26 8 13 127
quadrat

Number of 2 4 1 4 3 7 5 2 6 11 35
earthworms per
area of quadrat

Area of abandoned farm = 100m2

Area of quadrat = 1m2

No of unit are tossed = 10

Total unit area tossed 10 x 1 = 10m2

No of goat weeds in 10m2 127


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Average frequency no of goat


Weeds per square = 127
Meter of quadrat 10

Population density of goat weeds = 12.7/m2

Population density = population size of a goat weeds


Area of quadrat x no of toss
= 127 = 127
1 x 10 10

= 12.7/m2

Population size = population area density *area of quadrat


= 12.7 x 10
= 127
USE OF TRANSACT
This method makes use of a rope or tape marked at regular intervals is stretched across the study plot. Plants or animal
occurring at the marked intervals are recorded. If this is done several times in different places, the types of plant and
their number can be estimated.
The method has an advantages since transact shows the kinds of plant along a line or belt vegetation, the method can
be used to study any progressive change in vegetation by re-charting the transact.
Factors that affect population size

Natality : this has to do with birth rate in mammals, hatching in oviparous animals and germinate in plant.

Mortality : this is the rate of removal of individual from a population by death.

Immigration : this is the movement of individual organism into a population.

Emigration : this is the movement of organism out of a population or in a particular habitat.

Dispersion : it is the manner in which individual in a population are spread in a particular area.

Growth rate this is the net result of natality, mortality and dispersion.

Simple measurement of ecological factors


Rainfall is an important ecological factor because it affects the distribution and type of vegetation. It can be measured
by RAINGUAGE.

Temperature affects the rate of transpiration, photosynthesis, germination and other process. It can be measured by
using THRMOMETER.

Light is very important for photosynthesis both in terrestrial and aquatic environment. It can be measured by LIGHT
METER OR PHOOMETER.

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air. It can be measured by using HYGROMETER.

Wind : the speed of wind is measured by an ANEMOMETER. Wind direction is measured by WIND VANE.
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Turbidity is the amount of suspended particles present in the water. It is measured by SECCHI disc.

WEEK NINE: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM:


Ecosystem is a natural functioning unit in nature it is made up of living organisms and their non-living environment.
The biotic component such as producer or consumers interacts in their environment resulting in ecosystem being a
functional unit.

Autotrophs, Heterotroph and decomposer

Autotrophs are organisms (green and some bacteria) which can use sunlight or chemical to manufacture their food
from inorganic substances during the process of photosynthesis. Autotrophs are otherwise known as producer.
Producer is a green or autotroph which trap the energy of sunlight or solar and convert to form organic compound.

Terrestrial examples of autotrophs are grasses, trees and shrub while aquatic autotrophs are phyto- plankton, water
hyacinths, and sea weeds.
Heterotrophs are organism mainly animals, which cannot manufacture their own food but depend directly or indirectly
on plant for their food, hence, they are called consumers. Consumer can be grouped into the following:

Herbivores or primary consumer are the animal that feed directly on the plant.
Carnivores or secondary consumers are the animals that feed on primary consumers e.g. flesh eater organisms. Lion,
cat, hyenas and leopard.

Omnivores or tertiary consumers are those animals or organisms that feed on both primary and secondary consumers,

Detritivores are those organism or animals that feed on recently dead organisms e.g. vulture.

Decomposer: decomposers are the fungi or bacteria which live saprophytically or feed on dead remains of plant,
animal and organisms leading to or breaking down organic matters to produce soluble nutrient which are absorbed by
plant. Other examples of decomposer are insects such as termite, larvae of housefly (maggot) etc.

Food chain

Food chain is defined as a feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from producer to
consumers. This is a linear feeding relationship in which energy is transferred from producer (plant) through a series of
organism.

Terrestrial habitat

Guinea grass - grasshopper - toad - snake - hawk


(Producer) (Pry consumer) (Secondary (tertiary consumer)
Consumer)
Aquatic habitat
Diatoms - mosquito larvae - tilapia fish - whales
(Producer) (Pry consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary consumer)
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Terrestrial food chain

Humus - earthworm - domestic food - man

Food web is defined as a complex feeding relationship among organism in the same environment with two or more
inter-related food chain.
Food web contain two or more food chains and therefore more organism than food chain
Solar producer
Producer

Grass

Cane rat grasshopper Mouse primary consumer

Lizard

Snake secondary consumer

Fox Hawk Eagle tertiary consumer

Man

Tropical level

Tropical level is defined as the feeding or each stage in a food chain or food web. OR Tropical level is the number of
links by which food energy is transferred from producer to final consumer.

Example;

Guinea grass - grasshopper - toad - lizard - hawk

(1st tropical level) (2nd tropic level) (3rd tropical level) (4th tropical level) (5th tropical level)
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Pyramid of number

Pyramid of number is referred to the number of individual organisms of each tropic level which decreases
progressively from the first to the last tropic level in a food chain. Pyramid is a diagrammatic representation of food
chain in which producers form the base and the carnivores from the apex.

Hawk

Lizard

Toad

Grasshopper

Guinea grass

Pyramid of energy

Pyramid of energy is defined as the amount of energy present in the living organism at different tropical levels of a
food chain.
The pyramid of number represents a progressive decrease in energy from the first tropical level to the last tropical level
in a food chain or web.

5Y

20Y

100Y

300Y

500Y
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Flow of energy

Energy of food is unidirectional. It is either used or stored. Light energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll in
green plants and used in photosynthesis to produce carbohydrate. The chemical energy is passed along the food chain
to the secondary consumer and then to the tertiary consumer or decompose.

TOPIC : ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to do work, e.g. running, swimming, jumping, playing, acting, sitting even sleeping.
Energy can exist in many forms such as potential or kinetic, heat, light, electrical or chemical.
Chemical energy is the form in which living organisms usually store energy. Atoms combine to form chemical
compounds by losing, accepting or sharing electrons. Chemical bonds are formed between atoms. A chemical bond
contains stored energy which is called energy bond. When a chemical bond is broken in a reaction, energy is released.
Transformation of energy

Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Chemical bound energy in petrol can be transformed into heat
and light energy by burning the petrol. Electrical energy is heat by pressing iron. The transformation of energy is
governed by two laws of thermodynamics.

First law of thermodynamic : state that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from
one form to another.

Second law of thermodynamics states in any conversion of energy from one form to another, there is always a
decrease in the amount of useful energy or in other word; the law states that no transformation of energy from one state
to another is ever 100% efficient.

Energy transformation in nature

In nature energy transformation is about by living organisms. Their activities cause energy to flow through the
ecosystem. The sun is the ultimate and external of energy for ecosystem on earth.

Energy loss in the ecosystem

The energy from the sun passes through food chain. Only a small portion of the sun’s energy gets into the bodies of the
final consumer. The rest of the energy is lost as heat in the food chain put a natural limit on the total weight of living
matter that can exist at each level.

In autotrophs, the loss in energy affects primary production because there is less in photosynthesis which ultimately
affects the yield.

In ecosystem energy is lost through the following:

1. Vegetation
2. Soil
3. Air
4. Heat
5. Evaporation of water and
6. Effects of wind.

Depending on the type of vegetation and climatic factors only about 1-10% of the solar energy may be available to
thermodynamic producer in most ecosystems.

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