What is a Scientific Theory?

Scientists develop theories to explain the natural world and to advance scientific
knowledge. A theory is the highest level of explanation in science. Some features
of scientific theories are that they:

 have been thoroughly tested over an extended period

 provide accurate explanations and predictions for a wide range of phenomena
 are widely accepted by the scientific community
 demonstrate strong experimental and observational support

It is not uncommon for people to use the word "theory" to refer to something that is
uncertain or just a guess. For example, someone might say, "I don't know if that is
correct. It is just a theory."

However, in science, "theory" has a different meaning: the best scientific explanation for
how things work. A theory is not a guess or an unknown. It represents a heightened and
tested level of scientific knowledge. A theory, by definition, has been tested multiple
times by different people
and provides a robust
working model of how the
natural world functions. A
theory is supported by
multiple lines of evidence.
However, scientific theories
are not static, unchanging
truths. With new
observations and
reasoning, theories can
develop and change. It is
also possible to disprove
theories with new data that
contradict their underlying
assumptions.

Becoming a Scientific Theory

A theory begins as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for

observable phenomena. It takes time and testing for a hypothesis to become a theory.
Hypotheses are sometimes described as "educated guesses," but hypotheses are more
than mere opinions. A feasible hypothesis is based on prior knowledge, evidence, logic,
and scientific reasoning. Experimentation and further research verify a hypothesis.

Hypotheses and theories differ in their scope of explanation and the amount of testing
that they have undergone. Theories are therefore more reliable and authoritative than
hypotheses because they have been tested multiple times and supported by evidence
 from multiple sources. A hypothesis becomes a theory
through testing and refinement. A well-known example is
Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein first proposed
his hypothesis about the nature of gravity in 1905. After
developing, expanding, and testing his hypothesis over
years, Einstein conducted an acclaimed experiment in 1919
that confirmed his predictions.

Often, the scientific method is invoked to explain how scientific knowledge is

acquired. Scientists do not necessarily follow a strict set sequence of steps when "doing
science," but the components of the scientific method nevertheless describe the
process of scientific research.

Instead of thinking about the scientific method as a fixed sequence of actions, it is

helpful to think of it as a cycle. Scientists engage in a variety of activities as part of the
scientific investigation process, including:

 making observations
 forming questions based on observations
 developing hypotheses to answer the questions
 testing the hypotheses with experiments or investigations
 analyzing results and data of experiments
 forming conclusions based on experimental analysis
 restarting the cycle at various points, if necessary

The scientific method can be used not only for specialized scientific research. It can be
used to solve everyday problems. One example is someone losing their phone. Finding
the phone could be accomplished by:

 Observing: the phone is not next to the bed as it usually is

 Questioning: where is the phone?
 Hypothesizing: the phone is not next to the bed because it is in the backpack
 Investigating: checking out what is in the backpack
 Analyzing: the mobile phone is in the backpack
 Concluding: the phone was left in the backpack rather than placed in its usual
location.

In this example, the hypothesis would be changed if the investigation falsified (refuted
or proved false) the original hypothesis. For example, a new hypothesis might be, "the
phone is in the kitchen," which would require a new investigation.
Characteristics of a Scientific Theory

The following are essential characteristics of a scientific theory:

 Testability: scientists can confirm the theory's predictions through controlled

experiments or other rigorous scientific investigations.
 Reproducibility: other scientists regularly produce the same results after following
the same experimental procedure
 Replicability: when other researchers examine the same phenomena, they
achieve results consistent with the theory's predictions.
 Simplicity: in general, scientists prefer simple theories. This preference is because
simple theories do not require additional or contingent objects or concepts.
 Consistency: a scientific theory should be compatible with other widely accepted
theories.

Fact vs. Theory

There is a difference between scientific theories and scientific facts. Theories explain
universal mechanisms or concepts across the natural world and are well tested. By
contrast, a scientific fact is a confirmed observation of a particular phenomenon or
object. Therefore, scientists build theories on scientific facts.

For instance, according to atomic theory, matter is described as consisting of atoms and
subatomic particles that cannot be created or destroyed during chemical reactions.
Scientific facts support this theory: scientists observe that matter behaves as predicted
by atomic theory. That is, scientists can observe the fact that a particular group of atoms
behaves consistently with the theory that describes how matter behaves generally and
universally.

For example, atomic theory predicts that the products' mass equals that of the
reactants that produced them during a chemical reaction. When working with specific
matter, this can be observed as fact as when ten grams of sodium chloride are
produced when ten grams of sodium and chlorine are combined.

A scientific theory can sometimes overlap with a fact. For example, according to the
theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms change and mutate over time.
Scientists can also observe this change and mutation as scientific fact such as during the
COVID-19 pandemic. It is a fact that specific COVID variants have developed and spread
throughout the world due to mutations. This observable fact overlaps with the theory
that organisms generally change and mutate.

Scientific Law vs. Scientific Theory

Scientific laws are statements that describe regular occurrences in nature. Scientific
laws are not used to predict phenomena or provide overarching, universal explanations
for phenomena unlike scientific theories. Scientific laws merely state that things happen
in a particular way without providing an underlying mechanism or reason.

Some examples of scientific laws help explain the difference between scientific laws and
scientific theories and their different roles:
  Law of gravity: Isaac Newton's law of gravity is a mathematical statement of the
acceleration of falling objects based on their mass. The law does not explain why
gravitational attraction occurs; it merely describes the behavior of objects
subject to gravitational forces.
 Law of independent assortment: Mendel's law of independent assortment states
that alleles for genetic traits get separated during gamete formation. When
Mendel proposed this law, he did not have a theoretical explanation for how
independent assortment happens. He simply knew that it was happening. Since
he observed that it happened consistently, it became a scientific law. As with all
scientific laws, the law of independent assortment is merely a statement
of what happens, not how something happens.

Scientific Theory Examples

Scientific theory examples include:

 Plate tectonics: The theory of plate tectonics describes how the Earth's crust
changes over time. It states that the Earth's outer crust consists of multiple
plates that move around over the asthenosphere, the molten layer of the Earth.
Science today uses this theory as the basis for predicting and studying the
movements of the Earth. Plate tectonics explain earthquakes, mountain
formation, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, seafloor spreading, and even the
placement and movement of organisms through geologic time. In 1915, Alfred
Wegner proposed a precursor hypothesis called "continental drift." Although
initially dismissed and ridiculed, more and more evidence lent credence to the
hypothesis. As the hypothesis accumulated supporting data, it evolved into
accepted theory that it is today.
 Big bang theory: This is the currently accepted explanation for the origins of the
universe. The theory proposes that everything began 13.8 billion years ago as a
single, dense, hot, infinitesimal point of energy. The point of energy began to
expand and cool, forming the matter and features of the universe that we
observe today. The observations of astronomers and investigations of
astrophysicists over many decades support this theory and allow them to make
accurate predictions about the behavior of energy and matter in the cosmos.

Modification of a Scientific Theory

As time passes, theories are often revised. For example, as new technologies are
developed, new observations are possible. Researchers can refine theories as a result of
these discoveries. If new observations are greatly inconsistent with the predictions of a
theory, then the theory may be discarded or altered.

Atomic theory is an excellent example of how ideas can be modified and improved
given new data. Over the past two hundred years scientists have gained a deeper
understanding of the complexity of atoms compared to original understandings.
  In the early 19th century, John Dalton described atoms as microscopic, indivisible
particles, almost like tiny, unbreakable billiard balls.
 By the late 19th century, J.J. Thomson had identified negatively charged
components of atoms called electrons
 In the late 19th and early 20th century, scientists observed other subatomic
particles, protons and neutrons, which disproved Dalton's original conception of
atoms as whole, indivisible particles.
 During the 20th century, the quantum mechanical behavior of electrons was
introduced into atomic theory, resulting in our present-day understanding of
atoms and subatomic particles.

Unification of a Scientific Theory

There are times when different theories are combined into a single explanation.
Electromagnetism is an example of this. Electricity and magnetism were both well
known to scientists during the early 19th century, and for the most part, they were
treated as separate phenomena. However, Hans Oersted observed in 1820 that
magnetism and electricity were interrelated. Oersted published his observations,
leading to Michael Faraday's development of a unified theory of electromagnetism and
James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic equations.