UNIT-5

Communication Engineering

Signal:

In electrical engineering, the fundamental quantity of representing some information is called

a signal. It does not matter what the information is i-e: Analog or digital information. In mathematics,
a signal is a function that conveys some information. In fact any quantity measurable through time
over space or any higher dimension can be taken as a signal. A signal could be of any dimension and
could be of any form.

Difference between analog and digital signals

Comparison Analog signal Digital signal
element

Analysis Difficult Possible to analyze

Representation Continuous Discontinuous

Accuracy More accurate Less accurate

Storage Infinite memory Easily stored

Subject to Noise Yes No

Recording Original signal is preserved Samples of the signal are taken and
Technique preserved

Examples Human voice, Thermometer, Analog Computers, Digital Phones, Digital

phones e.t.c pens, e.t.c
To analyze a signal, it has to be represented. This representation in communication systems is of two
types −

 Frequency domain representation, and

 Time domain representation.
Consider two signals with 1 kHz and 2 kHz frequencies. Both of them are represented in time and
frequency domain as shown in the following figure.

Time domain analysis, gives the signal behavior over a certain time period. In the frequency domain,
the signal is analyzed as a mathematical function with respect to the frequency.
Frequency domain representation is needed where the signal processing such as filtering, amplifying
and mixing are done.
For instance, if a signal such as the following is considered, it is understood that noise is present in it.
The frequency of the original signal may be 1 kHz,
but the noise of certain frequency, which corrupts
this signal is unknown. However, when the same
signal is represented in the frequency domain,
using a spectrum analyzer, it is plotted as shown in
the following figure.

Here, we can observe few harmonics, which

represent the noise introduced into the original
signal. Hence, the signal representation helps in
analyzing the signals.
Frequency domain analysis helps in creating the desired
wave patterns. For example, the binary bit patterns in a
computer, the Lissajous patterns in a CRO, etc. Time
domain analysis helps to understand such bit patterns.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The electromagnetic spectrum is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to
energy, frequency, or wavelength. The electro-magnetic radiation can be described as a stream of
photons, which are particles traveling in a wavelike pattern, moving at the speed of light.

Frequencies in the visible and infrared spectral bands are measured in the millions of megahertz,
commonly referred to as wavelengths rather than frequencies. Wavelength can be measured
interferometrically with great accuracy and it is related to the optical frequency by the universal
equation c = λν, where λ is the wavelength, ν is the optical frequency, and c is the speed of light in
free space (3 × 108 m/sec). The difference between the categories of electromagnetic radiation is the
amount of energy found in their photons. The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the
wavelength, and is given by E = hc /λ , where h is the Planck constant (6.62 × 10−34 J·sec). Radio
waves have photons with very low energies while and gamma-rays are the most energetic of all.

Communication Systems
The communication system is a system which describes the information exchange between two
points. The process of transmission and reception of information is called communication. The major
elements of communication are the Transmitter of information, Channel or medium of
communication and the Receiver of information.
Depending on the communication channel, the communication system is categorized as follows:
1. Wired (Line communication)
 Parallel wire communication
 Twisted wire communication
 Coaxial cable communication
 Optical fibre communication

2. Wireless (Space communication)

 Ground wave communication
 Skywave communication
 Space wave communication
 Satellite communication

Examples of Communication Systems

The following are a few examples of communication systems:
1. Internet
2. Public Switched Telephone network
3. Intranet and Extranet
4. Television

Block Diagram of Communication Systems

The block diagram given below represents the flow of the signal from the source to the destination.
The role of every device and arrangement discussed above is better understood.
Modulator:
As the original message signal cannot be transmitted over a large distance because of their low
frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high frequency and amplitude wave called
carrier wave. This phenomenon of superimposing of message signal with a carrier wave is called
modulation. And the resultant wave is a modulated wave which is to be transmitted.
Again there are different types of Modulation.
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The process of changing the amplitude of the signal wave by impressing or superimposing it on a
high-frequency carrier wave, keeping its frequency constant is called amplitude modulation.
ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation is a technique in which the frequency of the message signal is varied by
modulating with a carrier wave. It is better than amplitude modulation because it eliminates noise
from various sources.
iii. Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase of the carrier wave changes the phase of the signal wave. The phase shift after modulation
is dependent on the frequency of the carrier wave as well. Phase modulated waves are immune to
noise to a greater extent.
Demodulator:
It is the inverse phenomenon of modulation. The process of separation of message signal from the
carrier wave takes place in the demodulator. The information is retrieved from the modulated wave.
What is the Need for Modulation?

 Increase The Signal Strength

The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of direct transmission. The strength of
the message signal should be increased so that it can travel longer distances. This is where modulation
is essential. The most vital need of modulation is to enhance the strength of the signal without
affecting the parameters of the carrier signal.

 Wireless Communication System

Modulation has removed the necessity for using wires in the communication systems. It is because
modulation is widely used in transmitting signals from one location to another with faster speed.
Thus, the modulation technique has helped in enhancing wireless communication systems.

 Prevention Of Message Signal From Mixing

Modulation and its types prevent the interference of the message signal from other signals. It is
because a person sending a message signal through the phone cannot tell such signals apart. As a
result, they will interfere with each other. However, by using carrier signals having a high frequency,
the mixing of the signals can be prevented. Thus, modulation ensures that the signals received by the
receiver are entirely perfect.
  Size Of The Antenna

The signals within 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range can travel only a few distances. To send the
message signal, the length of the antenna should be a quarter wavelength of the used frequency. Thus,
modulation is required to increase the frequency of the message signal and to enhance its strength to
reach the receiver.

Length of the antenna can be easily calculated using this formula:

L = λ = c/v = 3×108 /ν
Here, L = length of antenna
λ = wavelength of the transmitted signal
ν = carrier wave frequency

What are the uses/applications of Modulation?

 One of the most common uses of different types of modulation is the inter-conversion of
signals from its existing to another form.
 Digital Modulation is used for the transmissions of the digital signals over analog baseband.
 Analog Modulation is used to transfer the low bandwidth signals such as TV or radio signals
over a higher bandwidth.
 Modern modulation techniques are widely used to carry out FDM, that is, Frequency Division
Multiplexing.

Demodulation

The process of demodulation always requires a nonlinear operation on a signal in order to

estimate a baseband signal proportional to the modulation of the carrier. Based on this nonlinearity,
the demodulation methods can be broadly classified as methods using rectification (non-synchronous
detection) and methods using mixing with a reference oscillator signal (synchronous detection). For
demodulators of the latter class, the reference signal can be either a square wave, most commonly
used for analog implementations, or a sinusoid, most commonly used for digital implementations as is
the case in this paper. Within the class of demodulators using mixing, further classification can be
made based on how the 2fc component from the mixing process is filtered out. While the open-loop
methods rely on either general or numerically precise low-pass filters, the closed-loop methods
employ feedback of the parameterized signal states to eliminate this component. An overview of the
demodulator classification is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Classification of demodulation methods

Data communications:
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows
computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is
established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the
Internet.
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called
computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among
them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
A network consists of two or more nodes (e.g. computers) that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.
NETWORK GOALS:
 The main goal of networking is "Resource sharing", and it is to make all programs, data and
equipment available to anyone on the network without the regard to the physical location of
the resource and the user.
 A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. For
example, all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is
unavailable, the other copies could be available.
 Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio
than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten times faster than the fastest single
chip microprocessors, but they cost thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many
system designers to build systems consisting of powerful personal computers, one per user,
with data kept on one or more shared file server machines. This goal leads to networks with
many computers located in the same building. Such a network is called a LAN (local area
network).
 Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as the work load increases
by just adding more processors. With central mainframes, when the system is full, it must be
replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense and with even greater disruption to the
users.
 Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A file that was updated or
modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the network immediately.

NETWORK APPLICATIONS:
 Access to remote programs.
 Access to remote databases.
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
Mobile Communication:
Development of the cellular concept in the 1960s at the Bell Laboratories, mobile communications
began to be a promising field of expanse which could serve wider populations. Initially, mobile
communication was restricted to certain official users and the cellular concept was never even
dreamt of being made commercially available. Moreover, even the growth in the cellular networks
was very slow. However, with the development of newer and better technologies starting from the
1970s and with the mobile users now connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN), there has been an astronomical growth in the cellular radio and the personal
communication systems. Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was the first U.S. cellular
telephone system and it was deployed in 1983.
First Generation Networks The first mobile phone system in the market was AMPS. It was the
first U.S. cellular telephone system, deployed in Chicago in 1983. The main technology of this first
generation mobile system was FDMA/FDD and analog FM.
Second Generation Networks Digital modulation formats were introduced in this generation with
the main technology as TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD. The 2G systems introduced three popular
TDMA standards and one popular CDMA standard in the market. These are as follows:
TDMA/FDD Standards (a) Global System for Mobile (GSM): The GSM standard, introduced by
Groupe Special Mobile, was aimed at designing a uniform pan-European mobile system. It was the
first fully digital system utilizing the 900 MHz frequency band. The initial GSM had 200 KHz radio
channels, 8 full-rate or 16 half-rate TDMA channels per carrier, encryption of speech, low speed
data services and support for SMS for which it gained quick popularity. (b) Interim Standard 136
(IS-136): It was popularly known as North American Digital Cellular (NADC) system. In this
system, there were 3 full-rate TDMA users over each 30 KHz channel. The need of this system was
mainly to increase the capacity over the earlier analog (AMPS) system. (c) Pacific Digital Cellular
(PDC): This standard was developed as the counterpart of NADC in Japan. The main advantage of
this standard was its low transmission bit rate which led to its better spectrum utilization.
CDMA/FDD Standard Interim Standard 95 (IS-95): The IS-95 standard, also popularly known as
CDMAOne, uses 64 orthogonally coded users and codewords are transmitted simultaneously on
each of 1.25 MHz channels. Certain services that have been standardized as a part of IS-95 standard
are: short messaging service, slotted paging, over-the-air activation (meaning the mobile can be
activated by the service provider without any third party intervention), enhanced mobile station
identities etc. 2.5G Mobile Networks In an effort to retrofft the 2G standards for compatibility with
increased throughput rates to support modern Internet application, the new data centric standards
were developed to be overlaid on 2G standards and this is known as 2.5G standard. Here, the main
upgradation techniques are: ff supporting higher data rate transmission for web browsing ff
supporting e-mail traffic ff enabling location-based mobile service 2.5G networks also brought into
the market some popular application, a few of which are: Wireless Application Protocol (WAP),
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), High Speed Circuit Switched Dada (HSCSD), Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) etc. 3G:
Third Generation Networks 3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology,
superseding 2.5G. It is based on the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) family of
standards under the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000). ITU launched
IMT-2000 program, which, together with the main industry and standardization bodies worldwide,
targets to implement a global frequency band that would support a single, ubiquitous wireless
communication standard for all countries, to provide the framework for the definition of the 3G
mobile systems.
 Several radio access technologies have been accepted by ITU as part of the IMT-2000
framework. 3G networks enable network operators to offer users a wider range of more advanced
services while achieving greater network capacity through improved spectral efficiency. Services
include wide-area wireless voice telephony, video calls, and broadband wireless data, all in a mobile
environment. Additional features also include HSPA data transmission capabilities able to deliver
speeds up to 14.4Mbit/s on the down link and 5.8Mbit/s on the uplink. 3G networks are wide area
cellular telephone networks which evolved to incorporate high-speed internet access and video
telephony. IMT-2000 defines a set of technical requirements for the realization of such targets,
which can be summarized as follows: _ high data rates: 144 kbps in all environments and 2 Mbps in
low-mobility and indoor environments _ symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission _ circuit-
switched and packet-switched-based services _ speech quality comparable to wire-line quality _
improved spectral efficiency _ several simultaneous services to end users for multimedia services _
seamless incorporation of second-generation cellular systems _ global roaming _ open architecture
for the rapid introduction of new services and technology.
Beyond 3G networks, or 4G (Fourth Generation), represent the next complete evolution in
wireless communications. A 4G system will be able to provide a comprehensive IP solution where
voice, data and streamed multimedia can be given to users at higher data rates than previous
generations. There is no formal definition for 4G; however, there are certain objectives that are
projected for 4G. It will be capable of providing between 100 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s speeds both
indoors and outdoors, with premium quality and high security. It would also support systems like
multicarrier communication, MIMO and UWB.
Satellite Communications:

In 1962, the American telecommunications giant AT&T launched the world's first true
communications satellite, called Telstar. Since then, countless communications satellites have been
placed into earth orbit, and the technology being applied to them is forever growing in
sophistication.

Basic Elements Satellite communications are comprised of 2 main components:

 The Satellite

The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and is composed of three separate units,
namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry controls, and the transponder. The transponder
includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the ground station, a broad band receiver, an
input multiplexer, and a frequency converter which is used to reroute the received signals through
a high powered amplifier for downlink. The primary role of a satellite is to reflect electronic
signals. In the case of a telecom satellite, the primary task is to receive signals from a ground
station and send them down to another ground station located a considerable distance away from
the first. This relay action can be two-way, as in the case of a long distance phone call. Another use
of the satellite is when, as is the case with television broadcasts, the ground station's uplink is then
downlinked over a wide region, so that it may be received by many different customers possessing
compatible equipment. Still another use for satellites is observation, wherein the satellite is
equipped with cameras or various sensors, and it merely downlinks any information it picks up
from its vantagepoint.

● The Ground Station

This is the earth segment. The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of an uplink, or
transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of baseband signals, is passed through a baseband
processor, an up converter, a high powered amplifier, and through a parabolic dish antenna up to
an orbiting satellite. In the case of a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse fashion as
the uplink, ultimately converting signals received through the parabolic antenna to base band
signal.

Various Uses of Satellite Communications

 Traditional Telecommunications Since the beginnings of the long distance telephone

network, there has been a need to connect the telecommunications networks of one country to
another. This has been accomplished in several ways. Submarine cables have been used most
frequently. However, there are many occasions where a large long distance carrier will choose to
establish a satellite based link to connect to transoceanic points, geographically remote areas or
poor countries that have little communications infrastructure. Groups like the international satellite
consortium Intelsat have fulfilled much of the world's need for this type of service.
 Cellular Various schemes have been devised to allow satellites to increase the bandwidth
available to ground based cellular networks. Every cell in a cellular network divides up a fixed
range of channels which consist of either frequencies, as in the case of FDMA systems, or time
slots, as in the case of TDMA. Since a particular cell can only operate within those channels
allocated to it, overloading can occur.
By using satellites which operate at a frequency outside those of the cell, we can provide extra
satellite channels on demand to an overloaded cell. These extra channels can just as easily be, once
free, used by any other overloaded cell in the network, and are not bound by bandwidth restrictions
like those used by the cell. In other words, a satellite that provides service for a network of cells
can allow its own bandwidth to be used by any cell that needs it without being bound by terrestrial
bandwidth and location restrictions.

 Television Signals Satellites have been used for since the 1960's to transmit broadcast
television signals between the network hubs of television companies and their network affiliates. In
some cases, an entire series of programming is transmitted at once and recorded at the affiliate,
with each segment then being broadcast at appropriate times to the local viewing populace. In the
1970's, it became possible for private individuals to download the same signal that the networks
and cable companies were transmitting, using c-band reception dishes.
 Spacebourne Land Mobile Along the same lines as the marine based service, there are
VSAT devices which can be used to establish communication links even from the world's most
remote regions. These devices can be hand-held, or fit into a briefcase. Digital data at 64K ISDN is
available with some (Inmarsat).
 Satellite Messaging for Commercial Jets Another service provided by geosyncronous
satellites are the ability for a passenger on an airbourne aircraft to connect directly to a landbased
telecom network.
 Global Positioning Services Another VSAT oriented service, in which a small apparatus
containing the ability to determine navigational coordinates by calculating a triangulating of the
signals from multiple geosynchronous.
RADAR COMMUNICATION:

RADAR is an electromagnetic based detection system that works by radiating electromagnetic

waves and then studying the echo or the reflected back waves. The full form of RADAR is RAdio
Detection And Ranging. Detection refers to whether the target is present or not. The target can be
stationary or movable, i.e., non-stationary. Ranging refers to the distance between the Radar and
the target.

A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or

microwaves domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used
for transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the
object(s).

Radars can be used for various applications on ground, on sea and in space. The applications of
Radars are listed below.

 Controlling the Air Traffic

 Ship safety
 Sensing the remote places
 Military applications

The electronic principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave
reflection. If you shout in the direction of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave),
you will hear an echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance
and general direction of the object. The time required for an echo to return can be roughly
converted to distance if the speed of sound is known.

The whole radar system is mainly composed of the following devices:

 Transmitter
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power rf pulses of energy that are into
space by the antenna.
 Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so that
only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power pulses of
the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the receiver.
 Receiver
The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver provides video
signals on the output.
 Radar Antenna
The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distribution
and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
 Indicator
The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable, graphic
picture of the relative position of radar targets.
The radar screen (in this case a PPI-scope) displays the produced from the echo signals bright
blibs. The longer the pulses were delayed by the runtime, the further away from the center of
this radar scope they are displayed. The direction of the deflection on this screen is that in
which the antenna is currently pointing.
Calculating a distance between the Radar and an object:
It must be taken into account that the time (T) measured between the emission of a wave and the
reception of its echo is that of the round trip of this wave since the wave is rebounded by this object.
To calculate the distance (D) between the radar and an object, Time (T) needs to be divided by two.
D = 1/2 × cT
D： Distance between the Radar and the targeted object
c： Speed of light 3 × 108 m/s
T： Time elapsed between first emission and reception of an echo
2. Modulation
To overcome limitations of the communications channel and permit multiple access, information signals are impressed upon
a higher-frequency carrier signal for transmission. This process is called modulation. Now we’re dealing with two signals:
1. Original (“baseband”) information signal - frequency is too low to transmit efficiently
2. Higher frequency (“carrier”) signal - we can transmit this efficiently, so we use it to carry our information

Mathematically, the cosine wave representing the higher-frequency carrier is given by:

vc (t)  Vc cos  2 f ct  c 
Modulation is the process of varying any of three properties (amplitude, frequency or phase, underlined above) of a high-
frequency carrier using the lower-frequency information signal (baseband signal). A modulator is a component of a
communication system which achieves modulation. The three types of modulation we will focus on are:
2.1 Amplitude modulation (AM) Varying the amplitude Vc of the carrier with the info signal.

2.2 Frequency modulation (FM) Varying the frequency fc of the carrier with the info signal.

2.3 Phase modulation (PM) Varying the phase angle c of the carrier with the info signal.
3. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In amplitude modulation, the information signal is used to vary the amplitude of the carrier sine wave. For simplicity,
consider a cosine wave information signal, vm(t) (a 440 Hz tuning fork) and a cosine carrier, vc(t) (frequency 5000 Hz (or 5
kHz)).
vm (t)  Vm cos  2 f m t   Vm cos  2 440t 

The diagram of an amplitude modulation system using this information signal follows.

The AM wave (vAM(t)) is the product of the carrier (with amplitude = 1) with a modulating signal. The modulating signal is
the information signal vm(t) with an added offset, Vc. The AM signal is then given by:
𝑣𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = �+ 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)�cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑐 𝑡) = (𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑚 𝑡))cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

Modulating Signal Carrier Modulating Signal Carrier

The envelope of the modulating signal (which is drawn onto the AM signal below in a dashed red line) varies above and
below the unmodulated carrier amplitude, Vc. It is the envelope that carries the information signal; the receiver must separate
the envelope from the received AM signal to recover the information that was transmitted. In this case, the envelope is in the
shape of a sine wave, which is the same as the information signal. The values of Vm and Vc are related by the modulation
index (m).

3.1 Modulation Index The relationship between the information signal amplitude, Vm , and the unmodulated carrier
amplitude, Vc, is expressed as a ratio called the modulation index (m), defined as:
Vm
m
VC
Sometimes m is expressed as a percentage: percent modulation = m x 100%. The following figure shows the AM signal at
three different values of percent modulation: 20%, 50% and 90%. Overall, the greater the value of m, the closer the envelope
gets to the horizontal (time) axis.
We can also mathematically determine the modulation index m from the maximum and minimum values of the envelope of
vAM(t) as follows, where Vmax is the maximum value of the envelope and Vmin is the minimum value:
Vmax  Vmin
Vm 
2
Vmax  Vmin
Vc 
2
Vm Vmax  Vmin
m 
Vc Vmax  Vmin

In order for the AM signal to convey the original signal

accurately and prevent distortion, the information signal
amplitude (Vm) must be less than the unmodulated carrier signal
amplitude (Vc). Here again, the unmodulated carrier refers to
the AM signal if the information signal amplitude is equal to 0
(Vm = 0), in which case, vm (t)  Vm cos(2 fmt) . The
maximum usable modulation index is m = 1.0, corresponding to
100% modulation, when Vm is equal to Vc. When Vm is greater
than Vc (that is, m > 1), overmodulation occurs.
Overmodulation, depicted below, results in distortion of the
AM signal’s envelope, and since the envelope holds the
information, the recovered information signal is also distorted.

Practice Problem 18.3

If a carrier signal vc(t) = 9 cos(25000t) Volts is modulated by a cosine wave vm (t) =7.5 cos(2440t) V, what is the
percentage modulation of the resulting AM signal?

4. AM in Frequency Domain
Recall the equation for the amplitude modulated waveform if the information signal is a single sine wave is given by: .
v AM (t)   Vc  Vm cos  2 f m t   cos  2 f c t  . We already know the frequency domain representations of the modulating signal
(vm(t)) and the carrier signal (vc(t)), but how does the amplitude modulated signal look in the frequency domain?
To answer this question, recall the trig identity for the product of two sine waves:
cos A cos B  21 cos( A  B)  12 cos( A  B)

Applying this trig identity for product of two sine waves to the AM signal results in:

v AM (t )   Vc  Vm cos  2 f m t   cos 2 fc t 
 V c cos 2 fc t   V m cos 2 fc t  cos 2 fm t 
V cos 2 f t   V cos  2  f  f t  V cos  2  f  f  t 
m m
c c 2 c m 2 c m

1 2 3

This means that when a single sine wave information signal is used to modulate the carrier in AM, the resulting AM signal
contains three sinusoids (labeled above): one at the carrier frequency (1), one fm Hz above the carrier frequency (2), and one
fm Hz below the carrier frequency (3). For the tuning fork example, we have: fc = 5 kHz, fc − fm = 4.560 kHz and fc + fm = 5.440
kHz. The trig identity puts the amplitudes at frequencies fc − fm and fc + fm at one half that of Vm.
This means the resulting frequency domain plot for this tuning fork example looks like the following (the labels follow the
ones above):
1

3 2

The process of modulating a carrier creates an upper and a lower sideband that is apparent in the frequency plot. The lower
sideband (or LSB) is that portion of the transmitted signal that has frequency content less than the carrier frequency, and the
upper sideband (or USB) has frequency content greater than the carrier frequency. For the tuning fork example, the USB is
the 5440 Hz cosine, and the LSB is the 4560 Hz cosine. On a frequency plot of an AM signal, the lower sideband is a mirror
image of the upper sideband centered about the carrier frequency.
What is the AM signal’s bandwidth? Since bandwith is the highest transmitted frequency minus the lowest frequency
transmitted, it is (fc + fm) − (fc − fm) = 2 fm = 880 Hz. This is twice the bandwith of the information signal we started with…if
we didn’t modulate the information signal, the transmission bandwidth would have only been fm (440 Hz in this case)1. This
means that by transmitting with AM, we have doubled the required bandwith to transmit the signal. Why is this a concern?
Bandwidth is the #2 limiting factor in communications systems, and can be expensive to use… so we’re going to want to
send as much information as possible while occupying the minimum amount of bandwith possible. (The #1 limiting factor in
communications systems is noise, but that’s a subject for a future lesson.)
Other common information signals, such as voice or music, are composed of many different frequencies. AM modulation still
works the same way, but in order to compute transmission bandwidth, we again compute it as BW = 2 fmax. Again, here, fmax
is the maximum frequency content present in the information signal.
5. Demodulation
Modulation is used to upshift the frequency content of a baseband signal, to facilitate transmission (e.g., to allow a smaller
antenna). Demodulation is performed in the receiver to downshift that frequency content back to its baseband frequency. For
example, if the 440 Hz tuning fork signal were transmitted on Annapolis AM radio station WYRE 810AM (fc = 810 kHz), the
transmitted signal is at a frequency of approximately 810 kHz, which is well outside our hearing (we can hear signals with
frequency content up to approximately 20 kHz). In order to hear the tuning fork signal, our car’s radio receiver must shift the
frequency content back down to its original range (440 Hz). This is demodulation; it basically “undoes” what modulation did
to the information signal.
Amplitude modulation applications

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Even though it is not as widely used as it was in previous
years in its basic format it can nevertheless still be found.

 Broadcast transmissions: AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium and short wave bands.
It is simple to demodulate and this means that radio receivers capable of demodulating amplitude modulation are
cheap and simple to manufacture. Nevertheless many people are moving to high quality forms of transmission
like frequency modulation, FM or digital transmissions.
 Air band radio: VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is used for ground to air
radio communications as well as two way radio links for ground staff as well.
 Single sideband: Amplitude modulation in the form of single sideband is still used for HF radio links. Using a
lower bandwidth and providing more effective use of the transmitted power this form of modulation is still used
for many point to point HF links.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation: AM is widely used for the transmission of data in everything from short
range wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications and much more. Effectively it is formed by
having two carriers 90° out of phase.

Types of Amplitude Modulation

There are three main types of amplitude modulation. They are;

 Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC).

 Single Sideband Modulation (SSB).
 Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation

Advantages Disadvantages
Amplitude Modulation is easier to implement. When it comes to power usage it is not efficient.
Demodulation can be done using few It requires a very high bandwidth that is equivalent to that of the
components and a circuit. highest audio frequency.
The receiver used for AM is very cheap. Noise interference is highly noticeable.