Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

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Multimodal Transportation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/multra

Full Length Article

Switching intention, WOM and quality of public transport

services: A case of the Kuala Lumpur conurbation
Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah a,∗, Siti Norida Wahab a,
Muhammad Hafiz Abd Rashid a, Boo Ho Voon b
a
Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 42300 Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Despite spending billions of dollars on urban transport infrastructure, Malaysia has a poor rep-
Public transport satisfaction utation for its public transit service. Consequently, the majority of urban residents continue to
Word-of-mouth rely on their cars. Hence, this paper aims to understand commuters’ intention to switch from
Modal shift
private vehicles to public transit and spread word-of-mouth (WOM) about its services and assess
Switching intention
the roles of satisfaction and service quality as antecedents. A cross-sectional survey of 421 rail
Service quality
Malaysia and bus passengers was undertaken in Kuala Lumpur’s urban and sub-urban areas, and the data
was analyzed using SmartPLS. According to the data, empathy is the strongest predictor of sat-
isfaction with transit services. Except for reliability, the service quality characteristics influence
satisfaction and yield positive indirect effects on both switching intention and WOM. Transit op-
erators and planners should take into account that providing a pleasant and hassle-free riding
experience has a substantial impact on commuter satisfaction and long-term commitment. This
study contributed to the body of knowledge by exploring the intervention role of satisfaction in
the relationship between service quality and switching intention, as well as WOM.

1. Introduction

Rapid growth in the urban population often entails traffic congestion, especially in developing countries where cities suffer from
less-than-ideal city planning (Tan and Taeihagh, 2020). Some cities had built metro and transit lines, yet these efforts failed to attract
the public to shift to public transport in masses. Kuala Lumpur is not an exception to this problem. The working middle class prefer to
drive and get stuck in traffic gridlocks rather than commuting for long hours by bus or train. The city’s current public transport modal
share of 21 percent is still far from ideal, despite the projection of 40 percent by 2021 (Economic Planning Unit, 2021). Malaysian
drivers spend 250 million hours caught in traffic jams, which translates to cost 1.1 to 2.2 percent of the country’s GDP in terms
of lost productivity, fuel wastage and adverse environmental effects (Kaur, 2020; Loh and Simler, 2018). While it is perplexing to
comprehend the reasons behind their persistence in driving for long hours, observers argued that taking the public transit system also
consumes a similar amount of time, if not longer (Gibbs, 2022; Mustapha and Hashim, 2016).
Other than affecting productivity, an inefficient public transit system coupled with private vehicle-clogged roads pose physical and
psychological hazards in the form of carbon emissions, stress levels, and general well-being (Hilbrecht et al., 2014). These problems
hamper the city’s ambition to transform itself into one of the world’s sustainable and livable places to live. Recent incidences involving
a train collision –although with no casualties (Perimbanayagam and Solhi, 2021), a door malfunction mishap (Mohanakrishnan, 2021),

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: iskandarh@uitm.edu.my (M.I. Hamzah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.multra.2023.100082
Received 15 August 2022; Received in revised form 12 January 2023; Accepted 9 February 2023
2772-5863/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Southeast University. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
M.I. Hamzah, S.N. Wahab, M.H. Abd Rashid et al. Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

and occasional disruptions (Choong, 2022; Tan, 2022), further erode the public’s trust and confidence in using public transit. To
counter the poor public sentiment, there is an urgent need to explore factors driving commuters’ WOM and switching behaviors.
Nevertheless, there has been an inadequate consensus among scholars on the psychological drivers of commuters’ public transit
modal switch and social endorsement. Although it is well understood that poor service quality and satisfaction deter the uptake of
public transport ridership, there is little evidence linking these psychological factors to volitional transportation behavior, such as
modal shifting and advocating behavior (Kang et al., 2019; Van Lierop et al., 2017). Accordingly, this research seeks to address this
knowledge gap.
Although Kuala Lumpur has an integrated public transit system in place since the late 1990s, many considered it as being far
from effective. This problem is attributed to multi-faceted factors namely poor pedestrian mobility, car ownership culture, lack of
incentives, fuel subsidies, walking inconvenience due to hot and wet tropical climate, amongst others. Nevertheless, previous negative
perceptions of commuting experience often preclude the public’s decision in shifting from driving private vehicles to riding public
transport services. Given that comfortable and pleasant travel experiences often result in repeat travel behavior (Kouwenhoven and de
Jong, 2018), it is imperative to gage the causal and effect link between service quality, satisfaction and switching intention. Besides,
information pass along through informal communication goes to great lengths in shaping perceptions and acceptance of prospects.
In this regard, having existing passengers spread positive word-of-mouth (WOM) helps negate and counteract the recent negative
publicity on the country’s public transport services.
Past studies have investigated the intention to use public transport, but few have attempted to investigate the re-use intention
among existing and experienced commuters (Nugyen-Phuoc et al., 2022). There might be a disparity in switching intention perception
among first-time or infrequent public transport users than regular commuters. Nascent users may require some time and repetitive
travel experience to assess the quality of services, affecting the true repeat travel outcomes. Besides, not much is known if service
quality affects passengers’ WOM behavior. Since people tend to act on a particular behavior based upon the suggestion or approval
of their trusted social circles, WOM is an indispensable outcome for transport operators that aim to increase transport modal share.
Positive WOMs-if executed properly, lead to the growth of new users without a substantial rise in advertisement costs.
In this research, the service quality framework forms the theoretical foundation of this study. From this paradigm, the mediating
effects of satisfaction on the links between service quality factors on switching intention, and WOM, were analyzed. Accordingly,
the authors assess the direct effects of satisfaction on switching intention and WOM. More specifically this paper offers several
contributions to the growing research on commuters’ satisfaction with using public transportation. First, the importance of service
quality dimensions as satisfaction determinants-namely tangible, reliability, assurance, responsiveness, and empathy was estimated.
To understand the true impact of service quality attributes across diverse service industries, a disaggregated approach is used rather
than a single composite or aggregated approach (Yuan and Gao, 2019).
Second, this research offers a better understanding of the indirect effects of service quality factors via satisfaction on both switch-
ing intention and WOM, considering that the literature stream currently lacks simultaneous study on both criteria. The various
SERVQUAL and other service factor operationalizations have resulted in highly inconsistent and difficult-to-replicate results as far
as public transport satisfaction and loyalty outcomes are concerned, particularly when frameworks with mediation pathways are
involved (van Lierop et al., 2017). Third, this paper explores which aspect of service quality affects passengers’ satisfaction the most
via the Importance-Performance Matrix Analysis (IPMA). Even though satisfaction with public transportation is regarded as a psycho-
logical feeling state, assessing passenger satisfaction from the objective performance standpoint is a reasonable and practical way for
stakeholders to assess the performance of each dimension independently (Zhang et al., 2019). This analysis is of practical significance
to the transit operators and regulators in highlighting the key areas that require their utmost attention to ensure the provision of a
world-class public transport service.

2. Literature review

2.1. Service quality in public transportation studies

The research utilizes Parasuraman’s (1988) service quality (SERVQUAL) framework to gage satisfaction and outcomes among
passengers. The SERVQUAL-which consists of namely tangible, reliability, assurance, responsiveness and empathy, has shown good
levels of validity and reliability in public transit studies (Sam et al., 2018; Chang and Yeh, 2017; Nguyen, 2021; Yuan and Gao, 2019;).
Although various forms and iterations of SERVQUAL exist within the literature –some with up to nine dimensions (Kahnali and
Esmaeili, 2015), the original model’s five dimensions are retained as it offers a parsimonious reflection of commuters’ predisposition
toward the service. Since public transport is an essential service for a city to sustain its dwellers’ quality of life, the transport service
delivery constantly found itself fixated within the public scrutiny through the performance of its key attributes. Any shortfall of these
service quality attributes often shapes commuters’ decision in reverting to their private vehicles when travelling to school or work.
Consequently, public transit operators often found themselves struggling to restore public confidence. This situation is exacerbated
by bad WOMs that rapidly spread across social media following any negative incidences involving their services.
Despite its fair share of criticism, SERVQUAL retains its psychometric merits and is relatively stable when measured in various
settings. The humanistic and customer-centric nature of SERVQUAL is qualitatively distinct from the mechanical, technical, and
objective criteria frequently utilized in the public transportation industry (Mikhaylov et al., 2015). It is argued that the customers’
psychological well-being and attributes could often be overestimated when technical reasoning reign superiority over humanistic
values. Urban commuters often set their own goals when traveling (e.g., comfort, timely arrivals, safety), and SERVQUAL adequately
captures these attributes within its’ five key dimensions. Therefore, SERVQUAL remains relevant to measuring public perception of

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public transportation services. To summarize the research gap, the inconsistencies of previous findings are highlighted in Table A1 in
the Appendix for a detailed comparison.

2.2. The Malaysian public transportation woes

Over the past few decades, the Malaysian government had spent large sum of funds to develop its capital city’s transportation
system. With no less than twelve rail lines, and hundreds of bus routes including a bus rapid transit (BRT) line, the integrated
transportation network appeared to be highly promising in attracting and shifting citizens to embrace public transportation as the
main mode of intra-city travel. The rail lines include commuter trains (KTM Komuter), light rail transit (LRT), mass rapid transit
(MRT), monorail, and airport transit lines (ERL). For first- and last-mile connectivity, commuters have access to feeder buses, taxis,
ride-hailing services, and micro-mobility services.
Unfortunately, the public transit system suffers from low number of ridership and unremarkable public transport modal share.
For comparison, Kuala Lumpur’s average daily ridership of 1.4 million in 2019 (Bernama, 2019) appeared to be minuscule compared
to Singapore’s three million despite nearly having a similar population density. Traffic congestion woes seemed non-detrimental in
preventing the city’s population from sticking to their private vehicles when commuting to work. Although the public transportation
system has improved by leaps and bounds-via pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, electronic ticketing, and live information dissemi-
nation, the dismal ridership statistics indicate that the majority of the public remains unconvinced.
In tackling this problem, experts have identified first-mile and last-mile connectivity issues as the main barriers that prevent
people from using public transportation facilities. The authorities have adopted several measures to address these gaps through e-
hailing services and feeder buses, but other fundamental connectivity-related problems remained unsolved. Amongst these are the
inaccessibility of transit terminals, less-than-ideal locations of the terminals, unreliable scheduling, and poor conditions for pedestrian
mobility and walkability. These conditions position the commuters in an uncomfortable circumstance that eventually prohibits them
from reusing the public transport services.

2.3. Satisfaction, switching intention and word-of-mouth

Understanding urban passengers’ satisfaction is crucial since it influences their behavioral intentions, including their future will-
ingness to repeat usage and spread their personal experiences to others. Many studies have highlighted the role of satisfaction as a
central mediator of behavioral intentions, across various settings, namely airline service quality (Shah et al., 2020), public transport
(De Oña, 2020), tour guide performances (Syakier and Hanafiah, 2021) and few others. Pleasant passengers’ experiences should
resonate well with their future intention to ride again, and relay positive stories to others (Nguyen-Phuoc et al., 2022). Although
one’s intention is not operationalized as the actual enactment of the behavior, it serves as a reliable proxy of that behavior (Kang
et al., 2020). This argument is in line with Ajzen’s (1991, p. 181) contention that “intentions are assumed to capture the motivational
factors that influence behavior; they are indications of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert,
performing the behavior”.
In terms of word-of-mouth (WOM), given the quick dissemination of information via information and communication technolo-
gies, the sharing of commuters’ positive travel-related experiences has the potential to catalyze the public transportation movement
en masse. However, negative WOMs, on the other hand, tend to move car drivers away from using public transportation more rapidly
and abruptly. Despite its paucity of coverage in transportation research, WOM is a popular variable in the marketing and consumerism
literature. WOM refers to any oral or person-to-person communication between a receiver and a communicator whom the receiver
perceives as non-commercial, concerning a brand, a product, or a service (Arndt, 1967). Service providers and consumers acknowl-
edged the power of WOM since WOM activities covered a broad area of the decision-making process, from anticipating needs to
post-purchase assessment. In this sense, satisfaction with public transport should be able to trigger favorable recommendations and
approvals in social interactions among delighted commuters (Nguyen-Puoc et al., 2022; Liu and Lee, 2016).
As such, it is hypothesized that passengers’ satisfaction toward the public transportation would influence their switching intention,
and WOM behavior.

H1 Satisfaction has a positive effect on switching intention

H2 Satisfaction has a positive effect on word-of-mouth

2.4. Satisfaction as a mediator between service quality dimensions and public transport users’ switching intention and WOM

Tangible reflects the physical attributes of the public transport facilities. These include the condition, visual appeal and appearance
of the infrastructures’ servicescape environment and their accompanying front line staff. The tangible attributes form the earliest
impressions among passengers toward the public transit providers. Subsequently, a tidy servicescape environment would potentially
mold their subsequent perception toward other service quality attributes. For instance, Ghosh et al. (2017) draws on the experience
of rail passengers in measuring service quality, and found that cleanliness and hygiene greatly influence their ride satisfaction. In
addition, visual aesthetics incorporated into the transport assets and infrastructure carries more appeal to passengers. Customers tend
to be attracted to visual cues when evaluating products and services (Staniscia, 2018; Suham-Abid and Vila-Lopez, 2020), and public
transport is not an exception. Hence, the following hypotheses are proposed:

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H3 Satisfaction mediates the effect of tangible on switching intention

H4 Satisfaction mediates the effect of tangible on word-of-mouth

From the public transport point of view, reliability is defined as the ability of the transit provider to consistently deliver trans-
portation services that correspond to the predefined operating standards and preserve error-free scheduling. Rail and bus transit lines
are considered reliable when the service follows the designated route, arrives according to schedule, and offers frequent trips that
accommodate travelers’ demands. The likelihood of passengers’ reusing the public transport services will be increased if these services
are reliable, trouble-free and dependable, which will eventually lead to higher levels of customer satisfaction (Van Lierop et al., 2017;
Borhan et al., 2019; Mutter, 2019). Commuters might easily get frustrated when train or bus arrivals are delayed or become erratically
irregular. According to Sam et al. (2018), unreliable services were the leading cause of dissatisfaction among public transport users.
Correspondingly, the expected connections between reliability and switching intention and WoM are proposed to be sequential and
indirect via satisfaction. Hence, the following hypotheses are drawn:

H5 Satisfaction mediates the effect of reliability on switching intention

H6 Satisfaction mediates the effect of reliability on word-of-mouth

The third SERVQUAL element –assurance, refers to the transit operator’s ability to convey trust and confidence via the provision of
a safe environment and display of courtesy from the staff. As public transportation typically involve frequent encounters with a crowd
of strangers and moving vehicles, the risks of becoming a crime victim (e.g., pickpocket, harassment) or involved in accidents exist,
albeit such occurrences are rare. Therefore, passengers are often aware of their rights to feel secure and protected from harm when
traveling even short distances. Besides, good customer service is also a form of assurance, especially when the staff are consistently
courteous when interacting with passengers. The feeling of being certain and confident positively leads to satisfaction and repeated
consumption, as evidenced by numerous studies (Acheampong and Cugurullo, 2019; De Vos, 2018). Based upon these discussions, it
is expected that:

H7 Satisfaction mediates the effect of assurance on switching intention

H8 Satisfaction mediates the effect of assurance on word-of-mouth

As human beings who constantly seek attention from others, customers expect to be served promptly upon request. In public
transportation, front liners are made of employees who directly interact with the passengers. These staff, comprised of the drivers,
operators, service receptionists, and security officers, form crucial contact points that can create pleasure or displeasure among
passengers based on their responsiveness. A productive interaction occurs when these staffs provide prompt services and offer as-
sistance to the passengers’ requests or complaints. Numerous studies have discovered a positive correlation between responsiveness
and satisfaction (Shah et al., 2020; Sam et al., 2018; Miranda et al., 2018), as well as intention to reuse (Wang et al., 2020) and
WOM (Yuda Bakti et al., 2020). Machado et al. (2018) noted that personalized assistance that leads to first-time resolution brings a
memorable positive experience to passengers, that subsequently leads to their repeat consumption behavior.

H9 Satisfaction mediates the effect of responsiveness on switching intention

H10 Satisfaction mediates the effect of responsiveness on word-of-mouth

An empathetic transport provider is focused on providing an affordable, comfortable and smooth journey to its passengers. For
instance, passengers feel convenient when the interconnectivity between transit lines is seamless and effortless. Likewise, a relatively
affordable fare system conveys that the service providers and the authorities care about the urban society’s wellbeing, especially the
minorities and underprivileged groups. The provision of dedicated care and attention produces favorable psychological experiences
for passengers, who tend to feel appreciated and valued (Al-Rashid et al., 2020; Mifsud et al., 2019). Therefore, it is expected that
these comfort and convenience elements effectively shape positive satisfaction, and subsequently lead to switching intention and
WOM among the passengers.

H11 Satisfaction mediates the effect of empathy on switching intention

H12 Satisfaction mediates the effect of empathy on word-of-mouth

3. Methodology

The hypothesized associations were examined using data acquired from public transportation passengers in Kuala Lumpur’s conur-
bation. The term “conurbation” refers to the city center as well as the satellite cities and townships that surround it. An ideal context
for service quality research is one that captures customers’ perceptions toward their service provider based on their recent service
delivery and consumption experience (Farooq et al., 2018). The study utilized a self-administered sample of commuters who rode bus
and rail services in the city’s conurbation. Three main modes of public transport were investigated, namely metro rail (LRT, MRT),
commuter/suburban rail (KTM Komuter), and inter-city bus services.
To reduce the impact of sampling bias, the survey is performed in various terminals and bus stops near places of interest, such
as offices, stores, colleges, commercial areas, and tourist landmarks at various times of the day. To be eligible, the respondents need
to have recent experience in using the transport services over the last six months, and either owns or have access to a household’s
private vehicle. During the screening process, the respondent had to choose a particular transport service in mind –particularly

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Table 1
Demographics of respondents (N = 421).

Demographic Descriptions N (%)

Gender Male 123 29.2

Female 298 70.8
Age 18–25 years old 233 55.3
26–35 years old 139 33
36–45 years old 36 8.6
>45 years old 13 3.1
Marital Status Single 289 68.6
Married 132 31.4
Monthly Income < RM 1500 203 17.2
RM 1501 - RM 3000 99 48.2
RM 3001 – RM 6000 83 23.5
RM 6001 – RM 10,000 29 19.7
> RM 10,001 7 1.7
Mode of Transport Metro Line (LRT, MRT) 140 33.3
Commuter Train 137 32.5
Bus 144 34.2
Frequency of Use >4 times a week 172 40.9
3–4 times a week 22 5.2
1–2 times a week 50 11.9
Once in a while 176 41.8

the most utilized one, and evaluated items were referred to that selected transport service. All respondents were informed of the
study’s purpose and the operationalization of the research constructs prior to completing the survey. Even though no incentives were
provided, 421 people volunteered to take part. The samples size is warranted for two reasons. First, the PLS estimation method is
highly stable in small samples that should contain at least ten times the greatest number of predictors for every endogenous variable
(Gefen et al., 2011). Second, using the G∗ power software that specifies a medium effect size (f2 =0.15) and minimum acceptable
statistical power of 0.80, the study’s sample size comfortably exceeds the minimally required sample size of 92. (Cohen, 1988).
The questionnaire items were adapted from previous studies and validated by two academic experts in transport management.
Each of the scholars had at least 20 years of experience in teaching, research, and consulting in the field of public transport. The
questionnaire items used to measure switching intention, WOM, satisfaction and service quality dimensions were slightly modified
from prior studies as shown in Table A2 in the Appendix. A closed-ended questionnaire was employed and divided into two parts: the
first part sought respondents’ demographic information via multiple choice and ordinal scale questions, while the second part asked
their perception of the main constructs manifested through items measured using interval scale questions. All items were measured
on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
To ensure there are no issues of misinterpretation, the questionnaire was designed in both English and Malay (national language)
through back-translation to ensure the equivalence of meaning. The collected data were analyzed using a partial least squares-
structural equation modeling software, SmartPLS 3 (Ringle et al., 2015). Four hundred and twenty-one sets of the survey were finally
collected after a nine-week data collection period, assisted by three enumerators. All sets were useable for data analysis.

4. Findings

4.1. Demographics profile and method bias

Out of a total of 421 respondents, the final sample consists of 123 males (29.2 percent) and 298 females (70.8 percent). Women
are overrepresented in most public transportation surveys in Malaysia, hence the gender imbalance is justified (see Chan et al., 2020;
Farooq et al., 2018; Wahab et al., 2018). Most of the respondents fell in the age range of 18 to 35 (88.3% of the total sample). In
terms of marital status, 68.6% of respondents are married, while 31.4% of them are single. A big part of the respondent is employed,
with the majority earned between the range of RM1,501 and RM 6000 (71.7%).
The data shown in Table 1 indicated an equal representation among those who travel often (40.9%) and those who travel in-
frequently (41.8%). The Harman’s single-factor test-as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2012), was used to analyze the potential
impact of common method variance, or CMV. CMV refers to “the variance that is attributable to the measurement method rather than to
the constructs the measures represent” (Podsakoff et al., 2003; p.879). The test was carried out by entering all of the measurement items
into IBM’s Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS 28), and the findings revealed that an individual factor only explained
41.34 percent of the variance. As a result, CMV was not a plausible contaminant, as the findings show that neither a single factor nor
a general factor accounts for the majority of the covariance.

4.2. PLS measurement model

Partial leased square (PLS) measurement model analysis will reveal if measures match the frequently recommended criteria for
indicator reliability, construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity in measurement models. Indicator reliability

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Table 2
Validity and reliability of the measures.

Construct Items Loadings AVE CR Construct Items Loadings AVE CR

Tangible TANG1 0.818 0.637 0.898 Empathy EMP1 0.719 0.627 0.894
TANG2 0.854 EMP2 0.826
TANG3 0.811 EMP3 0.785
TANG4 0.785 EMP4 0.804
TANG5 0.717 EMP5 0.822
Reliability REL1 0.786 0.619 0.830 Satisfaction SAT1 0.865 0.705 0.877
REL3 0.742 SAT2 0.860
REL5 0.830 SAT3 0.792
Assurance ASR1 0.787 0.675 0.861 Word-of-mouth WOM1 0.818 0.709 0.879
ASR2 0.875 WOM2 0.872
ASR3 0.799 WOM3 0.834
Responsiveness RES1 0.812 0.615 0.888 Intention INT1 0.840 0.709 0.830
RES2 0.739 INT2 0.845
RES3 0.790
RES4 0.853
RES5 0.719

Table 3
Discriminant validity.

TANG REL ASR RES EMP SAT WOM INT

Tangible (TANG) 0.798 0.695 0.715 0.534 0.734 0.687 0.670 0.544
Reliability (REL) 0.541 0.787 0.744 0.715 0.816 0.712 0.802 0.534
Assurance (ASR) 0.577 0.546 0.821 0.724 0.772 0.761 0.702 0.497
Responsiveness (RES) 0.457 0.551 0.586 0.784 0.777 0.713 0.757 0.612
Empathy (EMP) 0.623 0.620 0.619 0.652 0.792 0.895 0.841 0.628
Satisfaction (SAT) 0.570 0.529 0.598 0.584 0.736 0.840 0.848 0.770
Word-of-mouth (WOM) 0.554 0.598 0.550 0.620 0.690 0.672 0.842 0.595
Intention (INT) 0.389 0.341 0.335 0.432 0.447 0.533 0.407 0.842

Note: Numbers in italics (diagonal) denote the square root of the AVE. The inter-construct correlations on the lower left (below the diagonal) follow
the Fornell-Larcker criterion while the inter-construct correlations on the upper right (above the diagonal in bold) reflect the Heterotrait-Monotrait
ratio criterion.

is achieved when item loadings are higher than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2017). Besides, composite reliability (CR) was used to assess construct
reliability. The measurement model results are shown in Table 2, and they reveal that all of the constructs (service quality factors,
satisfaction, switching intention, and WOM), including the assessed items, had satisfactory internal consistency reliability, indicator
reliability, and convergent validity. Three items from the reliability and assurance contructs were removed due to poor loadings.
These items were REL2 (’Public transport delivers its service according to the designated route’), REL4 (’Public transport service provides
information (route and schedule) that is easy to understand’), and ASR4 (’I feel my vehicle is secured whenever I park it at the station’.
Next, the model’s discriminant validity was evaluated by checking the cross-loadings of all the measured indicators. Discriminant
validity reflects the extent to which the measure used is unique and not merely a reflection of other variables. For the assessment
of discriminant validity, two criteria are adopted: comparison of item loadings with item cross-loadings and comparison of the
variance extracted from the construct with shared variance. To satisfy these requirements, both Fornell–Larcker and heterotrait–
monotrait (HTMT) criterion assessments were utilized (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Henseler et al., 2015). The indicator’s loadings on
its own construct are higher than all of its cross-loadings with other constructs, indicating discriminant validity, as seen in Table 3.
Furthermore, as shown in the diagonals, the correlations for each construct do not exceed the square root of the AVE. The fulfillment
of these criteria signifies that the discriminant validity has been established. Hence, this study’s constructs can be used further to test
the structural model

4.3. PLS structural model

The purpose of assessing the structural model is to see how well the data acquired supports the current study’s underpinning
theory. The structural model was assessed to determine the coefficient of determination or R2 of the endogenous latent variables. The
explanatory power of a model is measured using R2 , which is evaluated in the same way as regression analysis. The analysis reveals
that the structural model explained about 28.4% of the variance in INT, 45.2% in WOM and 59.0% in satisfaction, suggesting that
the structural model provides adequate explanatory power. A multicollinearity assessment was performed to confirm that there were
no instances of high intercorrelations among the variables. Multicollinearity was not a concern in this investigation, as the variation
inflation factor (VIF) values ranged from 1.88 to 2.54.
Next, all the hypothesized relationships were examined via PLS algorithm. A bootstrapping technique with 5000 sub-samples was
used to ensure the precision of the results (Hair et al., 2017). As depicted in Table 4, almost all of the hypothesized direct relationships

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Table 4
Results of hypotheses testing of direct paths.

Hypo. Paths Std Coeff. SE t-value p-value f2 Decision

H1 Satisfaction →WOM 0.672 0.027 25.056 0.000 0.823 Accept

H2 Satisfaction → Intention 0.533 0.043 12.388 0.000 0.397 Accept

Table 5
Results of hypotheses testing of indirect paths.

Hypo. Paths Std Coeff. SE t-value p-value LLCI 2.5% ULCI 97.5% Decision

H3 TANG → SAT → INT 0.063 0.023 2.716 0.007 0.018 0.108 Accept
H4 REL → SAT → INT 0.010 0.026 0.396 0.692 −0.043 0.060 Reject
H5 ASR → SAT → INT 0.083 0.022 3.837 0.000 0.041 0.126 Accept
H6 RES → SAT → INT 0.062 0.023 2.708 0.007 0.019 0.108 Accept
H7 EMP→ SAT → INT 0.255 0.035 7.384 0.000 0.191 0.325 Accept
H8 TANG → SAT → WOM 0.080 0.029 2.731 0.006 0.021 0.134 Accept
H9 REL → SAT → WOM 0.013 0.033 0.396 0.692 −0.052 0.076 Reject
H10 ASR → SAT → WOM 0.104 0.028 3.766 0.000 0.050 0.159 Accept
H11 RES → SAT → WOM 0.078 0.027 2.877 0.004 0.025 0.131 Accept
H12 EMP → SAT → WOM 0.321 0.036 8.894 0.000 0.252 0.391 Accept

Notes: TANG=Tangible; REL=Reliability; ASR=Assurance; RES=Responsiveness; EMP=Empathy; SAT=Satisfaction; WOM=Word-of-mouth;

INT=Switching intention.

Fig. 1. The structural model. Note: ∗ p<0.01; ∗ ∗ p<0.001.

between constructs were found to be significant at 99% confidence interval (TANG→SAT, ß=0.119, t = 2.776; ASR→SAT, ß=0.155,
t = 3.849; RES→SAT, ß=0.116, t = 2.862; EMP→SAT, ß=0.478, t = 9.938). Reliability was found to be insignificant predictor of
satisfaction (REL→SAT, ß = 0.019, p > 0.05). Therefore, H1 and H2 were supported in this study.
Next, the indirect effects of the remaining mediation paths were estimated using the bootstrapping procedure (Preacher and
Hayes, 2008). It was found that SAT mediated the effect of the service quality dimensions (with the exception of REL) on INT
(TANG→SAT→INT, ß=0.063, t = 2.716; ASR→SAT→INT, ß=0.083, t = 3.837; RES→SAT→INT, ß=0.062, t = 2.708; EMP→SAT→INT,
ß=0.255, t = 7.384). A similar pattern could be observed for the indirect effects of service quality factors –with the exception of
REL on WOM via SAT (TANG→SAT→WOM, ß=0.080, t = 2.731; ASR→SAT→WOM, ß=0.104, t = 3.766; RES→SAT→WOM, ß=0.078,
t = 2.877; EMP→SAT→WOM, ß=0.321, t = 8.894). These results provide credible support to H3, H5, H6, H7, H8, H10, H11, and H12.
Meanwhile, SAT was insignificant as a mediator for the links between REL→INT (ß=0.010, t = 0.396), and REL→WOM (ß=0.033,
t = 0.396). Thus, both H4 and H9 were unsupported. Table 5 and Fig. 1 summarize the results of the structural model.

4.4. Post-hoc analyses

4.4.1. Direct effects

A post-hoc analysis of direct effects is presented to clarify the direct effect of SERVQUAL dimensions on commuters’ satisfaction
(Table 6). Public transport satisfaction is positively influenced by tangible (ß=0.019, t = 2.78), assurance (ß=0.155, t = 3.85), respon-
siveness (ß=0.116, t = 2.86), and empathy (ß=0.478, t = 9.94) factors. Meanwhile, reliability has no significant relationship with

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M.I. Hamzah, S.N. Wahab, M.H. Abd Rashid et al. Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

Table 6
Post-hoc results of direct paths.

Paths Std Coeff. SE t-value p-value f2

Tangible → Satisfaction 0.119 0.043 2.776 0.006 0.02

Reliability → Satisfaction 0.019 0.048 0.399 0.690 0.00
Assurance → Satisfaction 0.155 0.040 3.849 0.000 0.03
Responsiveness → Satisfaction 0.116 0.041 2.862 0.004 0.02
Empathy → Satisfaction 0.478 0.048 9.938 0.000 0.22

Fig. 2. The importance-performance matrix.

satisfaction (ß=0.019, t = n.s.). Empathy appears to be the strongest predictor among other variables, with an effect size (f2 ) of 0.22,
which is medium based on benchmarks suggested by Cohen (1988).

4.4.2. Importance-performance analysis

As an extension of the results of the study, a post-hoc importance performance matrix analysis (IPMA) was employed (Martilla and
James, 1977). Existing studies on public transportation service quality are insufficient in offering suggestions on which dimensions
of the service quality have a considerable managerial impact in the public transportation domain, hence the IPMA fills in this gap.
As Fig. 2 shows, the importance measure represents the vertical axis, while the performance measure represents the horizontal axis.
The results indicated that empathy is the specific service quality component of primary importance and performance, increasing
passengers’ satisfaction. This order is followed by tangible, and assurance, which have moderate importance but significantly lower
performance than empathy.
Meanwhile, the responsiveness factor was analyzed as the least performing variable as compared to the other service quality
factors. As for reliability, even though it is the least important factor and does not contribute to satisfaction, the construct’s average
latent variable score is higher than assurance and responsiveness. In other words, respondents generally perceive that reliability
performs better than the assurance or responsiveness aspects, but somehow this perceived performance neither shapes nor influ-
ences their overall satisfaction with public transport services. Visually, within the importance-performance map, constructs situated
in the lower-right areas should receive greater priority or interest, followed by the higher-right, lower-left, and higher-left areas
(Abalo et al., 2007). Thus, the first priority should be to improve the performance of the empathy aspect, followed by aspects related
to responsiveness, assurance, tangible, and reliability.

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical implications

The results of the present study extend previous research in the following two ways. First, the findings of this study fill a vacuum
in the literature about the nexus between service quality, satisfaction, switching intention, and WOM (Yuda Bakti et al., 2020).
Although, intention to ride public transport is widely shown to be driven by the quality of service (Ngah et al., 2020; Kang et al.,
2019), little is known if the same could be said about WOM. As hypothesized, this study found significant support for the influence
of satisfaction toward switching intention, and WOM. The finding implies that commuters are more favorably inclined to reutilize

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public transport services if they are satisfied. Furthermore, the commuters’ likeliness of repeating public transport use depends on
their contentment with the transit services. According to Kouwenhoven and de Jong (2018), a pleasurable commuting experience
encourages and facilitates the commencement of more positive behavioral intentions in reusing public transportation, whereas the
contrary is counterproductive. Correspondingly, many studies have revealed that customer happiness is essential in spreading positive
word-of-mouth, which benefits service providers because of the free exposure and publicity (Huete-Alcocer, 2017; Moise et al., 2019;
Ibrahim and Borhan, 2020).
Second, the authors acknowledge scholars’ calls for more research into the impact of satisfaction in determining switching intention
and WOM for public transportation (Liu and Lee, 2016; Irtema et al., 2018). Since the R-squared statistic indicates that the developed
model fits well with the collected data, this study effectively addressed these knowledge gaps. The result of this study shows that most
of the service quality factors had a significant impact on positive passenger outcomes (switching intention and WOM) via satisfaction.
It implies that passengers’ happiness with the public transportation service not only spur their intention to repeat use with the service,
but spread their good vibe to others. It is relatively simple for public transport users to share their pleasant experiences with others,
thanks to the rapid proliferation of social media technology. This result parallels previous studies that confirm the indirect effects of
service quality determinants on WOM (Yuda Bakti et al., 2020; Moise et al., 2019; Huete-Alcocer, 2017).
The strong results portrayed by empathy and assurance as indirect predictors of WOM and public transport switching intention
offer some valuable insights. From the empathy perspective, passengers who appreciate comfort and a smooth journey are more
likely to be satisfied, which reduces their likelihood of complaining while at the same time improving their loyalty to the transport
service providers (Zhang et al., 2019). In terms of assurance, providing a safe public transportation environment is critical in shaping
passengers’ loyalty intentions because people are exposed to critical incidents throughout the service delivery, whether during access
or egress, waiting at transit terminals or stops, or on-board (Nguyen-Phuoc et al., 2021).
With the rapid development of instant messaging and social media networks, the significance of word-of-mouth has never been
greater. Unfortunately, the conversation on social media platforms is frequently dominated by information related to domestic service
interruptions or failures. Thus, it may be difficult and time-consuming to convert passengers’ positive experiences into positive word-
of-mouth. Should public transport operators build stronger credibility in safeguarding the passengers’ safety interests while being
hassle-free to use, attitudes towards public transport can be further improved, which will lead to more positive WOM behavior
(Muda and Hamzah, 2021).
Understandably, WOM serves as an opportunity for service providers to gage their perceived level of service delivery especially
when the content is explicitly shared via social media. In assessing service quality, individuals subconsciously weigh their initial
expectations with the actual performance during service consumption prior to forming a sense of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Through constant reflection on these thoughts, passengers –who form a clear mental image of the costs and benefits associated with
public transport use, will decide either to continue using it or return to using their private vehicles. Likewise, satisfied passengers
voluntarily offer their sincere endorsement of public transport to their social circles.
All of the service quality factors –except for reliability, have significant indirect effects on both switching intention and WOMs.
An explanation for this could be that commuters are prone to prioritizing the convenience of going from point A to point B over
everything else (Natividad, 2020). Mode of transport and prompt scheduling might matter less to them when compared with the ease
of access and convenience. These elements were manifested and encapsulated in the empathy construct. A service delivered with a
comfortable and convenient experience in mind maximizes the chances for returning customers (Ibrahim and Borhan, 2020). Thus,
the empathy dimension -the strongest SERVQUAL predictor in this study, could be the most crucial thing that comes to the passengers’
minds when conversating with others on public transport matters, followed by the assurance, responsiveness, and tangible dimension,
respectively.

5.2. Practical implications

This study offers several significant implications for public transport service operators and authorities. To begin with, this research
empirically demonstrates that service quality plays a key role in influencing positive passenger travel experience through satisfaction
in a public transport setting. Public transport operators and policymakers should be aware of the importance of consistently delivering
quality services, particularly in terms of comfort and connectivity. In short, regular monitoring and assessment of the service quality
performance -through direct public engagement should expose any shortcomings that would be otherwise unnoticed by the public
transport operators. In this sense, obtaining sincere and informative responses from ‘rushing’ commuters could be a challenge. As a
starting point, passengers should be acknowledged that their opinions and feedback were highly valued by the transport operators.
Second, the findings revealed that the power of passengers’ WOM should never be underestimated. Although they might not be
the outspoken type, younger generation travelers can be expressive in the digital space. Word-of-mouth marketing has the potential
to be both beneficial and detrimental. WOMs generate repeat consumers or convert occasional users into more frequent users when
they are communicated positively. Negative WOMs, on the other hand, run the danger of turning loyal clients into detractors (Huete-
Alcocer, 2017). Since retaining customers could be harder than acquiring them, the public transport providers’ persistence and stability
of service quality serve as key drivers to regaining their trust (Mikhaylov et al., 2015). The city’s rail transport system is known for
having a series of breakdowns, delays, and power outages. Although infrequent, these incidents became a magnet for commuters to
express their negative opinions online. Service operators should be proactive in capturing any grouses and complaints through their
presence on social media and handle these criticisms with extreme care. A better way to address service disruptions and incidents is
through the provision of higher levels of transparency and earnest responses. These efforts go to great lengths to facilitate the service
recovery process and restore the passengers’ confidence.

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M.I. Hamzah, S.N. Wahab, M.H. Abd Rashid et al. Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

Third, the IPIMA findings also imply the need to understand the substantial impact of empathy in shaping the passengers’ psycho-
logical dispositions, which eventually leads to them making informed decisions. Hence, the management is better off diverting some
resources from the high performing areas (tangible) to the low performing areas (reliability, tangible and assurance). Extra focus
on these service quality components shall offer ample opportunities for the transport service operators to achieve an optimal public
transport modal share by the public. Since this study conceptualized empathy from the perspective of the public transport providers
and policymakers as the key stakeholders, they are obliged to be more sensitive and responsive toward the plight of commuters
and the public’s negative connotations toward the transportation system. In the Malaysian scene, commuters may easily switch back
to private or single-occupant vehicles, given the relatively low barriers to vehicle ownership in addition to existing fuel and toll
subsidies. Hence, these key stakeholders need to uphold greater responsibilities to convert this flawed narrative into positive travel
experiences. This monumental effort requires the revision of the current transport master plan to ensure that any sustainable trans-
portation infrastructure initiatives are tailored to be community-driven, rather than corporate-driven. In cognizant of a constrained
fiscal budget, bus rail transits (BRTs) and automated rail transits (ARTs) that utilize clean energy sources could be considered viable,
economical and environmentally friendly options by the local governments.

5.3. Limitations and future research directions

The current research, like any other transportation satisfaction studies, has its limitations. First, although satisfaction is shown to
have positive intervention effect, the mediator and the outcomes were measured at the same point of time as opposed to temporal
ordering. This method overlap could obscure the actual mediation result (Weersing and Weisz, 2002). Therefore, future research may
conduct a field study in multiple time phases in such a way that the observation of the mediator (satisfaction) preceded the outcomes
(switching intention and WOM). Second, since the respondents were not screened and limited only to existing private vehicle users,
their switching behavior could not be concretely ascertained. Casual travelers or commuters with limited access to private vehicles
may have different objectives and motivations in using public transportation. Given their limited options, their loyalty to taking
public transport is not susceptible to any service quality issues. One approach may be to examine a multi-group analysis via PLS-MGA
to uncover the differences between commuters who have access to private or own vehicles and those who do not have such access.
Third, the study’s context is limited to rail-based and bus transit services. Taxis and app-based ride-hailing services -in which
the latter is growing in popularity, were not included in the study. Since these services offer alternative first- and last-mile con-
nectivity options, researchers may consider distinguishing their effectiveness to supplement the mass transportation network (rail
and bus modes). Fourth, this study did not separate WOM into two separate channels, namely traditional WOM, and online WOM,
often referred to as eWOM. Hence, in this study, the passengers’ method of relaying the information could be inclusive of both chan-
nels. Future research could explore passengers’ eWOM –from both positive and negative angles, to understand further their loyalty
(Eelen et al., 2017). Finally, the study intentionally focused on a single-modal trip among passengers in assessing the service quality
attributes of a specific single transport mode. Although this is beyond the scope of this paper, it would be of interest to examine
the possibility of measuring the service quality of multi-modal trips on the results. This way, any potential issues related to seamless
connectivity and integration of the public transport system could be addressed with higher levels of clarity and accuracy.

6. Conclusion

In summary, the study explored the indirect impacts of the service quality constructs, namely tangible, reliability, assurance,
responsiveness, and empathy, regarding the switching intention and WOM behavior of public transport commuters in a developing
country. Besides, the direct effects of satisfaction on the passengers’ switching intention and WOM behavior were also investigated.
The findings from this study have contributed to both theory and practice. In terms of theoretical implications, an indirect effect model
has been developed to provide a better understanding of how the five facets of service quality affect the public transportation modal
shift inclination and WOM behavior of commuters via satisfaction. Additionally, an importance-performance analysis examines which
service quality elements ought to receive greater priority or attention, considering that time, money, and human capital expertise are
valuable resources that need to be optimized by transit operators. In terms of practical implications, this study’s findings are useful
for policy makers, authorities, and public transport operators in developing effective strategies that promote public transit modal
shift among single-occupant vehicle drivers.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Muhammad Iskandar Hamzah: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review
& editing. Siti Norida Wahab: Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Muhammad Hafiz Abd Rashid: Visualization, Writing –
review & editing. Boo Ho Voon: Writing – review & editing.

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M.I. Hamzah, S.N. Wahab, M.H. Abd Rashid et al. Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

Appendix

Table A1
Comparison of studies related to this research.

Study & Context Findings Comparison

Ibrahim et al. (2022) Three factors, namely information provision, 1. An eight-factor model of service quality is
Context: Kuala Lumpur (light rail transit) facilities, and information signs, significantly used rather than SERVQUAL’s five-factor
influence commuters’ satisfaction. structure.
2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
behavior are not considered.
1. Other important facets of SERVQUAL are not
Sukhov et al. (2022) Comfort, cost, and functionality all have a positive
considered.
Context: 5 Nordic region cities (buses & impact on overall travel satisfaction. However,
2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
trains) only comfort is required to achieve a high level of
behavior are not considered.
overall travel satisfaction.
1. Service quality is measured as a
Nguyen-Phuoc et al. (2021) Perceived service quality leads to perceived safety unidimensional construct.
Context: Ho Chi Minh & Danang, Vietnam and security, which leads to image, satisfaction, 2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
(buses) and loyalty. behavior are not considered.
1. Only direct effects of SERVQUAL factors on
Nguyen (2021) Timeliness, safety and reliability, access, and
satisfaction are measured.
Context: Hanoi, Vietnam (BRT) comfort are the predictors of passengers’
2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
satisfaction.
behavior are not considered.
1. Other important facets of SERVQUAL are not
Kang et al. (2019) Convenience, flexibility of service, and commute considered.
Context: Penang, Malaysia (buses) impedance are all positively related to public 2. Satisfaction and word-of-mouth behavior are
transport switching intention, which leads to not considered.
behavioural readiness to adopt public transport.
1. Different operationalization and
Zhang et al. (2019) Convenience, safety, reliability, comfort, and dimensionality of service quality.
Context: 13 Chinese cities (buses) operation service are positively linked to 2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
passenger satisfaction, that in turn leads to lower behavior are not considered.
passenger complaint.
1. Only direct effects of SERVQUAL factors on
Sam et al. (2018) SERVQUAL’s factors namely reliability and satisfaction are measured.
Context: Kumasi, Ghana (buses) responsiveness are linked to satisfaction, while 2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
empathy was not considered due to high behavior are not considered.
correlations with other dimensions.
1. Service quality is measured as a
Chang & Yeh (2017) Satisfaction mediates the relationship between unidimensional construct.
Context: Taiwan, China (inter-city buses) service quality and loyalty. 2. Switching intention and word-of-mouth
behavior are not considered.
1. Service quality is measured as a
Leonnard & Thung (2017) Both service quality and word of mouth have
unidimensional construct.
Context: Banten, Indonesia (buses) positive relationships with repurchase intention.
2. Satisfaction and switching intention are not
considered.

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M.I. Hamzah, S.N. Wahab, M.H. Abd Rashid et al. Multimodal Transportation 2 (2023) 100082

Table A2
Survey instruments.

Contructs Source

Tangible Mikhaylov et al. (2015); Sam et al. (2018)

TANG1 The public transport has modern looking transport system
TANG2 The condition inside the rail /bus is reasonably good
TANG3 Public transport physical facilities are visually appealing
TANG4 The surrounding at the platform is clean and hygienic
TANG5 Public transport employees have neat and professional appearance
Reliability Mikhaylov et al. (2015); Sam et al. (2018)
REL1 The public transport delivers its services according to schedule
REL2 Public transport delivers its service according to the designated route∗
REL3 When I have a problem with transport service, I can depend on the public transport
service to solve it.
REL4 Public transport service provides information (route and schedule) that is easy to
understand.∗
REL5 Public transport service is frequent
Assurance Mikhaylov et al. (2015); Sam et al. (2018)
ASR1 I feel safe while waiting for public transport service at the waiting area
ASR2 I feel safe while using the public transport service
ASR3 Public transport employees are consistently courteous
ASR4 I feel my vehicle is secured whenever I park my car at the station∗
Responsiveness Mikhaylov et al. (2015); Sam et al. (2018)
RES1 Public transport employees provides prompt services
RES2 Public transport employees are always willing to help
RES3 Public transport employees are never too busy to respond to customer’s request
RES4 Public transport employees are ready to respond to customer’s request
RES5 Public transport employees are always willing to listen to my complaints about the
services
Empathy Mikhaylov et al. (2015); Sam et al. (2018)
EMP1 Public transport service offers convenient schedules to the customers
EMP2 Public transport service offers appropriate route to the customers
EMP3 The fares for the public transport service is appropriate
EMP4 Public transport service offers a smooth and comfortable journey
EMP5 It’s easy to connect with other public transport/transit lines
Word of mouth Liu & Lee (2016); Zeithaml et al. (1996)
WOM1 I will say positive things about the public transport service to other people.
WOM2 I will recommend this public transport service to someone who seeks advice.
WOM3 I will encourage friends and relatives to travel using this public transport service.
Switching intention Moise et al. (2019); Ajzen (1991)
INT1 I will consider this public transport service as my first choice for my mode of
transport in the future.
INT2 If I switch to use my own private transport, it is just not worth the effort.
Satisfaction Shah et al. (2020); Van Lierop
SAT1 I am satisfied with the safety level of the public transport services. et al. (2017); Wang et al. (2020)
SAT2 I feel satisfied using the public transport services.
SAT3 I am satisfied with the costs of using public transport services.
∗ Note: These items were removed due to cross-loadings or poor factor structure.

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