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Unit-5 Part1

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Indian Traditional Architecture

• A range of architectural varieties have developed in the parts of the country due
to its diversified socio- cultural, traditional and religious background as well as
most importantly climatic variations.
• Historical evidence says that several famous historic civilizations were flourished
in India along with their diversified cultural, religious and traditional features.
• Thus, the emergence and decay of different dynasties influenced the evolution of
Indian architecture.
• Additionally, India was invaded several times by the great leaders from
different region of world. They brought their own culture, religion and tradition
along with them. Thus, external influences have also shaped the nature of Indian
architecture
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYAiqTOz3vg
Hinduism and Hindu architecture
• Mainly the religion followed in India is Hinduism which has contributed in the
development of huge number of temples.

• A temple in Hinduism is the abode of God that means it is a structure allocated for
religious activities such as prayer and sacrifice in front of deity.

• Here, some sort of offerings is made to the deity and other rituals are also
performed.

• A typical temple has a main building and a larger precinct, sometimes


containing many other buildings related with temple activity too.
Temple Architecture
• The architecture of Hindu temples evolved since history with a great variety in it. Hindu temples are of
different shapes and sizes— rectangular, octagonal and circular with different types of domes and gates.
Islamic philosophyand Indo-Islamic architecture
• Indo-Islamic architecture refers to the architecture developed in the land of Indian subcontinent by the Islamic
persons to fulfill their purposes.
• Islamic tradition started to flourish when Mohammed Ghori occupied India at the end of the 12 century A.D.
• The Islamic features and techniques were incorporated in the new building form combining with local building
tradition. Thus, a new style of architecture was flourished; called the Indo-Islamic architecture which is
amalgamation of Islamic and Hindu Style.
• In case of Indo-Islamic Style of architecture, the construction technique was based mainly on arches, vaults and
domes. Decoration and ornamentation were formed an essential part of Islamic architecture in India.
• Those were achieved through arabesques or geometrics, calligraphies, floral patterns as motifs and design, painting,
glass-mosaic, glazed tiling, inlay work etc.
• Dome was a prominent part which was constructed over the mosque and a tomb to show the supremacy of the
Almighty.
• The most prominent form of opening was Arches like, pointed, cusped, foliated & ogee.
• A Squinch is a wedge-shaped arch that fits on the top corners of a square space.
• Muqarnas design is a honeycomb motif, basically, it is a group of small arched cells one on the other.
• The domes of the building are crowned with Finials which is made of masonry, marble or metal showing Purna-
kalasha, lotus etc.
• Arabesque is formed with interlacing stems, lines. Lines are curved, pointed, smooth, never isolated.
Rajput style of architecture
Jharokha Jali
The Rajput style of architecture mainly comprising a blend of Mughal and Hindu features showcases grand havelis,
astonishing forts and exquisitely carved temples. The artists of Rajasthan established major architectural styles and
elements like-
▪ Jharokhas (a type of overhanging balcony),
▪ Chhatris (elevated and dome-shaped pavilions),
▪ Chajjas (projecting eaves supported on large carved brackets),
▪ Jalis (perforated stone or latticed screen used for ventilation as well as decoration),
▪ Baodis (step wells).
Chhatri
▪ Haveli in Persia is ‘hawli’ which means an enclosed place. The nucleus of these havelis was the courtyard; some
havelis had two such courtyards – the outer one for the males and the inner secluded one for the females of the
family. The courtyard served as a light well and was very effective for ventilation in such hot and dry climates.

▪ Durg is the Indian term for ‘fort’, means ‘difficult to trespass’; while signifying its importance of site strengthening
with a strong wall and a moat to make it an impregnable bastion. The Rajputs were creative builders and erected
some of the most grand and impressive forts and palaces. Some of them may be referred to Chittorgarh, Jaisalmer,
Meharangarh, Amber, Jaigarh fort.
Sculptures in India
• Cultural stonework in India - in the form of primitive cupule art - dates back to the era of prehistoric
art of the Lower Paleolithic, around 700,000 BCE
• By the time of the Bronze Age, sculpture was already the predominant form of artistic expression
throughout the Indian subcontinent, even though mural painting was also popular. Sculpture was used
mainly as a form of religious art to illustrate the principles of Hinduism, Buddhism, or Jainism
• Indian sculptors have focused not on three-dimensional volume and fullness, but on linear character -
that is to say, the figure is designed on the basis of its outline, and is typically graceful and slender.
• The origin of plastic art in India dates back to the northwestern Indus valley civilization, which was
noted primarily for its terracotta sculpture - mainly small figurines - but also for the pioneering bronze
sculpture of the Harappan Culture.
• Other important milestones in the history of sculpture include: the Buddhist Pillars of Ashoka of the
Mauryan period, with their wonderful carved capitals (3rd century BCE); the figurative Greco-
Buddhist sculpture of the Gandhara and Mathura schools, and the Hindu art of the Gupta period (1st-
6th century CE).
• Khajuraho Temples in Madhya Pradesh, which were erected in the 10th/11th century by the Chandela
dynasty, and which were renowned for the erotic content of their stone sculpture, Indian sculpture had
reached the end of its most creative stage.
• From then on, sculpture was designed mostly as a form of architectural decoration, with huge
quantities of small,
mediocre figures being manufactured for this purpose.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpfxYy7WsZI
Indus Valley Civilization Sculpture (c.3300-1300 BCE)
• The art of sculpture began in India during the Indus Valley civilization which
encompassed parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India as far south as
Rajkot.

• Excavations at Indus valley sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day


Pakistan have uncovered a large quantity of terracotta sculpture and steatite seals,
featuring images of female dancers, animals, foliage and deities.

• But Indus sculpture is most famous for its figurative bronze known as The Dancing
Girl of Mohenjo-Daro (2500 BCE, National Museum, New Delhi), contemporary with
masterpieces of Mesopotamian sculpture such as Ram in a Thicket (2500 BCE, British
Museum).

• For a comparison with Chinese metalwork please see Sanxingdui Bronzes (1200-1000
BCE).
Mauryan Sculpture: Pillars of Ashoka (3rd Century BCE)

• The story of monumental stone sculpture begins with the Maurya Dynasty,
when sculptors first started to carve illustrative scenes from India's three main
religions - Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.

• One of the earliest Mauryan patrons of the arts was Emperor Ashoka (ruled
270-232 BCE) who decided to spread the Buddhist faith through the
construction of 85,000 stupas or dome-shaped monuments, decorated with
Buddhist writings and imagery engraved on rocks and pillars.

• The finest example is probably the Great Stupa at Sanchi.

• The actual Pillars of Ashoka, typically erected at Buddhist monasteries or other


pilgrimage sites.
Buddhism and Jainism introduced the art of rock-cut caves such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves. Other than
these well-known examples, It also produced other works of art that are still famous world over.
• Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building and artwork also went on along with other
religions.
• Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments.
• Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya)
• Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here to become
Gautama Buddha.
• The Bodhi Tree is important.
• The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:
• The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by Emperor Ashoka.
• The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC.
• Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala
Period (8th century CE).
• The temple itself was constructed during the colonial period.
• It is a 7th-century design. It is neither nagara or Dravida in style.
• Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.
• Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
• In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
• In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.
• Karnataka has many Jain shrines.
• Statue of Gomateshwara
• Jain bronze images found from Akola
• Jain bronze sculptures are also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana) and many places
in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan
• Constructed by Vimal Shah.
• Also called Dilwara temples. Built between the 11th and 13th centuries.
• Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The exteriors are
simple but the interiors are finely carved and exquisitely decorated
• Nalanda University
• It was a monastic university.
• It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.
• Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies buried under present civilization
and impossible to excavate.
• The records of the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang) gives a huge amount of
information about Nalanda.
• Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana taught here.
• Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north; and from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand,
and other countries in Southeast Asia.
• Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist sculptures and manuscripts were taken
from here by monks to their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact on art in all the
Buddhist countries.
• The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the
local Bihar tradition and Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
Ajanta Caves (c.200 BCE - 650 CE)

• Located in a remote valley in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, Western India, the Ajanta Caves are
world famous for their cave art - paintings and carvings illustrating the life of Buddha.

• There are some 29 rock-cut caves in total, five of which were used as temples or prayer halls, and twenty-
four as monasteries.

• The earliest date from the 2nd and 1st century BCE; more caves were carved and decorated during the
Gupta Empire (400–650 CE).

• The parietal art at Ajanta includes some of the finest masterpieces of Buddhist iconography in India.

• In addition to numerous serene statues of Buddha, the Ajanta sculptures include intricate images of animals,
warriors, and deities while the paintings depict tales of ancient courtly life and Buddhist legend.

• Finally abandoned about 650 CE, in favour of the Ellora caves some 100 kilometres (62 miles) away, the
Ajanta Caves were gradually forgotten until 1819, when they were accidentally rediscovered by a British
officer during a tiger-hunt. Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hindu Sculpture of the Gupta Empire (flourished 320-550)
• Founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, the Gupta Empire, is often referred to as the Classical or Golden Age of
India, and was characterized by extensive inventions and enormous progress in technology, engineering,
literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, that laid the basis for what is generally termed Hindu
culture.

• During this period Hinduism became the official religion of the Gupta Empire, which saw the emergence of
countless images of popular Hindu deities such as Vishnu (see the colossal image of Vishnu in the Udaigiri
caves in Madhya Pradesh), Shiva, Krishna and the goddess Durga.

• The Gupta style of sculpture remained relatively uniform across the empire. It incorporated the earlier
figurative styles practiced in Gandhara and Mathura, but introduced new and more sophisticated forms and
motifs.

• It is marked in particular by sensuous modelling of bodies and faces, harmonious proportions and more
subtle expressions. The most innovative and influential artistic centres included Sarnath and Mathura.
Elephanta Caves (c.550-720)
• The famous rock-cut Elephanta Caves - created some time between the mid-5th and the 8th century -
are a complex of rock-cut basalt caves located on Elephanta Island, in Mumbai Harbour, about 10
kilometres (6 miles) east of the city of Mumbai, in Maharashtra.
• The complex contains two groups of caves;
• the first is a group of five Hindu caves dedicated to the god Shiva;
• the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
The last (Hindu) cave to be in active use was abandoned during the 16th century.
• The Elephanta Caves are known in particular for their Hindu rock art, featuring sculptures of many
figures from the Hindu pantheon, such as Shiva, Vishnu, Parvati, Brahma, Ravana and Shiva's elephant-
headed son Ganesha.
• The most important sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti (or Maheshmurti), set deep into a recess at
the back of the cave opposite the entrance.
Pallava and Pandya Sculpture from South India (600-900)
• Nearly all the sculpture created in southern India during the 7th, 8th and 9th
centuries, is associated with the Pallavas or the Pandyas - the two most important
Hindu dynasties of the time.
• Pallava rule was centered on the eastern coastline and included the city of
Mamallapuram, in the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, which was famous for
being the site of the carved-stone cliff created by Pallava kings in the 7th century.
• The Pallava era is significant for marking the transition from rock-cut architecture to
stone temples. Its best- known achievements include the Kailasanatha temple in
Kanchipuram (685-705) noted for its huge pillars ornamented with multi-directional
carvings of lions, and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (7th century), overlooking
the Bay of Bengal, which was decorated with copious stone statues and reliefs of
Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna and other Hindu deities.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=udizBVLli9U
Chandela Stone Sculpture in Central India (10th-13th century)

• The Rajput clan of the Chandelas ruled the Bundelkhand region of central India between the 10th and the
13th centuries.

• Chandela culture is best-known for the nagara-style architecture and erotic stone sculpture at the temples of
Khajuraho - now a UNESCO world heritage site.

• Mostly erected between 950 and 1050, the Khajuraho complex consists of 85 Hindu and Jain temples spread
over 2.5 square miles, southeast of Jhansi, in Madhya Pradesh.

• Made from sandstone on a granite foundation, the Khajuraho temples were actively used by worshippers
until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century.
Mughal Relief Sculpture
• From 1526 until 1857, much of northern India was ruled by the Mughals, Islamic rulers from Central Asia.

• During this era, the principal artistic activity was painting, while metalwork, and ivory carving as well as
marble sculpture also flourished.

• The quality of Mughal stonework is exemplified by a number of intricately carved sandstone screens.

• The Mughal Emperor Akbar was an enthusiastic patron of stone carving. He commissioned statues of Jai Mal
and Fatha (Rajput heroes of Chittor) shown sitting on elephants, to guard the gate of the Agra Fort.

• In general, Mughal rulers were great admirers of relief sculpture (including abstract work as well as naturalist
depictions of flowers, butterflies, insects and clouds) which was regarded as an essential element of Mughal
architecture, and embellished their buildings with a wide variety of this type of decorative art: an example
being the 50 varieties of marble carving on the walls of Akbar's tomb at Sikandra.
History of Coin and Currency
• The rupee in your pocket has a mysterious past. Behind Mahatma Gandhi’s smiling face lies a long history of
struggle, exploration, and wealth that can be traced back to the ancient India of the 6th century BC.

• Let’s demystify this history by bringing you the interesting stories about how Indian currency has evolved
over the ages into the rupee of today.

• Ancient Indians were the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese and Lydians (from the
Middle East).

• The first Indian coins – punch marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana – were minted in the 6th
century BC by the Mahajanapadas (republic kingdoms) of ancient India. These included Gandhara, Kuntala,
Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena, and Saurashtra.

• Made of silver of a standard weight but with irregular shapes, these coins had different markings – for
example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, and Magadha had several
symbols.
• Then came the Mauryas who punch marked their coins with a royal standard. Chanakya, prime minister to
the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya, mentions the minting of coins such
as rupyarupa (silver), suvarnarupa (gold), tamararupa (copper) and sisarupa (lead) in
his Arthashastra treatise.

• The Indo-Greek Kushan kings who came next introduced the Greek custom of engraving portrait heads on
coins.

• The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals.

• By the 12th century AD, the Turkish Sultans of Delhi had replaced the royal designs of Indian kings with
Islamic calligraphy. The currency – made in gold, silver and copper – was now referred to as tanka, with the
lower valued coins being called jittals.

• The commencement of the Mughal Empire from 1526 AD brought forth a unified and consolidated monetary
system for the entire empire.

• But the defining moment in the evolution of the rupee occurred when, after defeating Humayun, Sher Shah
Suri set up a new civic and military administration. He issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, which was
termed the rupiya and was divided into 40 copper pieces or paisa.
• By the time the British East India Company set itself up in India in the 1600s, Sher Shah’s silver rupiya had
already become the popular standard currency in the country

• Paper money was first issued in British India in the 18th century, with the Bank of Hindostan, General Bank
in Bengal and the Bengal Bank becoming the first banks in India to issue paper currency.

• The oldest surviving banknote in India was issued by the Bank of Bengal – a Two Hundred and Fifty Sicca
Rupees note dated September 3, 1812.

• The Reserve Bank of India was formally set up in 1935 and was empowered to issue Government of India
notes. RBI also printed 10,000 rupee notes (the highest denomination RBI has ever printed in its history) that
were later demonetised after independence.

• After India became independent in 1947, India’s monetary system remained unchanged for a while, with 1
rupee consisting of 64 pice. The first banknote printed by independent India was a 1 rupee note
Indian Painting
The origin of Indian painting goes back to 8000 years and an account of its development is inextricably meshed
with the development of Indian civilization.

• Prehistoric painting: Theme of painting were Hunting theme (group Hunting scenes); Figures of animals &
birds; Battle Scenes; Dancing Scenes. Example; Bhibetka Caves (MP).

• Mural paintings: made on walls of caves and palaces. The caves of Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta also on the
Bagh caves and Sittanvasal are examples of it.

• Tanjore Art:Folk art is linked with the forgotten art of story telling. Paintings are used to depict the visual
counterpoint in narration in every region of India. Art forms of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal narrate the myths
and legends of local heroes and deities and construct a kaleidoscopic image of our glorious past and rich
cultural heritage.

• Madhubani Painting: also referred to as Mithila Art (as it flourishes in the Mithila region of Bihar), is
characterized by line drawings filled in by bright colours and contrasts or patterns. This style of painting has
been traditionally done by the women of the region, though today men are also involved to meet the demand.
• Warli Folk Painting: Warli is the name of the largest tribe found on the northern outskirts of Mumbai, in
Western India. While there are no records of the exact origins of this art, its roots may be traced to as early
as the 10th century A.D. Warli is the vivid expression of daily and social events of the Warli tribe used by
them to embellish the walls of village houses.

• Odisha Pattachitra Painting: The name Pattachitra has evolved from the Sanskrit words patta, meaning
canvas, and chitra, meaning picture. Pattachitra is thus a painting done on canvas, and is manifested by rich
colourful application, creative motifs and designs, and portrayal of simple themes, mostly mythological in
depiction.

• Rajasthani Miniature Painting: The art of Miniature painting was introduced to the land of India by the
Mughals, who brought the much-revealed art form from Persian and the Indian artists produced paintings in
a new distinctive style, inspired by the royal and romantic lives of the Mughals.

• Kalamezhuthu: Is part of the domestic routine in Hindu households, who consider it auspicious to draw
certain patterns at the doorstep and courtyard to welcome a deity into the house. This art form is a
harmonious blend of Aryan, Dravidian and Tribal traditions.

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