Effectiveness of Sewage Treatment System

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Effectiveness of Sewage Treatment System and its Irrigation Potential: the

Case of Main Campus of Hawassa University, Ethiopia
Article in International Journal of Engineering Research and · October 2017

DOI: 10.17577/IJERTV6IS100146
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Published by : International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
http://www.ijert.org ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 6 Issue 10, October - 2017
Effectiveness of Sewage Treatment System and its

Irrigation Potential: the Case of Main Campus of
Hawassa University, Ethiopia
Kannan Narayanan*and Brook Abate
Hawassa University, Institute of Technology,
School of Biosystems and Environmental Engineering
Abstract - This research evaluated the performance of sewage market demand rise for vegetables which cannot be
water treatment system and also assessed its suitability for transported longer distance and encourages farmers near
irrigation. Salient water quality parameters were determined cities to grow vegetables. Three, the direct use of wastewater
at different stages of the treatment process and compared with in some cases is driven by its ready availability compared
the standard. The treatment unit comprised of anaerobic,
with the huge cost needed to construct irrigation structures.
facultative and maturation ponds in two series. Sampling were
done in different time periods from 2014-2016. The university Four, availability of plant essential nutrients from the
main campus produced an average of 320m3 of wastewater per biodegradable constituents of wastewater attracts farmers to
day. The effluents of the treatment system are discharged to use it for agriculture. In that sense, it enables farmers to
nearby land whenever there is overflow from the system. After reduce the expenditures on fertilizer and better production
treatment BOD, COD and SS were reduced by 76, 45 and 53 can be achieved. In some cases up to 37% increase in harvest
percent respectively. Treatment performance has been on is possible when raw wastewater is applied compared to
increasing trend since 2014. Water quality analysis revealed freshwater irrigation with chemical fertilizer (Martijn and
that the treated wastewater is slightly alkaline in nature. Redwood, 2005). The value of wastewater for crop irrigation
Percentage treatment efficiency of the pond for BOD, sulfide,
has also been recognized in India, China and lately, the
Total Suspended solids, COD, Nitrate, Nitrite and Total
Nitrogen were satisfactory. However, the effluent TSS Middle East (Pescod and Alka 1988). In Egypt, acute
concentration was higher than standard set by the EPA shortage of water necessitates the development of new water
standards for treated effluents. In present conditions, the sources. The supplies of sewage water effluent progressively
treated water can be used for irrigation purpose with some increase with increasing the population. At present, land
moderate restrictions. Even though EC and TDS permit to application of wastewater is considered to be the best
irrigate fruit trees and fodder crops, there is a risk of soil solution for disposal problems. It is a low-cost method for the
degradation due to high value of SAR. In such cases high disposal of wastewater; land application permits the
efficiency irrigation systems are recommended rather than reclamation and reuse of valuable resources such as water
flood irrigation. Also, irrigation with treated waste water
and nutrients from sewage (Abdel Ghaffar et al. 1985, Wang
increased nutritive elements in soil that can be source of
nutrition for plants. Continuous use of treated sewage water 1984).
for irrigation will make the soil acidic. Analysis of other soil Despite its positive contribution to stimulate
parameters indicates that there is an increase in nitrogen, agricultural production, unwise use of wastewater for
phosphate and potassium nutrient levels considerably to irrigation has associated adverse impacts on environment
benefit crop production but increase in soil EC is a serious public and animal health. Wastewater mostly comprised of
concern. organic matters, nutrients, heavy metals, pathogens and other
miscellaneous constituents. The direct discharge of
Key words: Sewage water, Treatment efficiency, Irrigation, wastewater into nearby streams without pre-treatment will
Soil properties. modify the natural water constituents. When the mixed water
I INTRODUCTION is used for irrigated agriculture, the wastewater constituents
Wastewater irrigation is substantially a growing flowing to the field interferes beneficially or harmfully to the
worldwide practice. Globally, around 20 million hectares of crop, environment public and animal health. When the
land are irrigated with wastewater and this figure is likely to concentration of harmful water constituents goes beyond the
increase during the next few decades. Wastewater irrigation acceptable level, it has associated adverse effect on the crop,
has been practiced with several drivers. One, in water scarce growing environment, public and animal health.
areas (arid and semi-arid climate zones) the limited water Pond systems are commonly employed for
source have insignificant contribution to support agricultural municipal sewage purification, especially in developing
production, thus the direct or indirect use of wastewater is countries, due to its cost effectiveness and high potential of
one way of sustaining agricultural production. Two, cities of removing different pollutants. Oxidation ponds are designed
low and middle income countries with rapid urban expansion to achieve different forms of treatment up to three stages in
produce a large volume of wastewater and this attracts series, depending on the organic strength of the input waste
farmers to enhance their agricultural practice with irrigated and effluent quality objectives. Usually, classical oxidation
agriculture. Moreover, the rapid population growth results in ponds consist of an anaerobic pond, followed by primary or
IJERTV6IS100146 www.ijert.org 296

(This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.)
secondary facultative ponds. The aim of this study is to is generally sandy loam with low humus and are more
evaluate the performance of Waste water treatment system in permeable. They dry fast even after a heavy rain. The
the main campus of Hawssa University and to determine its cultivated crops are maize, onion, tomato, potato and
potential for irrigation. sugarcane under rainfed and irrigated conditions.
Sewage water from Hawassa University is disposed
2.2 Climate and topography
in a nonproductive manner. This results in drainage problems
and environmental degradation particularly during rainy Hawassa has warm temperature which varies
season. Water logging condition occurs in the surrounding between 10ºC in winter and 30ºC in summer. The mean
low lands during rainy season due to continuous recharge of annual precipitation is 958mm. Hawassa is situated at the
ground water from the oxidation ponds. On the other hand, if Eastern shore of Lake Hawassa close to the eastern fault belt
this water is diverted for irrigation, the nearby hill side lands of the central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley in a
can be cultivated under rain fed condition. During dry spells, large volcano-tectonic collapse. It lies on the plain between
supplemental irrigation is must for annual crops like Lake Hawassa and Chelelaka wetland with general slope
banana/sugarcane to boost yield and coping uncertainty of towards Lake Hawassa. The average elevation at is 1700m
rainfall due to climate change. After construction of the and that of the lake surface is 1680m. Rain is more intensive
oxidation ponds, performance evaluation of the treatment during the four rainy months of June to September such that
system has not been carried out to verify whether the more than 80% of the rain falls during this period. The
pollutant levels are within the permissible limits of EPA or university farm land is formed of gentle and undulating hills,
not and improve its operation. At present the treated water surrounding by ranges of hills with different altitudes.
from the system is disposed to underground by seepage and 2.3 Sewage Treatment system – Oxidation ponds
percolation. To make use of this water for irrigation purpose, The daily time schedule in the student’s hostel for
it is necessary to study its quality parameters and suitability water usage causes wide fluctuations in effluent volume and
for irrigation. This research deals with how best the strength. To maximize treatment plant efficiency it is
pollutants are treated and the unutilized resource of sewage necessary to operate it at constant flow rates with relatively
water can be utilized productively for suitable irrigation consistent untreated wastewater composition. To achieve this
methods thereby enhancing water productivity and avoiding objective a balance or equalization tank is essential, the size
environmental degradation. being governed by local operating conditions and the
The main objective of the study is to study the necessity of accommodating peak flows.
performance of oxidation ponds in reducing the pollutants of Ponds and tanks are one of storage options and
sewage water and its suitability for irrigation. The specific combinations that can be considered for managing increasing
objectives of this study are to evaluate the operational water resources variability (McCartney and Smakhtin 2010).
performance of oxidation ponds with respect to selected From the student’s hostel buildings which accommodate
quality parameters, to estimate irrigation potential of treated more than 5,000 students, average sewage discharge of 5.8 to
waste water, to analyze suitability of treated sewage water 8.1 (500 to 700m3/d) litres per second is estimated
for irrigation and its impact on soil parameters. (Directorate of constructions, HU). This water is collected by
many septic tanks constructed as part of primary anaerobic
II MATERIALS AND METHODS treatment removing macro particles. The effluent from these
septic tanks is collected and delivered to sewage treatment
2.1 Description of the Study Area plant (STP) located at a distance of around 1km. The STP
Hawassa town is the capital of the Southern (Fig 1) comprises of a series of lined earthen tanks of
Nations, Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) Hawassa different capacities starting from equalization pond followed
City Administration and Sidama zone. It is located at a by oxidation and polishing ponds. The sewage water is
distance of 273 km South of Addis Ababa. The geographic treated both by physical and biological treatment to reduce
coordinates of the town are approximately 7º 03' latitude the suspended solids and Biochemical oxygen demand to the
North and 38º 29' longitudes East. Sewage water from the acceptable levels. The treated effluent is then delivered to
student’s hostel buildings in the main campus is first diverted irrigate the low lying agriculture lands. Since all the
to septic tanks to remove the solids and then diverted to rainwater from the surrounding high lands accumulates in the
stabilization pond and a series of oxidation and polishing low lands thus making them water logging causing nuisance
ponds. There is a possibility for utilizing the treated sewage and environmental pollution and affecting the crop yield
water for irrigation purpose in the nearby hill side lands. particularly during rainy season.
Based on physical observation, soils on adjacent hillside land

Fig 1 Layout of treatment system
2.4 Crop Water Requirements Phosphorus, Chlorides and Solids etc were analyzed in
To estimate the crop water requirements and accordance with the procedure laid down in Standard
irrigation water requirement of selected crop CROPWAT Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
software for windows was used. The input climate (APHA 2005). Total Suspended Solid (TSS) and Total
parameters Rainfall, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, Dissolved Solid (TDS) were determined by gravimetric
wind velocity and pan evaporation data obtained from method (dried at 103degree C). Biological Oxygen Demand
Meteorological station of Hawassa were used for the (BOD) was determined by the 5 Day BOD test while
research. Chemical Oxygen demand (COD) was determined in the
laboratory by the standard Open Reflux Method. Other tests
2.5 Work plan such as Conductivity (EC) and pH were directly measured in
The project was planned and divided into following situ using portable measuring devices (HANNA instruments,
work elements: HI 9811, portable pH-EC-TDS METER, Italy). Note that
Work element 1: Monitoring of WWTP and its performance before each measurement, the pH meter was calibrated with
evaluation reference buffer solution. Each analysis was carried out in
Samples were collected from waste water treatment triplicate and then the mean value was taken.
plant at different sampling points of the system and Samples were analyzed to determine the
characterize for parameters BOD5, COD, SS, TDS, Sulfide, concentration of selected elements in the pond effluent so as
NH3, Nitrite, Nitrate, Chloride, Total Nitrogen and Electrical to compare with recommended limits and to determine the
conductivity etc. overall efficiency of the whole treatment system. Treatment
Work element 2: To estimate the crop water & irrigation efficiency was calculated from reduction of concentration to
demand of selected crop and suitability of treated sewage initial concentration and expressed in percentage. All
water for irrigation. samples were collected and transported within ice box and
Climate data was analyzed to estimate the peak crop analyzed within 6 hours of collection for chemical
water demand of sugarcane plant and observations were also examinations. Soil samples from sewage disposal land and
made on soil quality parameters to find the impact using nearby cultivated land were also analyzed. Soil sample were
treated sewage water if used for irrigation on soil parameters. taken at 30 to 60 cm depth in three different locations.
Treated sewage water quality has been compared with Totally six samples were collected and tested for Na++, K+,
standard water quality requirements for irrigation. SAR, pH, EC, TOC, available phosphorous and Total
nitrogen. Organic carbon was determined using the Walkley-
2.6 Water Sampling and analysis Black method. Phosphorus (P) content determination was
Grab water samples were collected from STP and done using the colorimeter method using sodium hydrogen
monitored for three years during peak functioning month of carbonate extract (Adepetu et al, 2000). Exchangeable bases
the university. Six sets of samples comprising of Raw were extracted by the ammonium acetate extraction
effluent [P-1] Equalization pond [P- 2] Oxidation pond technique and determined by flame photometry (Adepetu et
[P- 3] Polishing pond 1 [P- 4] Polishing pond 2 [P- 5] al, 2000). The total nitrogen was determined using Kjeldal
Treated Effluent [P- 6] were collected and analyzed for the method while pH was determined using 1:2.5 CaCl2 dilution
water quality parameters. Samples for BOD, COD, Nitrogen, method (Adepetu et al, 2000)

2.7 Sewage flow measurement volumetric method in the manhole of the incoming sewage
Sewage flow was measured on daily basis during flow pipe system as shown in the figure 2 below.
three weeks of the study period. Flow was measured by
Fig 2 Sewage flow measurement
III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION treatment occurs in the facultative pond, it has a long
retention time of 87 hours to handle the incoming pollutants
3.1 Sewage flow and retention time
followed by maturation and fish ponds with average retention
Sewage flow from the university main campus time of 10 hours.
shows hourly and daily variation. Since most water Anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds are the
consumption occurred in the weekends, maximum flow rate three major types of pond in a sewage treatment pond (STP)
of 43cubic metre per hour was observed on Saturday system. These ponds are normally arranged in series to
morning hours and in the afternoon reduced to 16 cubic achieve effective treatment of raw wastewater (Marais,
metre per hour. Except Tuesday, in all the remaining days 1974). Anaerobic and facultative ponds are employed for
flow of around 7cubic metre per hour was observed. Effluent BOD removal, while maturation ponds remove excreted
flow rate depends on the rate of water supply to the hostel pathogens. A series of anaerobic and facultative ponds can
facilities. Weekly average flow of 16.78 cubic metre per hour treat wastewater to a sufficient degree to allow it to be used
was observed. In the current situation, water supply is in a restricted way for irrigating crops. It has been argued that
unpredictable on daily basis and so the weekly average is such pond systems remove nematode eggs significantly by
considered for pollutant load estimation since it is more sedimentation (WHO, 1989). Maturation ponds are normally
appropriate for estimation purpose according to the used if the treated wastewater is to be used for unrestricted
experience of maintenance department of the university. crop irrigation complying with WHO guidelines of less than
Based on average flow rate and pond volume, retention time 1000 faecal coliforms (FC) per 100 ml (WHO, 1989).
of water in each pond is derived as in the table. Maturation ponds have also been used when stronger
Water retention time influences the natural wastewaters with high concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen,
purification processes like sedimentation, oxidation and phosphorus) are to be treated prior to surface discharge
reduction process. Providing sufficient retention time (Mara, 1997) inferring that the treated water has scope for
facilitates good treatment efficiency in removing suspended irrigation.
solids and reducing BOD. Since major portion of the
TABLE 1 POND DETAILS AND WATER RETENTION TIME
Treatment Series Pond Type Average surface area, m2 Depth, m Volume, m3 Retention Time, Days
(Av flow rate 16.78m3/hr)
Anaerobic pond 31.5 2.5 78.75 0.196

(4.69 hrs)
Treatment system Faculative pond 490.1 3 1470.3 3.65
(87.6 hrs)
Maturation pond 78 3 234 0.58
(13.95 hrs)
Fish pond I 61 3 183 0.45
(10.9 hrs)
Fish pond II 61 3 183 0.45
(10.9 hrs)
Fish pond III 3 183 0.45
(10.9 hrs)

Barjenbrach and Erler (2005) reported that, there are wastewater to different ponds was from one point. It means
several causes for deterioration of the purification bad distribution of the wastewater and bad mixing with the
performance; such as unsuitable design of the pond; microorganisms in the pond. Also, the increase in the
incomplete mixing of aerated pond; type of preliminary detention time more than recommended may lead to the
treatment; insufficient maintenance and increased organic death of algae and then decrease of the efficiency of the
influent loads. In our study, although, the retention time is ponds. Modifications of the design of the pond by adding
sufficient in the ponds, moderate removal of BOD, COD was some additional points for entrance of wastewater to the
observed. The poor removal in maturation pond may be due ponds to make complete mix in the different ponds are
to some defects in the design of the ponds. The entrance of needed.
Sat
3pm
Fri
9am
flow rate m3/hr
Sat Tue Tue Wed Wed Thu Thu
3pm
9am
3pm
9am
3.30pm
9am
9am
Fri
2.45pm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Sewage flow rate, m3/hr
Fig. 3 Sewage flow rate variation
3.2 Raw Sewage water quality loading of 350g/m3/day has been set to avoid the risk of
Both BOD and COD are on the increasing trend excessive odour in anaerobic ponds (Mara et al. 1997a). For
since 2014 inferring the possibility of higher pollutants due average temperature of 10 degree Celsius, volumetric organic
to increasing student population and more usage of loading rate for the in fluent is 100g/m3/day which is
laboratories. This leads to more biodegradable wastes recommended for the design of anaerobic pond. With
resulting higher BOD/COD ratio of 0.74 which results more average observed influent BOD of 200 ppm and inflow of
opportunity to decompose the biodegradable pollutants by 320m3/day, required anaerobic pond volume is 150 m3 to
oxidizing the organic components of pollutants. Relationship provide better hydraulic retention time. Maximum expected
between volumetric BOD loading and pond temperature for BOD reduction is 40% as against the actual observed average
designing anaerobic ponds implies that the volumetric BOD value of 25% inferring the need to increase the size of
loading shall be less than 100g/m3/day to avoid anoxic anaerobic pond to improve the efficiency.
conditions in the pond. The maximum volumetric BOD
TABLE 2 RAW WATER BOD AND COD
Period BOD, ppm COD, ppm BOD/COD Ratio
Dec-14 128.0 312.0 0.41
Feb-15 201.3 411.0 0.49
Jan-16 256.0 348 0.74
3.3 Performance evaluation of treatment system

The biodegradable nature of the sewage water from
the university is getting increased as one of the major impact 3.3.1 Trend of BOD and COD in treatment ponds
of the growth of the university. This implies the scope for Oxidation ponds are used for removal of pollutants
good treatment efficiency of the oxidation ponds. under natural conditions. Theoretically pollutants are
expected to be decreased when the influent water passes
through a series of treatment ponds. However there is a
possibility of increase in the organic load in the treatment

ponds if the ponds are not operated with proper cleaning This is comparable with the results obtained in sewage
mechanism particularly to remove the floating dead algae. treatment system of university.
Domestic sewage water normally rich in nutrients and it It is observed that BOD value is lower in December
results in excess growth of microalgae thereby increasing as compared to February 2015 and Jan 2016. This is due to
additional oxygen demand both during their growth period the effect of long rainfall season in September to November
and after death. This could be a reason for increased BOD and leads to dilution of contaminants and lowers the BOD.
and SS in Oxidation pond and fish ponds even though the The treatment system performed well to reduce the BOD
influents are with lower BOD and SS. Mahassen et al, (2008) well within the permissible limit prescribed by EPA,
reported that anaerobic effluent indicated a BOD average Ethiopia. In case of SS and COD, the treatment system
value of 229 mg L-1, the facultative effluents 180.7 mg L-1 reduces the pollutants in oxidation and maturation ponds but
and maturation effluents 145.3 mg L-1. The removal allowed to increase by the end of the treatment and exceeds
efficiencies of this parameter were 22, 21.1 and 19.6% in beyond the permissible limits. The main reason for this
anaerobic, facultative and maturation effluents respectively. process is due to continuous stagnation of the influent in all
Further they observed mean values of TSS in treatment the ponds since most of the time there was no free outflow
system were 283.3 mg L-1, 214.3 mg L-1, 176.3 mg L-1 and from the system. Entered water is lost by evaporation and
157.8 mg L-1 in influent , anaerobic , facultative , maturation percolation through the leakages slowly. Free out flow occurs
effluents and the reduction of TSS was 24.4, 17.7 and 10.5% rarely only when there is heavy usage of water in the
in anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds respectively. university.
600
Concentration of pollutants, ppm
BOD, ppm COD, ppm

500
SS, ppm
400
300
200
100
0
p1 p2 p3 p6
Sampling points
Fig 4 BOD, COD and SS of raw water in Jan 2016
BOD removal in anaerobic ponds depends on will consequently increase the influent BOD into the
various environmental conditions, including the quality of facultative pond.
the raw wastewater. If the pH of the raw wastewater is
beyond the permissible range of ~6.6 to 7.8, BOD removal 3.3.2 Pond wise removal percentage
by methanogenic bacteria will be reduced significantly. This
Removal efficiency of 30 to 40 % was observed on the equalization pond is not desludged. Secondly, the floating
BOD and COD in maturation ponds whereas above 50 % dead algae was not cleaned in the oxidation pond on daily
removal of SS was observed in fish ponds. In equalization basis. During the study lot of floating dead algae was
and oxidation ponds negative % removal COD, SS and BOD, observed. Among all the three years of study, during Jan
SS were observed inferring an increased trend. This indicates 2016, the removal percentage of BOD, COD and SS were
there is an increase in pollutants particularly suspended good enough to make the treatment system more efficient
solids in oxidation ponds. Two reasons can explain this despite the increasing pollutant load. Maximum of 80%
increasing trend. First is poor maintenance of both the removal of suspended solids was observed in maturation and
equalization and oxidation ponds. Particularly for many years fish ponds.

100
% BOD removal
80 % COD removal
Treatment Efficiency, %
% SS removal
60
40
20
0
Dec-14 Feb-15 Jan 2016 p Jan 2016 q
Fig 5 Overall treatment efficiency for BOD, COD and SS
Regarding overall pollutant removal efficiency, university needs to be diverted optimally to both the
maximum of more than 75% was observed for BOD and treatment lines to increase the performance of the system.
COD in the first treatment system in 2016 whereas in the Verification of the design of the system reveals that with
second treatment system about 60 % removal efficiency was current flow rate of sewage, capacities of both the systems
observed in both BOD and COD. Coming to suspended are sufficient to reduce the pollutants. Still, further scope of
solids removal efficiency 54% and less than 30 were improving the treatment efficiency is possible since more
observed in first and second treatment system respectively in than 85% efficiency is reported in Hawassa hospital sewage
2016. All the three pollutants removal efficiencies were water treatment system. And that is possible by regular
lower as compared to other years. This indicates that despite maintenance of the treatment system. BOD and COD of the
higher incoming BOD, COD in the year 2016, removal treated effluent remains well within the permissible standard
efficiencies were good due to the proper maintenance of the of EPA whereas suspended solids concentration needs to be
treatment system. In 2014 and 2015 only one treatment line contained within the limit and care should be taken to reduce
was under operation but in 2016 both treatment lines were the algal bloom.
under operation resulting higher treatment efficiency of
BOD, COD and SS. The incoming sewage water from the
500
Concentration of pollutants in ppm
Dec-14
400
Feb-15
300 Jan 2016 p
200 Jan 2016 q
100 Limit
0
BOD in BOD BOD COD in COD COD SS in SS out SS
out Limit out Limit Limit
Fig.6 Comparison of BOD, COD and SS with Standard limits
wastewater showed less resistance toward conventional

3.3.3 BOD/COD Ratio
oxidation.
For better treatability, the BOD /COD ratio should For better treatability, the BOD /COD ratio should
be greater than 0.5 (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). The BOD be greater than 0.5 (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Most of the
/COD ratio of the wastewater received at treatment pond was values of BOD/COD ratio of treated water in all the three
0.74 in 2016 and less than 0.5 was observed in 2014 resulting years of study remained around 0.5. This indicates the
poor removal efficiency of BOD and COD. This indicates possibility of further treatability of water in terms of BOD
that organic substances with low biodegradability have been and COD reduction thereby opening a scope of enhancing
in use in the university much more than inorganic materials. treatment efficiency of the system. Along the treatment chain
Except the chemicals from the laboratories, most of the of ponds, BOD/COD ratio shows a declining but fluctuating
inorganic materials are removed adopting proper solid waste trend. This is mainly due to fluctuation of BOD due to
disposal facilities. Such characteristics of university overgrowth of microalgae and floating dead algae.

TABLE 3 PERCENTAGE REDUCTION OF BOD/COD RATIO AT DIFFERENT STUDY PERIODS

Period Dec-14 Feb-15 Jan 2016 p Jan 2016 q
% Reduction 27.66 36.2 58.11 42.85
p and q – treatment line 1 and 2 respectively
increased concentration of most of the pollutants towards the
Due higher removal efficiency observed in 2016, end on the treatment. The rainfall resulted more inflow into
BOD/COD ratio exhibits high reduction percentage between the stabilization pond and diluted the pollutants. The rate of
raw and treated sewage water. Year 2014 observes lowest dilution decreased towards the end of the treatment. Even in
reduction of 27.66% due to poorly treated effluent as rainy season no free outflow from the treatment system was
reasoned earlier. observed. This could be true for confined sewage treatment
system without regular outflow.
3.3.4 Algae and other parameters
Algae count was made in April randomly and found 3.4 Irrigation Potential of sewage water
as 0.8 to 1 million cells per ml. More groups of cells were 3.4.1 Rainfall data analysis
observed and in each group 3 to 7 cells were found indicating Annual average rainfall considering 5, 10 and 20 year data
clumps of dead cells. This occurs mainly due to effect of shows a decreasing trend due to impact of climate change.
ammonia gas present in all the ponds. Algae count data are The rate of decrease in rainfall is 1.76% and 8.9% based on
used to assess the release of oxygen generation and influence 10 and 5 years average. This implies that the rate of decrease
on the design review which will be done later. Algae is increasing year by year resulting severe impact on
measures are included as an approximation of total agriculture and land management practices. To cope with this
phytoplankton abundance and also as an indicator of energy decline in rainfall, suitable strategies should be followed in
inputs into the system through primary productivity. Algae crop scheduling and water management. Owing to increasing
content in maturation ponds were high but decreased than population and food demand new water resources and
that in facultative pond as a result of grazing of appropriate water application methods need to be evolved.
phytoplankton by zooplankton and also by death of algae. In Five year monthly average rainfall reached a new low figure
influent, the algae content was at its minimum because of in June and September, alarming possibility of short spells of
high content of suspended solids which obscure light water scarcity. In the month of May, it reached highest value
responsible for photosynthesis and the zooplankton count of 135mm. These extremities in both high and low ends lead
was relatively high in this site of stabilization pond. The to ore vulnerability to drought and flood damages. For
algae biomass and its productivity cause a marked diurnal irrigation system design, peak crop water demand of
and vertical variation in the levels of dissolved oxygen, pH, sugarcane and effective rainfall are to be considered.
sulphide and ammonia. It has been observed that when Considering 5 year averages compared to 20 year average
carbon dioxide is taken up faster than bacterial respiration values of these parameter are absolutely different. To cope
can supply, the concentration of carbon dioxide drops with the existing short spells of water scarcity, it is
causing a dissociation of the bicarbonate ion to form carbon recommended to design the irrigation system considering 5
dioxide and alkaline hydroxyl (Mara and Pearson, 1998). year average values of both rainfall and other climate
This raises the pH levels in facultative ponds. Pearson et al. parameters to estimate crop water demand and irrigation
(1987c) observed a rise of pH in facultative ponds exceeding demand.
9.0 and this is important in killing faecal coliforms.
Ammonia and sulphide toxicity have been observed to be 3.4.2 Design Irrigation demand
pH-dependent (Konig et al. 1987). As the pH of a facultative Being a long duration crop (Sugarcane), it needs total crop
pond increases, the unionized form of ammonia increases water demand of 1400mm for Hawassa climate conditions.
while sulphide production decreases. The effect of this Both 5 year and 20 year average monthly rainfall data are
toxicity is to inhibit algae growth and production and these analysed to estimate effective rainfall and irrigation demand.
mechanisms are thought to be self-sustaining (Konig et al. Considering medium sandy loam soil, the net irrigation water
1987). Other parameters viz TDS, Sulphide, NH3, total to be applied in the root zone to replenish 30% depletion is
phosphate, Nitrate, nitrite, TN, EC were observed using EPA calculated as 48.6mm. For 90% irrigation efficiency, gross
facility and the removal % are 38, 76, 93, 68, 34, 100, 78 and irrigation depth of 54mm is to be applied. Considering peak
37 respectively. Most of parameters exhibit declining trend in crop water demand of 5.5mm/day for the case of 5 year
physic chemical parameter concentration when water passes average climate data, the root zone can retain moisture to
from stabilization pond to final polishing pond except favour 9 days irrigation interval. But to be more efficient,
chloride which increased after treatment. In general most of drip irrigation needs more frequency of water application.
the pollutants are reduced after the treatment. During these So, 3 days of irrigation interval is selected for the design of
periods of Dec 2014 and Feb 2015 no much rain was the drip irrigation system. Peak irrigation demand of
observed. Whereas during observation made in May 2016 2.7mm/day is observed for 20 year average data with
considerable rainfall occurred and reversed the declining planting date in January whereas 4.6mm/day is observed
trend of pollutants to increasing trend. The rain and when planting is in June. Maximum irrigation demand of
corresponding runoff entry through the sewage outlet 795mm is needed for 5 year average data whereas it is 7.5%
possibly diluted the pollutants in the beginning of the less for 20 year climate data. This clearly reveals recent
treatment ponds. This could be one of the reasons for getting climate conditions demand increased irrigation as compared

to the past years. Considering the effect of climate change, Electrical conductivity is the ability of water to pass
designing the irrigation system to match recent average electric current in a solution. Total dissolved solid is a
climate data of at least 5 years will be more appropriate. This measure for the soluble substances in the water. Total
will equip our irrigation system better adapted to climate dissolved solid includes both organic and inorganic
changes. molecules and ions mainly cat ions of calcium, magnesium,
sodium, and potassium as well as carbonate, bicarbonate,
3.4.3 Irrigation with treated sewage water chloride sulphate and nitrate ions. When the ionic content of
Globally, around 20 million hectares of land are water increases, the conductivity will also increase. The ionic
irrigated with wastewater and this figure is likely to increase contents are mainly the result of dissolved salts; hence the
during the next few decades (Hamilton et al., 2007). high electric conductivity indicates the presence of large
Wastewater irrigation has been practiced with several concentration of salts and dissolved chemicals. Electrical
drivers. One, in water scarce areas (arid and semi-arid conductivity (EC) is the most important parameter in
climate zones) the limited water source have insignificant determining the suitability of water for irrigation use and it is
contribution to support agricultural production, thus the use a good measurement of salinity hazard to crop as it reflects
of treated wastewater is one way of sustaining agricultural the TDS in wastewater. The most important negative effect
production through supplementary irrigation. on the environment caused by agricultural wastewater is the
Depending on the two planting season as analysed increases in soil salinity, which if not controlled, can
with climate data, peak irrigation demand of sugarcane decrease productivity in long term (WHO 2005). EC values
plantation is 4.7mm per day. If the treated sewage water is of treated waste water varied from 1100 to 1300 μS/cm
applied for irrigation through further pressure sand or disc (mean value = 1200 μS/cm) while TDS values varied from
filtration systems, with available average daily treated water 545 to 675 mg/L (mean value = 610 mg/L) indicating slight
of 320 m3, about 6 hectares of sugarcane plantation can be to moderate degree of restriction on the use of this
irrigated productively with application efficiency of 85% and wastewater in irrigation due to salt build-up in soils and its
meeting the peak crop water demand during dry season. In adverse effects on plant growth (Ayers, 1985). Furthermore,
furrow irrigation system about 3.5 hectares can be irrigated the results indicted also that this type of water can be used on
without further investment on filtration system. Availability the soils with restricted drainage. Special salinity control
of plant essential nutrients from the biodegradable management with selection of good salt tolerant plants is
constituents of wastewater attracts farmers to use it for required. However, irrigation water with conductivity in the
agriculture. In that sense, it enables farmers to reduce the range of 750-2250 μS/cm is permissible for irrigation and
expenditures on fertilizer and better production can be widely used. Satisfactory crop growth is obtained under good
achieved. In some cases up to 37% increase in harvest is management and favorable drainage conditions but saline
possible when raw wastewater is applied compared to conditions will develop if leaching and drainage are
freshwater irrigation with chemical fertilizer (Martijn, 2005). inadequate. It is clear that irrigation using saline water can
add salt concentration to the soils and a problem may be
3.4.4 Irrigation water quality occurred due to the increase in concentration that is harmful
Raw and treated water quality was examined to the crop or landscape. Therefore, it is necessary to
through the following basic parameters: pH, Electrical combine the use of wastewater with practices to control
Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Chloride, SAR, BOD salinization, such as soil washing and appropriate soil
and COD which were used to assess the suitability of water drainage (WHO, 2005). The primary effect of high EC
for irrigation purposes. The average value of pH was 7.8 reduces the osmotic activity of plants and thus interferes with
which indicate that the treated sewage water is slightly the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil (Tatawat
alkaline in nature. The normal pH range for irrigation water and Singh, 2008). Among the two treatment lines, Treatment
is from 6.5 to 8.4. Irrigation water with a pH outside the line 1 performs better in reducing the TDS and EC whereas
normal range may cause a nutritional imbalance or may in treatment line 2 due to operational and maintenance
contain a toxic ion (Ayers and Westcot 1985, Pescod 1985). problems, it performs poorly in reducing TDS and EC. SAR
and chloride values were increased in both the treatment
lines. This is mainly due to the fact that in both the systems
most of the time the water gets stagnated resulting increase in
concentration of dissolved salts due to continuous
evaporation of water.
TABLE 4 REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF SELECTED IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Treatment line I Treatment line 2
Raw Treated Removal eff % Raw Treated Removal eff %
TDS, ppm 878.0 540.0 38.4 814.0 666.0 22.7
EC μmhos/cm 1762.0 1107.0 37.2 1638.0 1337.0 18.4
SAR 25.5 31.0 -21.5 27.0 36.0 -21.8
chloride, ppm 135.0 189.0 -40.0 130.0 151.0 -13.9

Sodium hazard is usually expressed in terms of the soil hydraulic system is affected, as aggregates will begin
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and it can be calculated to break down resulting in poor soil structure. This will make
from the ratio of sodium to calcium and magnesium. SAR is the soils less productive as they will be sticky when wet and
an important parameter for the determination of the crusty when dry making tillage operations very difficult
suitability of irrigation water because it is responsible for the (Ayers, 1985, Affullo, 2009)
sodium hazard (Todd, 1988), since it is more closely related The most common toxicity is from chloride (Cl-) in
to exchangeable sodium percentages in the soil than the the irrigation water. Cl- is not adsorbed or held back by soils,
simpler sodium percentage (Tiwari, 1988). Sodium replacing therefore it moves readily with the soil-water, is taken up by
adsorbed calcium and magnesium is a hazard as it causes the crop, moves in the transpiration stream, and accumulates
damage to the soil structure. It becomes compact and in the leaves. If the Cl- concentration in the leaves exceeds
impervious. the tolerance of the crop, injury symptoms develop such as
Continued use of water having a high SAR leads to leaf burn or drying of leaf tissue. Normally, plant injury
a breakdown in the physical structure of the soil. Sodium is occurs first at the leaf tips (which is common for chloride
adsorbed and becomes attached to soil particles. The soil toxicity), and progresses from the tip back along the edges as
then becomes hard and compact when dry and increasingly severity increases. Excessive necrosis (dead tissue) is often
impervious to water penetration. Fine textured soils, accompanied by early leaf drop or defoliation (Pescod 1985).
especially those high in clay, are most subject to this action. The obtained Cl- ion concentration of the samples varied
The SAR and EC values of the treated wastewater reflect that from 130 to 224 mg/L representing slight to moderate degree
it should be severely restricted for surface irrigation system of restriction on the use of this wastewater in irrigation
since it reduces the infiltration rate of the soil. Highly (Ayers, 1985). While, according to USSL classification of
efficient irrigation systems are recommended if the treated irrigation water, the effluent samples can be used for
sewage water needs to be used for irrigation to avoid soil moderately tolerant plants (WHO 2005).
degradation. The effects of the high SAR percentages are that
3500.0
Concentration of pollutants.
3000.0 TDS, ppm

EC μmhos/cm
2500.0
ppm/μmhoscm-1
SAR
2000.0 chloride, ppm
1500.0
1000.0
500.0
0.0
Raw Treated Raw Treated limit
Treatment I Treatment 2
Fig. 7 Treated water quality parameters against permissible limit for irrigation
Except SAR and Chloride, all other parameters are should be noted that BOD meets the standard requirement for
well within the permissible limits recommended for irrigation treated sewage water whereas suspended solids do not so as
water. According to the guidelines of Pescod, (1992), BOD such the treated waste water cannot be disposed into natural
and SS also favors possibility of using the treated sewage water bodies. This indicates that the performance of the
water for irrigating fruit trees and fodder crops. For other treatment system in the university campus needs to be
crops BOD and SS should be less than 20ppm which is the improved in terms of operational efficiency despite having
requirement for irrigating vegetable crops. Moreover, it adequate capacity of the ponds system.

Concentration of pollutants in ppm

250
200
150
100
50
0
BOD 5, ppm SS, ppm BOD 5, ppm SS, ppm BOD5 Limit, SS limit,
ppm ppm
Treatment 1 Treatment 2 For fruit trees
Fig. 8 Permissible Limits of BOD and SS for fruit trees
3.5 Soil parameters area. Selected soil chemical properties show that there is
The treated sewage water is disposed on available significant difference in parameters like electrical
uncultivated land near the treatment system. Soil test was conductivity and available phosphorus as compared to other
conducted on both land disposal site and nearby cultivated parameters between the two sites.
Concentration of soil chemical parameters
6
Sewage
5 land
4
3
2
1
0
Fig 9 Soil chemical properties of Sewage disposal and Normal cultivated land
Analysis of variance of results shows that except pH with 52.46 and 43.93 % respectively. This is mainly due to
and EC values vary significantly between sewage disposed high nutrient contents of the treated sewage water.
and cultivated fields. But all parameters increased in soil Continuous deposition of organic materials in the soil results
where the treated sewage water was disposed when there is an increased total carbon percentage and reduced pH making
an over flow from the treatment system. Electrical the soil acidic in nature. This infers the need of lime
conductivity of sewage disposal land exhibits 91.69% application to neutralize the acidic nature if irrigated with the
increase followed by total Nitrogen and available phosphate sewage water.
TABLE 5 SOIL CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
pH EC μS/cm T-N (%) Av-P mg/kg Na+(mequ/100g) K+(mequ/100g) TOC,%
Sewage land 5.025 501 0.305 32.43 1.51 1.305 2.085
Normal land 5.65 41.65 0.145 18.185 1.76 1.375 1.965
% increase/
decrease -11.06 91.69 52.46 43.93 14.20 5.09 5.76
Typical concentrations of nutrients in treated waste

water effluent from conventional sewage treatment processes
are 50 ppm Nitrogen and 10 ppm Phosphorus. With an

application rate of 5000 m3/ha/year, the fertilizer contribution were satisfactory. However, the effluent TSS concentration
of the effluent would be N - 250 kg/ha.year and P - 50 was higher than standard set by the EPA standards for treated
kg/ha.year. Thus, all of the nitrogen and much of the effluents. The treatment efficiency of the pond for some of
phosphorus and potassium normally required for agricultural the trace elements was satisfactory. Treatment performance
crop production would be supplied by the effluent. Further, has been on increasing trend since 2014. Maximum of 75%
other valuable micronutrients and the organic matter BOD reduction was achieved in 2016 leaving scope for
contained in the effluent will provide additional benefits. further improvement of the system by carrying out regular
Soil EC is strongly affected by application treated maintenance activities particularly removal of sludge in
sewage water for irrigation purpose. EC value of soil from stabilization pond and removal of dead algae floating in the
sewage disposal field differs from crop cultivated field at 5% ponds. In present conditions, the treated water can be used
significance level. Existing salinity levels and amount of salt for irrigation purpose with some restrictions. Even though
contained in the treated sewage water need to be closely EC and TDS permit to irrigate fruit trees and fodder crops,
monitored to prevent salinity problems, especially in arid there is a risk of soil degradation due to high value of SAR.
climates. Electrical conductivity levels can serve as an In such cases high efficiency irrigation systems are
indirect indicator of the amount of water and water-soluble recommended rather than flood irrigation. With present flow
nutrients available for plant uptake such as nitrate-N. Areas rate of water maximum of 7 hectares of sugarcane plantation
of saline soils need to be identified and managed differently can be irrigated meeting its peak crop water requirement.
from areas of non-saline soils. Soil microorganism activity Continuous use of treated sewage water for irrigation will
declines as EC increases. This impacts important soil make the soil acidic. Analysis of other soil parameters
processes such as respiration, residue decomposition, indicates that there is an increase in nitrogen, phosphate and
nitrification and denitrification. Soils with a high organic carbon nutrient levels considerably to benefit crop
concentration of sodium salts (sodic conditions) have production but increase in soil EC is a serious concern
additional problems, such as poor soil structure, poor demanding soil reclamation by leaching the accumulated
infiltration or drainage, and toxicity for many crops since salts when it goes beyond the limit. Therefore, the
very high SAR value of the treated sewage water. EC values sustainable use of treated wastewater in agriculture can be
less than 1 dS/m, soil are considered non-saline and do not beneficial to the environment in such a way that minimizes
impact most crops and soil microbial processes. At present the side effects on the quality of downstream water
the EC value of the sewage disposal land is 0.5dS/m and in resources, but it requires the control of soil salinity at the
continuous usage in the long run EC readings greater than 1 field level.
dS/m, are possible due to accumulation of salts and will
impact important microbial processes, such as nitrogen Based on these results that proper management of
cycling, production of nitrous and other N oxide gases, wastewater irrigation and periodic monitoring of quality
decomposition and increased nitrogen losses. EC values parameters are required to ensure successful, safe and long
above 1.0 dS/m increase production of nitrous oxide (N2O) term reuse of wastewater for irrigation. It is recommended as
gas from denitrification under anaerobic conditions (90% or a matter of high priority that treated wastewater is considered
more water-filled pore space) by over 15 to 315 fold with and made a reliable alternative source in water resources
relatively high nitrate levels. Nitrous oxide is nearly 300 management. Agricultural wastewater reuse can effectively
times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2) as a greenhouse contribute to fill the increasing gap between water demand
gas and depletes ozone in the upper atmosphere. (Smith and and water availability particularly in semi-arid areas. In
Doran, 1996) and Adviento-Bore et al.,(2006). This alarms future, further work is needed to examine organic and toxic
possibility of N2O formation in the long run from the soil. constituents in wastewater and more intensive sampling and
studies to measure any change of chemical elements in
IV CONCLUSIONS wastewater, irrigated soil and plant. Also, irrigation with
The average sewage water flow from Hawassa domestic waste water increased nutritive elements in soil that
University main campus reaching the oxidation ponds was can be source of nutrition for plants. The findings may give
16m3/hr in 2016. The characterization of the untreated applicable advice to commercial farmers and agricultural
sewage water of the university showed that many parameters researchers for management and proper use of water.
were higher than the prescribed limit as compared to EPA
guidelines. The results provide strong evidence that the water ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
of these drains is not suitable for irrigation without treatment. The authors highly acknowledged the Institute of
The raw sewage water is subjected to oxidation ponds Technology, Hawassa University, Ethiopia for financial
treatment facility to reduce the pollutants before discharging support. The authors also express appreciation to staff
into land disposal since there is no any natural river nearby. members of School of Biosystems & Evironmental
The present sewage treatment system was introduced so that Engineering and maintenance department of Hawassa
pollution load can be minimized and the water can be used university main campus sewage system for their holistic
for beneficial purposes. Interpretation of physical and support throughout the experimental work.
chemical analysis revealed that the treated wastewater is
slightly alkaline in nature. In conclusion, the percentage
treatment efficiency of the pond for BOD, sulfide, Total
Suspended solids, COD, Nitrate, Nitrite and Total Nitrogen

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Effectiveness of Sewage Treatment System and its Irrigation Potential: the

Article in International Journal of Engineering Research and · October 2017

Narayanan Kannan Brook Abate

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Effectiveness of Sewage Treatment System and its

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Fig 1 Layout of treatment system

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Fig 2 Sewage flow measurement

Anaerobic pond 31.5 2.5 78.75 0.196

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Fig. 3 Sewage flow rate variation

3.3 Performance evaluation of treatment system

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BOD, ppm COD, ppm

Fig 4 BOD, COD and SS of raw water in Jan 2016

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Fig 5 Overall treatment efficiency for BOD, COD and SS

200 Jan 2016 q

Fig.6 Comparison of BOD, COD and SS with Standard limits

wastewater showed less resistance toward conventional

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TABLE 3 PERCENTAGE REDUCTION OF BOD/COD RATIO AT DIFFERENT STUDY PERIODS

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TABLE 4 REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF SELECTED IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

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3000.0 TDS, ppm

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Concentration of pollutants in ppm

Typical concentrations of nutrients in treated waste

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REFERENCES [17] McCartney M, Smakhtin V. 2010. Water Storage in an Era of

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