BUILDING MATERIALS

UNIT 3
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS

ABSORBTION OCCURS WHEN IMPRESSING SOUND ENERGY CONVERTED TO THE HEAT ENERGY IN THE BODY OF ABSORBER
DUE TO SURFACE FRICTION & RESONANCE.

ABSORBERS

• Sound absorbers are generally porous, lightweight material. There is a cellular network of interlocking pores.
Within these pores, incident sound energy is converted into heat.

• There are three basic categories of sound absorbers: Porous materials commonly formed of matted or spun
fibres; Panel (membrane) absorbers having an impervious surface mounted over an airspace; Resonators
created by holes or slots connected to an enclosed volume of trapped air.

POROUS ABSORBERS:

• Common porous absorbers include carpet, draperies, spray-applied cellulose, aerated plaster, fibrous mineral
wool and glass fibre, open-cell foam, and felted or cast porous ceiling tile.

• All of these materials allow air to flow into a cellular structure where sound energy is converted to heat.

• Thickness plays an important role in sound absorption by porous materials.

• Fabric applied directly to a hard, massive substrate such as plaster or gypsum board does not make an efficient
sound absorber due to the very thin layer of fibre. Thicker materials generally provide more bass sound
absorption or damping.

• Examples of these include acoustical boards, diffusers, soft plasters, mineral wool, and acoustical blankets,
among others. Carpets and fabrics

• Space Absorbers- Sound absorbing objects which are suspended from the ceiling, used when regular boundary
enclosures of an auditorium do not provide a suitable or adequate area for conventional acoustical treatment.

• Variable Absorbers- Sliding, hinged, movable, and rotatable panels constructed to expose either absorptive or
reflective surfaces.

PANEL ABSORBERS:

• Typically, panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous materials which are placed over an airspace that vibrates in
a flexural mode in response to sound pressure exerted by adjacent air molecules.

• Common panel (membrane) absorbers include thin wood panelling over framing, lightweight impervious ceilings
and floors, glazing and other large surfaces capable of resonating in response to sound.

• Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing low frequencies. Also referred to as “Membrane
Absorbers”. Impervious material installed in a solid backing but separated from it by an air space.

RESONATORS:

• Resonators typically act to absorb sound in a narrow frequency range. Resonators include some perforated
materials and materials that have openings (holes and slots).
 • Cavity Resonators- Also referred to as “Helmholtz Resonators”. Materials that consist of an enclosed body of air,
confined within rigid walls and connected by a narrow opening to the surroundings space.

• Individual Cavity Resonators: Standard concrete blocks, using regular concrete mixture, but with slotted cavities.
Slit Resonators: Isolation blankets (or alternative) covered with slits, the whole system forming a resonator.

MELAMINE TILES:

• Light, flexible ceiling tiles reduce noise levels in any room. Made from fire rated foam.

• Perfect for use in commercial applications.

• INSTALLATION: Lay in acoustical ceiling grid panels. Noise Acoustical Adhesive is used for direct application to
walls and ceilings.

POLY ACOUSTIC PANEL: COMPRISES OF RECYCLED COMPRESSED BEADS.

• EXTREMELY DURABLE. CAN BE PRESSURE WASHED.

• UV RESISTANT AS WELL AS MOLD & MILDEW RESISTANT. USED IN HIGH MOISTURE ENVIRONMENTS SUCH AS
POOLS.

• POPCORN CEILING: AN ACOUSTICAL TREATMENT TEXTURED LIKE POPCORN. A LAYER OF POWDERED ASBESTOS
MIXED WITH SEALANT IS SPRAYED ON THE CEILING AND LEFT TO DRY.

FIBREGLASS CEILING TILES:

• Designed for drop ceiling grids & to absorb more sound than standard ceiling tile panels.

• To prevent the migration of sound energy beyond the ceiling tiles and into the space above, consider installing a
layer of vinyl sound barrier.

• There is a cellular network of interlocking pores. Within these pores, incident sound energy is converted into
heat. Available with a white nubby finish or black perforated vinyl.

Commonly used materials:

• Acoustical boards: Easy installation and maintenance. Flexible absorption. Paint redecoration harmful to
absorption, Difficult to conceal joints between units, Soft structure subject to damage.

• Acoustic Hangers or baffles- a system of fiber-board panels that are wrapped with insulation and are hung freely
using wire or rope.

• Geocoustic Tiles- special prefabricated units for random application on walls and ceilings.

• Diffusers- absorptive material that have, irregular surfaces, or angled or curved fronts, so when mounted on a
wall or the ceiling they stop parallel wall interference and prevent standing waves. Acoustic Foam Boards- High
density blankets with covering; also act as diffusers

• Acoustical Plasters and Sprayed-on Materials: Absorbent paint applied in a semi plastic consistency. There are
two types: Type I: composed of a cementations material such as gypsum, cement, or lime. Type II: Fibrous
materials combined with a binder agent, sprayed on with an air gun or blower.

• Advantages: Aesthetic and decorative qualities, May be used for irregular surfaces. Disadvantages: difficult
maintenance and application.

• Acoustic Blankets- Also referred to as “Isolation Blankets”. Materials manufactured from rock wool, glass fibers,
wood fibers, hair felt, etc.

NOISE BARRIERS:

• The Soundtrap is a broadband absorber with increased absorbsion at the lower frequency range. It can be
applied to walls and ceilings. To make room for and improve the precision of the low range, Subsonic produces
this easy-to-apply panel with excellent performance.
 • It was designed to absorb background noise in back, front or side walls reducing the low energy that is present at
excessive levels at the point of hearing, thus lowering unwanted resonances.

Acoustic Bass Traps

• Controlling lows is essential in any music room, especially in the corners where very long waves are generated,
that is, low stationary frequencies.

• This panel is extremely efficient at holding back excessive levels of low frequencies, is manufactured with an
exclusive production membrane mounted on a tuned box, which gives this box high efficiency ranging from 32Hz
to 280Hz. The Corner bass absorbing panel lessens excessive energy at low frequencies, and its highest
absorption coefficient stands at 80 Hz.

MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRICAL FITTINGS:

COMMONLY USED CONDUCTORS:

• COPPER - The electrical properties of copper are exploited in copper wires and devices such as electromagnets.
Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminum because of its
superior electrical conductivity.

• ALUMINIUM - Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals for manufacturing quality electrical fittings and
connectors. The metal is found naturally in bauxite ore and is known for its ability to resist corrosion and its light
weight. It is ductile and silvery. High electrical conductivity, less weight and density, Good corrosion resistance:
Aluminum has a good corrosion resistance. This is attributable to a thin oxide film that is formed and protects the
metal from oxidation. Aluminium is used in a number of products like : Electric lights, Motors, Wires, Appliances,
Power systems, Electric lamps, Florescent bulbs, Television antenna, Satellite dishes, etc.

• BRASS - Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is also highly ductile
and malleable. Used for making different types of electrical fittings like wires and cables, screws etc. It is very
hard and tough. Brass has very good corrosion resistant properties. As the amount of zinc increases in alloys the
corrosion resistant property of brass decreases.

• STAINLESS STEEL - Stainless steel is a particular kind of steel which doesn't stain, corrode or rust as easily as
general steel. It is an iron-carbon alloy with the content of chromium (Cr). Stainless steel has high oxidation
resistance in air at environment temperature. It is due to the addition of a minimum of 13% chromium by weight.
Cr when exposed to oxygen forms a layer of oxide (Cr2O3) on the surface of steel and this layer keeps the steel
always lustrous. Stainless steel has no maintenance cost. It is Inexpensive & Recyclable

COMMONLY USED INSULATORS

Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain, or composite polymer materials.
Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed
water.

• BAKELITE - Bakelite is an early plastic. It is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin, formed from an
elimination reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. It is electrical & heat resistant. Thus, used for making fuse
coverings, electrical sockets etc. Also used as bases and sockets for light bulbs and electron tubes, supports for
any type of electrical components, automobile distributor caps, and other insulators. Highly used in insulation of
wires.

• PVC - IT is a thermoplastic vinyl polymer constructed of repeating vinyl groups (ethenyls) having one hydrogen
replaced by chloride. Used as the insulation on electric wires. In applications where smoke is a major hazard
(notably in tunnels and communal areas) PVC-free cable insulation is preferred, such as low smoke zero halogen
(LSZH) insulation as PVC-coated wires can form HCl fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the
source of the material's fire retardance. While HCl fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right.

• Bell push: a button pressed to operate an electric bell.

• Socket: electrical product which is used to give supply to the electrical appliances.

• Switches: Switches are the main component to connect/ disconnect the circuit.

• Plug: used to connect appliance with the socket to provide supply.

• Switch board: These are the collection of switches and sockets.

MATERIALS USED IN SANITATION

Sanitation is the means of promoting hygiene through the prevention of human contact with hazards of wastes especially
faeces, by proper treatment and disposal of the waste, often mixed into wastewater.

TYPES OF PIPES:

 Soil pipe: A soil pipe is a pipe through which human excreta flows.

 Water Pipe: it is a pipe which carries only the liquid waste. It does not carry human excreta.

 Vent pipe; it is a pipe which is provided for the purpose of the ventilation of the system. A vent is open at top
and bottom, to facilitate exit of foul gases. It is carried at least one meter higher than the roof level.

 Rain water pipe: it is a pipe which carries only the rain water.

 Anti-siphonage pipe: it is pipe which is installed in the house drainage to preserve the water seal of traps.

TRAP: A trap is depressed or bent fitting that, when provided in a drainage system, always remains full of water, thus
maintaining water seal. It prevents the passage of foul air or gas through it, though it allows the sewage or waste water to
flow through it. The depth of water seal is the vertical distance between the crown and dip of a trap. The depth of water
seal represents its strength or effectiveness. Greater the depth of water seal more effective is the trap. The depth of water
seal varies from 25mm to 75mm.

Types: According to shape: P, Q, R and According to use: Floor trap, Gully trap, Intercepting traps, Grease traps, Bottle trap.

SANITRY FITTINGS: WASH BASINS- Has circular waste hole for draining out waste water. Metallic strainer is provided in the
waste hole for discharge of waste water into the floor tap. Height should be about 75 to 80 cm.

SINKS - Used in kitchen, hospitals and lab. It is made of glazed fire clay, stainless steel, plastic, marble and RCC. Has waste
circular hole for fixing the metallic stainer to which the waste pipe is attached for discharge from sin to floor trap. Sink can
be made with or without overflow arrangement. In hospitals and laboratories only vitreous sinks are preferred. The kitchen
sink is invariably provided with a drain board.

BATH TUBS - made of enameled steel, gel coated fiber glass, reinforced resign, enameled porcelain, reinforced concrete
finished with terracotta or marble finishes etc. They are provided with holes for fixing hot and cold water connections and
have provisions for overflow and waste water pipes. The length of bathtub varies from 1.75m to 1.85m, width varies
between 0.7m to 0.75m and its depth near the waste pipe varies between 0.43m to 0.45m.

ONE PIPE SYSTEM In the system all soil and waste water discharge into one common pipe and all branch ventilating pipes
into one main ventilating pipe. This system largely replaces the two pipe system and lent itself very well to use in multi
storey developments. It is far more economical than the two pipe system.

TWO PIPE SYSTEM The waste stack received the discharge ablutionary fitments and conveyed this to the ground level
where it was delivered above the water seal in a trapped gully connected to the drainage system. The soil stack receives
the discharge from soil appliances and delivered it direct to the underground drainage system. The waste and soil water
did not combine until they reached the below ground drainage system.

THE FULLY VENTILATED ONE-PIPE SYSTEM a large number of sanitary appliances in ranges. Each trap with an anti-siphon
or vent pipe connected to the discharge pipe in direction of the flow of water at a point between 75 - 450 mm from trap
crown. Vent stack connected to the discharge stack near to the bend to remove compressed air at this point.

The single stack system reduces the cost of soil and waste systems. Branch vent pipes are not required. To prevent loss of
trap water seals:- The trap water seals on the waste traps must be 76 mm deep. The slopes of the branch pipes are: sink
and bath, 18 to 19 mm/m; basin 20-120 mm/m; WC 18 mm/m (min.). Vertical stack at 200 mm below the centre of the WC
branch connection.

Modified single stack system Close grouping of the sanitary appliances  install the branch waste and soil pipes without
the need for individual branch ventilating pipes. To prevent the loss of trap water seals WC branch pipe min. 100 mm
bore and the angle θ = 90.5° to 95°. To prevent the loss of trap water seals basin main waste pipe min. 50 mm bore and
the angle θ = 91° to 92.5°. Five basins or more / length of the main waste pipe exceeds 4.5 m  a 25 mm bore vent pipe
connected to main waste pipe at a point between the two basins farthest from the stack.

• MATERIALS USED IN WATER SUPPLY Pre-Requisites Water supply Materials: Non-Toxic and Non-reactive
(especially with water) and non-corrosive. High Tensile Strength. More Ductile and Malleable, Easily cast able and
moldable, economically feasible, durable and Have a Long lifespan.

• Lead Pipe – It is no longer used in water supply as lead is now considered to be dangerous for health.

• Cast Iron Pipes – Cast iron pipes are extensively used in water distribution mains because they are comparatively
cheaper in cost, highly resistive to corrosion and have a very long life. These are heavy and hence they need
special care while handling to prevent them from damage.

• Galvanized Iron Pipes – G.I. pipes are wrought steel pipes provided with zinc coating. They are most commonly
used for water supply work inside a building and are also used invariably in service connections. Mostly screw
and socket joints are used for steel pipes.

• Copper pipes – Copper pipes are mostly used for hot water supply installations. They have high tensile strength
and can therefore have thin walls and they can be bent easily. To enhance their appearance copper pipes are
sometimes coated with chromium.

• Steel Pipes – Steel pipes are recommended for use in water supply when water in mains is high in pressure
(above 7 kg/cm3) and the diameter of pipe required is large. Steel pipes are lighter and stronger in comparison to
CI pipes. They however require adequate preventive treatment to sustain adverse atmospheric conditions. Steel
pipes enclosed in cement mortar or concrete are called Hume steel pipes.

• Polythene Pipes – Polythene and PVC pipes are being used increasingly these days for supply of cold water in
external and internal plumbing work. They are lightweight, non-corrosive lower in cost and do not require any
threading for connections. They also have types like UPVC and CPVC which differs in connection properties.

A tap, also called spigot and faucet, is a valve controlling release of liquids or gas.

• The physical characteristic which differentiates a tap from other valves is the lack of any type of a mechanical
thread or fastener on the outlet. Water for baths, sinks and basins can be provided by separate hot and cold taps.
Tap water is water supplied to a tap. Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing of toilets.

• Brass, an alloy of copper, steel and zinc is the most widely used material for tap due to its resistance to soft-
water corrosion and hard-water calcification. It usually contains some alloying elements—like bismuth—to make
it easier to process.

• INFRA RED TAPS; - Hub less Pipe - used in lieu of the single hub to do away with caulking of joints. It is cheaper
and easily connected using a neoprene rubber sleeves. In addition to this, they feature an automatic shut off
eliminating dripping with no chance of the tap being left running. Advantage: - more hygienic. Save more water.
And safe for children. Disadvantages: - not economical. Use in five stars hotels.

• PULL-OUT TAP: - These taps allow you to pull out the tap spout and fill a container away from the sink, and are
therefore extremely useful for small or shallow sinks, with no room for high utensils. The spout is similar to a
shower head. On the downside, the hose can puncture if incorrectly used whilst excessive use may wear out the
spring in the long term. Advantages: - The advantage of being retractable and can be easily returned to its
original position. Disadvantages:-its cover more space.

• THERMOSTATIC TAPS;-A thermostatic tap works by ensuring a constant temperature during use, which makes it
a safer choice for the bathroom. make constant temperature during use, we can’t change temperature during
using

• Long Handle Water Tap: - these types taps have long handle to flow the water from the tap. These are special
type of tap not use in wash basin and bathrooms. More hygienic and safe from germs. Costly, can’t use in home.
use in medical , clinic

• WATER EFFICIENT TAP; - to save water and energy. The exception, of course, is your bath taps; these are only
really used filling a bath, and for this purpose restricting the flow achieves nothing.

• DISK TAPS: - Disk taps are also single handle mixer taps and are identified by their wide cylindrical body. They
work using two ceramic disks which have holes that, when aligned, allow the water to pass. This means that disk
 taps only ever require a quarter turn to reach full capacity and are easily handled. Full capacity can easily handle.
There are a few parts that need repair after some time. Small particles of dirt, grit or other foreign body can get
trapped.

• Mixer taps have either a single or two handles on either side of a single spout. Hot and cold water are mixed in
the body of the tap. Water flow and temperature are controlled by the individual/separate handles.

• Only one tap for hot and cold water and affordable. Can emerge the hot and cold water. Some mixers may
require relatively high pressure to work properly. Use in bath and basin. Many mixer taps feature a practical pop-
up waste mechanism

• MONOBLOCS: - Monobloc taps operate in a similar way to mixer taps, in this the hot and cold water supplies are
mixed inside the tap, but the temperature and flow is controlled with just one handle – twisting it to the left or
right adjusts the temperature. Twisting the handle causes a washer to move up and down, which controls how
much water flows through. The temperature and flow is controlled with just one. Higher cost. Use in bath and
basin tab.

• PILLAR TAPS: The most traditional style, pillar taps are the classic “hot and cold” style – two separate taps, one
for each temperature. Pillar taps tend to be affordable and easy to install. Two separate tap for hot and cold
water. Use in both baths and basins.

PIPING AND PLUMBING FITTINGS:

• Fittings are used in pipe and plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections, to adapt to different
sizes or shapes, and for other purposes, such as regulating or measuring fluid flow. The term plumbing is
generally used to describe conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste in ordinary domestic or commercial
environments, whereas piping is often used to describe high-performance (e.g. high pressure, high flow, high
temperature, hazardous materials) conveyance of fluids in specialized applications. The term tubing is sometimes
used for lighter-weight piping, especially types that are flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form.

• An elbow is a pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe or tubing to allow a change of direction, usually a
90° or 45° angle, though 22.5° elbows are also made. The ends may be machined for butt welding, threaded, or
socketed, etc. When the two ends differ in size, the fitting is called a reducing elbow or reducer elbow.

• Most elbows are available in short radius or long radius types. Short elbows are widely available; long elbows are
readily available in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS plastic), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), sewage and central
vacuums, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and copper.

• A coupling connects two pipes to each other. If the size of the pipe is not the same, the fitting may be called a
reducing coupling or reducer, or an adapter. By convention, the term "expander" is not generally used for a
coupler that increases pipe size; instead the term "reducer" is used.

• A union is similar to a coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient disconnection of pipes for
maintenance or fixture replacement. While a coupling would require either solvent welding, soldering or being
able to rotate with all the pipes adjacent as with a threaded coupling, a union provides a simple transition,
allowing easy connection or disconnection at any future time

• A reducer allows for a change in pipe size to meet hydraulic flow requirements of the system, or to adapt to
existing piping of a different size. Reducers are usually concentric but eccentric reducers are used when required
to maintain the same top- or bottom-of-pipe level.

• A tee is used to either combine or split a fluid flow. Most common are tees with the same inlet and outlet sizes.

• A cap is a type of pipe fitting, usually liquid or gas tight, which covers the end of a pipe. A cap has a similar
function to a plug. In plumbing systems that use threads, the cap has female threads.

• A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially
obstructing various passageways.

• Valve Functions: Stopping and starting fluid flow. Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow. Controlling the
direction of fluid flow. Regulating downstream system or process pressure. Relieving component or piping over
pressure.
 • In butterfly valves, the flow is regulated through a disc-type element held in place in the center of the valve by a
rod. Similar to ball valves, valve operation time is short because the valving element is simply rotated a quarter
turn (90°) to open or close the passageway. Butterfly valves are characterized by their simple construction,
lightness in weight, and compact design. Their face-to-face dimension is often extremely small, making the
pressure drop across a butterfly valve much smaller than globe valves (see below). Materials used for the valving
element and sealing can limit their applications at higher temperatures or with certain types of fluids. Butterfly
valves are often used on applications for water and air, and in applications with large pipe diameters.

• The globe valve is suitable for use on a wide variety of applications, from flow rate control to open/close
operation. In this type of valve, flow rate control is determined not by the size of the opening in the valve seat,
but rather by the lift of the valve plug (the distance the valve plug is from the valve seat). One feature of globe
valves is that even if used in the partially open position, there is less risk of damage to the valve seat or valve plug
by the fluid than with other types of manual valves. Among the various configurations available, needle type
globe valves are particularly well suited for flow rate control.

• The construction of a gate valve is similar to that of a floodgate: flow is controlled by raising or lowering the
valving element, which is generally available in three different types: solid (plain), flexible, and split. The latter
two types help prevent the valving element and body from being deformed due to various operating conditions.
Like ball valves, gate valves are not usually used to regulate flow. One of the reasons for this is because the
valving element can be damaged when in the partially open position. Similarly, they also limit the pressure drop
across the valve when fully open. However, setting the valve to the fully open or closed position requires the
handle to be turned many times, which generally makes these valves have the longest operating times among
those valve types mentioned here.

• Ball valves offer very good shut-off capabilities. A simple quarter-turn (90°) completely opens or closes the valve.
This characteristic minimizes valve operation time and decreases the likelihood of leakage due to wear from the
gland seal.

JOINING OF PIPES: WELDING IN ENDS, SCREWING, FLENGED, THREADING, CAULKING JOINT, SHOULDERING (use non-
corrosive flux or soldering paste)

HUBS: Single Hub - recommended when the length of a pipe needed is more than 150 cm long wherein cutting is not
necessary. Double Hub - preferred when a piece of pipe needed is shorter than 150 cm long. When the pipe is cut,
both ends has hub to serve as joint connector. Hub less Pipe - used in lieu of the single hub to do away with caulking
of joints. it is cheaper and easily connected using a neoprene rubber sleeves.

Classification of Valves: The following are some of the commonly used valve classifications, based on mechanical
motion:

• Linear Motion Valves. The valves in which the closure member, as in gate, globe, diaphragm, pinch moves in a
straight line to allow, stop, or throttle the flow. Gate and globe valve, diaphragm and pinched.

• Rotary Motion Valves. When the valve-closure member travels along an angular or circular path, as in butterfly,
ball, plug valves.

• Quarter Turn Valves. Some rotary motion valves require approximately a quarter turn, 0 through 90°, motion of
the stem to go to fully open from a fully closed position or vice versa.

Valve Selection 1. Pressure. 2. Temperature. 3. Type of fluid: Liquid, Gas, i.e., steam or air, Dirty or abrasive (erosive),
Corrosive. 4. Flow Considerations: On-off or throttling. Is the valve needed to prevent backflow, Concern for pressure
drop, and Velocity. 5. Operating conditions: Frequency of operation, Accessibility, Overall space/size available, Manual
or automated control, Need for bubble-tight shut-off, Concerns about body joint leaks, Fire safe design, Speed of
closure.

UNIT 4
MATERIALS USED FOR FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION

Cane furniture is basically furniture that comes from bamboo or wicker. The cane furniture provides a more comfortable
environment than ordinary wood, or plastic furniture sets. It provides the user with a sense of travel without actually
leaving the homestead. Cane furniture is built by weaving bamboo straws into tight weaves. The weaves are usually in the
frame of furniture..

This style of furniture is especially comfortable since is does not heat up as quickly as a wood seat or plastic seat. The cane
furniture is also very weather resistant because bamboo and wicker are very strong. Accordingly, most cane furniture is
placed on porches or on patios, where the consumer of cane furniture is able to enjoy the benefits of sitting outside while
relaxing comfortably.

Cane furniture is very comfortable, affordable and beautiful. The cane furniture is practical as well since the cane is very
strong; it can withstand lots of pressure.

 The canes of bamboo consists of nodes, segments and diaphragms.

 At first the canes appear as small buds at the nodes of the rootstock.

 From that point the bamboo shoot will develop into a cane at enormous speed. Within a year at the latest it will
reach its full size and the sheath leaves dropped completely.

Timber is a unique and natural material and adds an extra dimension to any home, be it old or new. The beauty and
warmth of natural timber tones can increase the visual appeal and also add value to your home.

 The wood which is used for making furniture should be of high quality and properly processed.

 The timber should have all the relevant qualities and should be free from diseases and defects like rots, fractures,
cracks, twisted fibres etc.

Usefulness of bamboo as construction material. The strength of bamboo culms, their straightness, Lightness combined
with hardeners, Range and size of hollowness

Generally metals used in furniture are: Wrought iron, Stainless steel, Aluminium, Copper and bronze..

The most popular type of cushion filler today is polyurethane foam. Also known as “Polyfoam

 Drapery is a general word referring to cloths or textiles.

 It may refer to cloth used for decorative purposes – such as around windows – or to the trade of retailing cloth,
originally mostly for clothing, formerly conducted by drapers

 Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing,
and fabric or leather covers.

 Open-cell-structured foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network.
Foam rubber is a type of open-cell foam.

 Closed-cell foams do not have interconnected pores. Eg: Soap foams.

 Syntactic foam, special class of closed-cell foams, which contains hollow particles embedded in a matrix material.

 Upholstery foam is any foam used as padding in fabric-covered, or upholstered, furniture. Polyurethane foam is
created through a chemical reaction of urethane and water.

 Upholstery foams have density ratings which are directly related to the ratio of urethane chemicals and water
used to manufacture the foam. The more urethane it has relative to water, the denser the foam will be. In
furniture, higher density foams will last longer because they will retain their shape longer over time.

FOAMS ARE LIGHT IN WEIGHT. For open-foams, if filled with air, a relatively good insulator. Less dense than closed foams.
Cost effective. Flexible. For closed-foams higher compressive strength due to their structures. Denser. Low moisture
absorption Expensive to produce. Rigid. For Syntactic foam. High strength-to-weight ratio. Shape memory.
FOAMS MERIT:

 The low density of these foams made them excellent as thermal insulators and flotation devices

 Their lightness and compressibility make them ideal as packing materials and stuffings. They are very good
insulators

 The spheres can be made from several materials, including glass, ceramic, and polymers.

 Syntactic foam has the ability to be reshaped repeatedly when heated and cooled at particular temp.

SYNTACTIC FOAMS DEMERIT:

 Polyurethane foam absorbs and stores body heat. Trying to sleep on top of a slab of foam during warm summers
can make for a hot and uncomfortable night. They also absorbs body odour.

 Memory foam also may eventually lose its ability to spring back to its original shape, causing depressed areas in
the mattress.

 Odours: A mattress constructed of polyurethane layers can give off chemical odors and fumes. This is especially
found in some memory foam mattresses.

 Durability: Cheaper polyurethane mattresses can gradually disintegrate and lose their quality of support as they
age.

 Inexpensive models without memory foam may be light and insubstantial with no edge support, skittering
around as pressure is put on one spot.

CLOSED FOAM DEMERIT: if you set it on fire and breathe its fumes, you may die. It is a concern for Individuals who are
particularly sensitive to chemicals and impurities. Closed foams are more expensive.

OPEN FOAM DEMERIT: Less durable. After long usage loses its shape. It catches dust and dirt easily. No water resistance. It
catches fire easily

FOR CLOSED FOAM: Floatation devices: boats, lifesaving jackets. Sound Insulation: In theatres, auditorium. Thermal
insulation: In homes

FOR OPEN

 In homes: carpet underlay, bedding, and home furniture. Used in furniture, packaging and transportation.

 In transportation it used in seating cushions for the airlines, trains and bicycles and cars.

 It is also used in a wide range of other applications for cars such as sound insulation and vibration dampening.

 Other applications include clothing, toys, electronics and other applications for protection or cushioning issues.

IN STONE FLOORING, STONES LIKE MARBLE, GRANITE ETC. ARE USED IN TILE FORM AS WELL AS CHIP FORMS

 GRANITE FLOORING: THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF GRANITES WHICH ARE USED IN THE FLOORING. THEY ARE
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR GRAIN STRUCTURE. COST VERIES WITH THE COLOR AND GRAINS. MOST OF
THEM ARE FOUND IN THE STATES OF ANDRA PRADESH, RAJASTHAN, and TAML NADU etc.

 MARBLE FLOORING ITALIAN MARBLE TILE APPEARS LIKE MARBLE. THESE TILES ARE NOT COMMONLY USED AS
THESE ARE VERY COSTLY .THESE ARE USED AT PLACES WHERE HIGH AESTHETIC FLOORING IS REQUIRED.
LAYING IS SAME AS THAT OF GRANITE EXCEPT THE POLISHING. GOOD APPEARANCE. DURABLE. EASY TO CLEAN.
VERY EXPENSIVE. IT REQUIRES SKILLED LABOURERS.
  CHIPS FLOORING OR TERRAZO FLOORING: THIS TYPE OF FLOORING IS USED IN PLACES WHERE AN AESTHETICAL
FLOORING IS REQUIRED AT LOW COST. HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF COLORS. ECONOMICAL, DURABLE AND
REPAIRABLE, LITTLE PREPARATION, ENDLESS CHOICE OF COLORS.

 MOSAIC TILES FLOORING: MOSAIC TILES ARE PRECAST CONCRETE TILES WITH MARBLE CHIPS AT TOP SURFACE.
DURABLE. LARGE VARIETY OF COLORS AVAILABLE. IT IS ADVISABLE NOT TO ADOPT MOSAIC TILES FLOORING FOR
HEAVY LOADS

CONCRETE FLOORING

1. These are pre-cast concrete tiles usually available in two different types, mainly based on their application.

2. INTERLOCKING PAVERS These tiles are pre-cast concrete tiles mainly used for the edges in the gardening as
pavements, pathways, footpaths, temporary roadways and flooring for temporary bridges.

3. CONCRETE DESIGNER Tiles or White Cement concrete tiles. This is the diversified or modified product of
pavement tiles with an additional property of water proof. These tiles has smooth surfaces and can be used in
the entrance, lounge etc. This tiles are manufactured as that of rough concrete tiles but in the ratio of the
mixture is 1:1:2 for white cement, sand and concrete. The surface of the tile is made smooth by the brushing of
the white cement & some amount of red oxide & plasticizes so as to make the tile water proof.

ADVANTAGE OF CONCRETE:

 It can bear load up to 50 metric tons easily and without any damage to either pavers or place. Economical,
Available at cheaper rates.

 Available at cheaper costs for the flooring at entrance and lounges as that of stone & mosaic marbles.

 It is a water proof tile and hence maintenance is negligible. These can also be used for Temporary construction.

 Various textures and finishes on the tiles are available in the market. This pavers can be reuse and are having
tremendous strength.

DEMERITS: These tiles cannot be used in the interiors because of its low aesthetical look or appearance. These tiles are not
water proof. No shining appearance on the smooth surface is been observed and hence rarely used in interiors

ENVIRONMENT PAVING TILE: These tiles are designed to reduce the soil erosion or displacement of bed soil from paving
path. Used for long length large area pavings. High skilled workers are required for construction AND laying.

CERAMIC TILES

 Ceramic tiles are clay products used in building industries.

 Raw materials used in the manufacture of tiles are clay, coloring agents & glazing materials. If hit, it makes a
sound of breaking.

 These are used in flooring, roofing & drains etc. As these materials thinner than bricks they are also used for
decoration.

 Glassy or shiny look & very delicate. Many colors and textures available. They don’t need to be polished.

VITRIFIED TILES

 Vitrified tiles possess much better mechanical strength, scratch resistance, resistance to acids, alkalis and
chemicals, resistance to staining. It has very low porosity (and water absorption) making it stain-resistant and
strong.
  Vitrified tiles are made by mixing silica and clay to form a non-porous tile with glassy texture. The main categories
of Vitrified tiles would be Vitrified porcelain tiles, Vitrified ceramic tiles, marbonite vitrified tiles and marble
vitrified tiles.

PVC FLOORING: DURABLE, INEXPENSIVE, SOFT & NONSLIP, WATERPROOF, QUICK & EASY TO INSTALL, THEY ARE NOT FIRE
RESISTANT. SHOULD BE HANDLED WITH CARE WHEN SHARP EDGED OBJECTS ARE USED AS THEY GET TEAR.

RUBBER FLOORING

 Rubber flooring consists of sheets, tiles of rubber in variety of patterns and colour with thickness varying from
3mm to 10mm.

 The sheets and tiles are manufactured by mixing pure rubber with filler such as cotton fiber, granulated cork,
asbestos fiber.

 Shock absorber, Bad conductor of heat, Plastic in nature, Gives good appearance, Affected by oil and grease

 Can be laid over any smooth and dry surface, Noiseless , sanitary, warm and soft, Easy to maintain, Expensive

BRICK FLOORING

• It’s commonly provided in warehouses, stores and godowns or in place where heavy articles are stored.

• It may be done with brick laid flat or on edge arranged in herring bone fashion or set at right angle to the walls. It
is durable and sufficiently hard. It is cheaper than cement concrete, wooden or mosaic flooring. Easily repairable.
Beautiful, rustic textures.

• Rough texture, fire-proof. Resists wear and tear anti-slip surface. We can use color on it. It is absorbent. Difficult
to clean and install

TIMBER FLOORING Wood as a floor finish is prepared as either strip flooring or as wood blocks. They are available in large
size. They are not easily effected by moisture.

BAMBOO FLOORING

 Bamboo flooring has 3 grains, Horizontal, Vertical and Strand. Horizontal also called Plain Pressed or Flat Pressed.
Vertical also called Side Pressed. Beautiful, Strong, Healthy, Efficient, Eco-friendly, High production, Renewable
Expensive & Limitation in colors.

 It cannot be installed in kitchens, bathroom and under grade environment