Variable Loads

and Load Graphs

Power Plant Engineering
VARIABLE LOAD ON THE STATION
Load on a power station that varies from
time to time due to uncertain demands of the
consumers

EFFECTS OF VARIABLE LOAD

❑ Need of additional equipment
❑ Increase in production cost
❑ Need of additional equipment
Supply varies with demand, demand of
power plant increases, supply of raw materials
increases.

❑ Increase in production cost

The use of a number of generating units
increases the initial cost per KW of the plant
capacity as well as floor area required.
When planning a power plant, the two
basic parameters to be decided are:
1. Total power output to be installed (kW)
2. Size of the generating units
Determining factors of Power Plant
Installed Capacity
1. First demand (maximum) estimated
2. Growth of demand anticipated
3. Reserve capacity required
Size of generating units will depend on:

1. Daily variation of load

2. Total capacity of units connected to the grid
3. Minimum start-up and shut-down periods of the units
4. Maintenance program planned
5. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit
6. Price and space demand per kW vs. size of unit
LOAD CURVES
Curve showing the variation of load on the power station with
respect to time

▪ DAILY LOAD CURVE

Graph showing the variations of load wrt time during the day
▪ MONTHLY LOAD CURVE
Graph showing the variations, average values of power over a
month at different times of the day.
-used to fix rates of energy
▪ YEARLY LOAD CURVE
Considering monthly load curves of a particular year.
-used to determine the annual load factor
Daily Load Curve
Load Curves
IMPORTANCE OF DAILY LOAD CURVE
i. Shows the variations of load on the power station during different hours of the
day.
ii. Its area gives the number of units generated in the day.
Units generated/day = (Area in kWh) under daily load curve
iii. Highest point represents the maximum demand on the station on that day.
iv. The area under the daily load curve divided the total number of hours gives the
average load on the station in the day.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
Average load =
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

v. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which
it is contained gives the load factor.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
Load Factor = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤/𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

v. Helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.

vi. Helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station
TERMS AND FACTORS
1) CONNECTED LOAD
Sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to supply system.
2) MAXIMUM DEMAND
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
3) DEMAND FACTOR
Ratio of maximum demand to its connected load
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
4) AVERAGE LOAD/AVERAGE DEMAND
Average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day/month/year)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
TERMS AND FACTORS
5) LOAD FACTOR
Ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑘𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 8760
6) DIVERSITY FACTOR
Ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power
station; measured time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of consumers
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (Reciprocal)
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

7) PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR/PLANT FACTOR/CAPACITY FACTOR

Ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑘𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∗ 8760 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
TERMS AND FACTORS
8) PLANT USE FACTOR
Ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟 𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟(𝑔𝑒𝑛)
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒) (𝑘𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

9) PLANT CAPACITY
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
10) RESERVE CAPACITY
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
11) NAMEPLATE OR CAPACITY RATING

Ability to carry load under condition specified by the manufacturer

12) CAPABILITY RATING

Maximum output of equipment obtained by test under specific operating condition

TERMS AND FACTORS
13) UTILIZATION FACTOR
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
14) PLANT RATIO
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
15) OPERATING FACTOR
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
16) OPERATING PLANT FACTOR
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
17) OPERATING LOAD FACTOR
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
30∗24
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝐷1+𝑀𝐷2+ …+𝑀𝐷30
30

18) RESERVE FACTOR

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
UNITS GENERATED per ANNUM (kWh)

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load Factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Average load = Maximum Demand ∗ Load Factor
Units Generated per Annum = Average Load kW ∗ Hours in a year
Units Generated per Annum = Maximum Demand kW ∗ L. F. ∗ 8760
LOAD DURATION CURVE
When the load elements of a load curve are
arranged in the order of descending magnitudes.
LOAD DURATION CURVE
i. It readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has
prevailed.
ii. The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the
corresponding load curve. Area under daily load duration curve (kWh)
will give the units generated on that day.
iii. It can be extended to include any period of time.
Annual Load Duration Curve, abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours,
the variation and distribution of demand for an entire year can be
summarized in one curve.
SELECTION OF UNITS
 The number and sizes of the units should be so selected that they
approximately fit the annual load curve of the station.
 The units should be preferably of different capacities to meet the load
requirements. Although use of identical units ensures saving in cost,
they often do not meet the load requirement
 The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the
maximum demand to meet the future load requirements.
 There should be a spare generating unit so that repairs and
overhauling of the working units can be carried out.
 The tendency to select a large number of units of smaller capacity in
order to fit the load curve very accurately should be avoided. It is
because the investment cost per KW of capacity increases as the size
of the units decreases.