Geography

CHAPTER 1
GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 1 —
CLIMATE
TROPICAL
tropical moist climates: Tropical moist climates are characterized by heavy rainfall in all
months. Higher regional ground temperatures and humidity are the source for the daily formation
of large cumulus clouds. Maritime regions that are subject to tropical air experience slightly greater
rainfall averages and temperatures.
Average Annual Rainfall: 100 in. (250 cm)

Average Temperature: 80° (27°C)
Humidity: High
Example: Amazon and Congo Basin
wet-dry tropical climates (savanna): \səˈvanə\ from Taino zabana: Seasonal changes create
wet and dry tropical air masses, creating extremes of both. Heavy and constant winds predominate
in dry regions. The temperatures do not vary far from the average, but are generally cooler in the
dry periods.
Average Annual Rainfall: 42 in. (106 cm)

Humidity: Low
Example: India, West Africa, Northern Australia
TEMPERATE
moist continental climate (deciduous forest): \di-ˈsi-jə-wəs, -jü-əs\ Latin deciduous:An
area where polar and tropical masses collide, allowing for very large seasonal differences in
temperature and rainfall. Summers are generally hot, and winters are very cold; both seasons
have heavy precipitation.
Average Annual Rainfall: 32 in. (81 cm.)

Humidity: Medium
Example: Southern Canada, Japan, Southern and Central Europe
highland climate (alpine): \ˈal-ˌpīn also -pən\ from Latin Alpinus: These regions are generally very cold
or at least in the cooler temperature ranges. The higher the elevation, the colder the highland
becomes, being closely related to the regional biome they are in, whether wet or dry.

Average Temperature: -2° to 50° (-18°C to 10°C)
Humidity: Varies
Examples: Rocky Mountains, Himalayas, Mount Fuji
ARCTIC
boreal forest climate (taiga): \tīˈgä, -ˈgȧ, -ˈtīgə\ of Turkic origin: This climate has the largest temperature
variance of any climatic zone. Cold polar air masses dominate most of the year, with light
precipitation; summers are short, cool, and enjoy more annual rainfall.

Humidity: High
Example: Central and Western Alaska, Yukon, Siberia
12 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

GEOGRAPHY
tundra climate (tundra): \ˈtən-drə also ˈtu̇ n-\ of Finno-Ugric origin: Tundra exists in arctic
coastal regions. Polar air predominates almost all year long, making winters long and cold.
Short summers last only a few weeks. Oceanic winds maintain some semblance of temperature
warmth.

Average Temperature: -10° to 41° (-22°C to 6°C)
Humidity: Low
Example: Arctic North America, Northern Siberia
ARID
dry tropical climate (desert): Low-latitude deserts, which are generally close to the equator.
They stand between windy regions and sub-tropical areas. Light winds move moisture from the
area. These downward-flowing winds push air off the desert, causing very dry heat.

Humidity: Low
Example: Southwestern United States
SEMI-ARID
dry mid-latitude climates (steppe): \ˈstep\ from Old Russian: Grasslands dominate these
semi-arid areas between tropical and high-humid zones. These regions lie deep inside continents,
usually blocked from oceans by mountain ranges. Winters are very cold, as these same mountains
trap polar air in the area.

Humidity: Medium
Example: Great Plains, Ukraine
mediterranean climate (chaparral): \¦sha-pə-¦ral, -¦rel\ Spanish: Seasonal differences are

exasperated by continued sub-tropical highs and the equatorial, coastal location which result in
long, dry summers and cold, wet winters.

Humidity: Medium
Example: Mediterranean
dry mid-latitude climates (grasslands): Mountain ranges block oceanic air, allowing polar
air to move in and remain over the lowlands for long periods. This trapped moisture creates large
amounts of precipitation (frozen) in the winter months, but trends toward being dry during the
summer months.

Humidity: Medium
Example: Western North America
THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 13

CHAPTER 1 —
BIOMES
Each biome is a region or area with similar ecology, topography, and soil conditions, along with
having the same plant and animal species. These biomes exist in certain climates. A world can
have any number of biomes, and may have multiple numbers of the same biome. Read the entries
and decide which biome best fits your gaming needs and your game’s setting.
AQUATIC
lake: Lakes are large bodies of water found inland, in mountainous regions, rift zones, and in
recently glaciated areas; one or more rivers feed them. Some lakes have a natural outflow, while
others lose water only to evaporation.
river delta: This is a landform resulting from the deposition of soils from rivers as they empty
into the ocean. These are generally large, fan-shaped, level areas of significant sediment buildup
and many small rivers and channels carrying the river water out to the ocean. Deltas are often
subject to seasonal flooding.
freshwater: These biomes refer to streams, ponds, bogs, and rivers fed by underground aquifers,
rainwater, or snowmelt/ice melt. There are generally two types of freshwater systems: flowing and
stagnant.
wetlands: These are areas in which the soil is saturated seasonally or year-round, such as
marshes, bogs, and swamps. One of the most biologically diverse zones on the earth’s surface,
they support a wide variety of both plant and animal life.
endorheic basins: \¦endə¦rēik\: These basins are deep rifts accumulating water from streamsor
rivers and have no visible runoff; the water usually drains in underwater channels. These basins are
common in all climates; the types and amount of fauna and flora are dependent upon where they
lie in the world setting.
TERRESTRIAL
tropical and sub-tropical broadleaf forest: Heavy rainfall throughout the year typifies this
biome. Lowland tropical regions can have as many as three canopies and remain green through-
out the year. The forest floor is fairly dense, with vegetation in shallow soils. De- ciduous
tropical forests have several canopies and a drier winter during which some treesdrop all or
some of their leaves. Mountain tropical forests exist in higher elevations and usually have one
canopy. This type of biome includes flooded forests in freshwater swampy areas. The average
yearly temperature is fairly high in this region, as well, and the forests are generally located
near an equatorial region. These forests are highly diverse in their plant and animal life.
tropical and sub-tropical dry broadleaf forest: These forests are similar to tropical
and subtropical forests, and may even have greater amounts of rainfall, but have a long dry season
during which all or many of the trees drop their leaves. This allows a very thick undergrowth
development. The temperature remains fairly high in these regions. Evergreen treescan do
well in well-watered portions of the forest. These forests tend to support a larger range of
mammalian species than do rainforests, but overall, they have a narrower range of both plant
and animal species. These forests tend to border tropical forests.
tropical and sub-tropical coniferous forest: This forest type receives lower rainfall than
the above forests, and is generally located in higher elevations, but resides within the tropical
temperature zone. Pine and oaks dominate the tropical and sub-tropical coniferous forest. The low
rainfall does not support a large plant community as other tropical forestsdue to the low
rainfall and poorly-developed plant communities on the ground. It is home to many unique
animals which have adapted to local conditions. These forests have dry and wet seasons.

GEOGRAPHY
temperate broadleaf and mixed forests: These forests thrive in humid areas with an
average temperature of 41-59°F (5-15°C) and 25-60 in. (64-152 cm.) of rain a year. In many of
the forests, there is a dry and wet season, but this is not necessary to the forest. These forests
have a vast altitude range, as well. The forest has four canopies with mature trees taking the
uppermost layer; immature trees, shrubs, and the ground cover comprise the remaining levels.
Oaks, beeches, maples, spruces, and firs dominate this forest. These forests also support a wide
variety of animal life.
temperate coniferous forests: These forests have high rainfall and moderate to low annual
temperature with a dry and wet season. These are rare forests that support massive trees, such as
redwoods and sequoias, and have an understory of mosses and ferns. These forests also support
a wide range of animal life and unique plant life.
taiga: \tīˈgä\ Russian taĭga, of Turkic origin; akin to Teleut taiga rocky, mountainous terrain, Turkish daǧ
mountain: This is a harsh environment characterized by a wide summer to winter temperature variation
averaging 75°F (24°C) and low precipitation with a dry and wet season. Much of the precipitation
occurs as snowfall. Winter lasts 5-6 months out of the year, and the summers are short, humid,
and hot, about 85°F (29°C) at its highest. The forests are densely spaced except in the northern
portions where the trees are more spread out, and consist primarily of larch, spruce, fir, and pine
trees with moss and lichen undergrowth on the ground. The thin soils make for both shallow-
rooting and smaller trees. Some deciduous trees also survive in these harsh conditions, such as
willow, aspen, and birch. These forests do not support a wide variety of animal and plantlife. They
contain a large number of mammalian species, though. Many of the biome’s larger car-nivores
hibernate because food supplies are not plentiful during winter.
tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands: Semi-arid to semi-

humid regions with moderate to high-average temperatures and 20-60 inches (51-152 centimeters)
of rainfall a year typify these biomes. Grasses with scattered trees or small shrubs dominate the
areas. These zones can be fairly widespread and cover vast areas. Rainy seasons can be as short
as a few weeks, and in other cases, have low rainfalls year-round. The regions support a small
range of flora and fauna (though widely divergent from region to region), and they are home to
large herds of herbivores.
temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands: These areas lie further from the
equatorial regions than do the tropical and subtropical zones, and they experience freezing weather
during winter and high temperatures during summer. Low grasses and shrubs (steppes) to high
grasses and shrubs (prairies) dominate these regions. The soils are generally fairly rich, and while
they do support trees, the tree growth is not so thick as to form a canopy. These regions are home
to large species of grazing animals. They are also some of the most agriculturally productive
biomes.
flooded grasslands and savannas: These grasslands flood seasonally. They have rich
soils, are very wet, and are generally found closer to the world’s tropical regions. They support
a wide variety of grasses, shrubs, and herbaceous plants but fewer trees than other grasslands.
They are home to a variety of waterfowl, crocodiles, amphibians, and other smaller animals.
montane grasslands and shrublands: \(ˈ)män¦tān\ Latin montanus: This zone refers to
high-altitude grasslands and shrublands located above the tree line. The regions are home to many
unique and divergent plant and animal species. The montane grasslands and shrublands are similar
to islands in flora and fauna development, as each tends to develop without influence from other
biomes. These areas are humid with low annual temperatures, lengthy winters, and cool summers.
tundra: \ˈtən-drə\ Russian, of Finno-Ugric origin; akin to Finnish tunturi arctic hill, Sami tundar hill:
This biome experiences low annual temperatures, and has short growing seasons with soils which
remain frozen all year round or nearly so. The regions are stark and barren, supporting littletree
growth. Sedges, mosses, lichen, shrubs, and some grasses grow here. The region is usuallyvery
windy and arid. However, during the summer melt, the soils become soggy and moist, as thewater
contained in them melts. Few animal species thrive in this region.

CHAPTER 1 —
mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub: This is a temperate zone typified by hot,
dry summers and mild, rainy winters. These regions contain a vast array of subzones and mosaic
ecosystems, from thick forests to open savanna/shrubland, experiencing great variation in short
amounts of space. Both coniferous and deciduous forests thrive in this zone. Fires also regularly
occur in this biome. The biome supports a wide variety of plant and animal life, with many species
being specific to one area.
oceanic islands: These islands can appear anywhere there is activity to produce them, and the
climate where the islands reside determines their flora and fauna. There is usually an abundance
of bird life, wild fishes, migratory marine mammals, and reptiles.
deserts and xeric shrubland: \ˈsirik, ˈzēr-\: These are arid zones receiving fewer than 10 inches
(25 centimeters) of rainfall a year. The soils are rocky and poor, and they do not support awide
variety of plant or animal life; many of the animals residing in this biome are nocturnal. These
regions include those areas of vast sand dunes to sparse grasslands.
mangrove: \ˈmaŋˌgrōv, -anˌ-\ from Portuguese mangue+ English grove: These are coastal regions with
shrubs and trees growing in flooded, salty swamps and sandy soils. The plants tend to grow in
densely packed groves with extensive root systems. There is a wide variety of plant and animal
species found in the areas. They typically thrive in tropical and subtropical areas, though they can
exist in warmer temperate zones.
TERRAIN
Every biome consists of a vast array of terrain, the features of the land, including bodies of water.
There are many types of terrain features that describe particular aspects of an area.
LOWLANDS
Lowlands exist at many different elevations. Some run the length of coasts, or stand in stark contrast
to hills and mountains. Some lie nestled between two mountain ranges, or may even exist on the
slopes of ridges. Lowlands range from small to large.
active layer: \ˈak-tiv\\ˈlāə(r), ˈle(ə)r, ˈleə\ from Latin āctīvus, Middle English layer: The layer of permafrost that
thaw during Spring or Summer.
downs: \ˈdau̇ nz\ Middle English doun hill: This is a grassy, treeless upland that usually experiences
heavier rainfall than normal.
grassland: An area in which various grasses predominate, such as a prairie.
march: \ˈmärch\ Middle English marche: A march is an area of indistinct landform usually bordering two
distinct landforms, such as the area between a marsh and savannah. The terrain here is mixed.
bottomland: These low-lying regions are always located near riverways, and are often wet
areas with a high-water table.
bush: \ˈbu̇ sh\ Middle English bush, busk, bosk: An area of densely packed young trees and
underbrush found in savannahs, usually bordering or near forests.
pampas: \ˈpam-pəz, ˈpäm-, -pəs\: American Spanish, from Quechua & Aymara, plain: These
vast grassy plains are often arid with few trees and low growth plant life.
prairie: \ˈprer-ē\ French, from Old French praerie: This generally refers to lush grasslands with deep-
rooted grass, which sometimes extends several feet into the soil. A prairie can be very large or
small depending on its location.

GEOGRAPHY
savannah: A vast, tropical or subtropical, treeless grassland.
scrub: Stunted vegetation and thickets characterize this area. They are often associated with
arid savannahs.
steppe: \ˈstep\ Russian step’, from Old Russian, lowland: A vast region of low grasses broken
up by occasional thickets of brush or trees.
tundra: \ˈtən-drə\ Russian, of Finno-Ugric origin; akin to Finnish tunturi arctic hill, Sami tundarhill:
An area of permanently frozen subsoils that allow little vegetation to grow. Tundras are usually harsh
climates. Grasses that find habitation in a tundra are thick-bladed, stout grasses.
veldt: \ˈvelt, in S. Africa ˈfe-\from Middle Dutch velt, veld: An elevated and often arid upland grass area.
MOUNTAINS & HILLS

Mountains range from young, active volcanic ranges and those being pushed by the movement of
tectonic plates to the very old, slowly eroding mountains whose peaks are only a few thousandfeet
above sea level. But whatever the age of the mountain or mountain ranges, they share many
common features.
berm: \ˈbərm\ from Dutch berm: A level space or raised area separating two areas. It also refers to
an earth or sod wall constructed for defense. Berms occur naturally or are constructed to slow
erosion or run off. A berm may also refer to a portion of earth raised against the side of a house
to protect the foundation.
crag: \ˈkrag\ of Celtic origin: Rugged cliff or rock face projected out from surroundings. Crags are
often easy areas to climb, as they generally have many usable footholds.
cliff: A long, steep shelf of rock. Cliffs range from very smooth with almost no handholds to the
very rugged and easily climbed.
continental divide: Also, known as the great divide, it is the highest points through the americas
that separate the watershed, moving water either west of the rockies or north and east.
dome mountain: A rounded mountainous extrusion of igneous rock. The dome is very noticeable,
as much of the terrain around it suffers from erosion, standing at a lower elevation.
escarpment: \ə̇ ˈskärpmənt, eˈ-\ French escarpement: A length of steep, rocky cliff or slope. Tectonic
shifts in the crust cause escarpments. These areas often denote borders between two types of
areas in so far as flora and fauna are concerned.
foothill: A foothill represents small, low hills that lie at the base of large hills or sometimes
mountains. Rounder tops and less difficult terrain characterize foothills.
knob: A conspicuously rounded hill, usually protruding from the surrounding area with little tree
growth on it.
knoll: \ˈnōl\ from Old English cnoll: A small knob.
hill: A natural elevation in the earth, usually smaller than a mountain.
horn: \ˈhȯrn\ akin to Old High German & Old Norse horn: a land formation resembling a horn.
ice sheet: an area of ice covering glacial areas, usually thick and large.
mesa: \ˈmāsə sometimes -āzə\ Spanish: A formation in mountainous regions dominated by a broad,
flat plane, usually smaller than a plateau. It has steep cliffs on at least one side.
mount: A single mountain or hill distinct from its surrounding hills or mountains.

CHAPTER 1 —
mountain: An elevated region caused by natural forces, usually tectonic or volcanic activity. A
mountain is characterized by a narrow summit.
ridge: A long, narrow elevated area in mountains or hills that dominates regions between other
terrains.
plateau: \(ˈ)pla-¦tō sometimes plə-ˈtō\ from Middle French: A large area of land resting on the slopes
of a mountain. A plateau is broad and flat, affording plenty of purchase for a wide variety of flora
and attracting all manner of fauna.
outcrop: A rocky feature thrusting out or visible within surrounding non-rocky areas.
peak: The pinnacle of a mountain.
snowline: elevation where snow remains all year.
tor: \ˈtȯ(ə)r\ from Old English torr: An uplift of land in the mountains or hills that stands out from
the surrounding area.
DEPRESSION
A depression is a low point in the ground surrounded on all sides by the land around it. These
sinkholes occur in every clime and biome and within any terrain. Depressions can occur in ice
sheets, prairies, mountainsides, underwater, etc.
arroyo: \ə-ˈrȯi-(ˌ)ō, -ə\ Spanish arroyo: A large gully created by coursing water, usually caused by flash
flooding in deserts or environments experiencing sudden downpours. An arroyo is usually a fairly
shallow gully.
canyon: A cleft in the ground with very steep sides. Canyons are the result of tectonic shifts or
water runoff in soft-rock areas. They can exist in almost any terrain, though are predominantly
restricted to mountains and hills.
basin: A concave area in the earth caused by weak or shallow ground surface usually as the
result of water runoff. The area around the basin is higher than the basin’s lowest point.
blind valley: These valleys are narrow, deep and usually flat-bottomed that end abruptly. They
are formed in areas where a layer of permeable rock lies above an impermeable one and a stream
or river erodes the permeable rock
blowout: \ˈblō-ˌau̇ t\ a valley or depression blown out by the wind in areas of shifting sand oroflight
cultivated soil.
caldera: \kal-ˈder-ə, kȯl-, -ˈdir-ə\ Spanish: A depression made by volcanic activity. A caldera is formed when
a volcano’s magma chamber is emptied either through effusion of the magma chamber from
alternate channels and collapse or through eruption. The depression may be associated with one
or multiple volcanoes and range in size. Weather conditions may transform calderas into lakes
or atolls.
cirque: \ˈsərk\ from Latin circus: A bowl or amphitheatre-shaped, three-sided hollow or valley in the
side of a mountain formed through glaciation. They are the source of a glacier and open on the
downhill side where the glacier flowed away from the cirque. They are subject to other weathering
and serve as the source of many streams.
chasm: \ˈka-zəm\ from Greek: A deep cut in the ground caused by water erosion or tectonic
activity. The chasm is different from other depressions by the steep nature of its sides. Chasms
can exist in most terrain.
dale: A dale is another word for valley. It is usually associated with low valley sides, lush growth,
and plenty of water.

GEOGRAPHY
dry wash: Any watercourse that is dry. It may be dry due to seasonal climate changes, or
permanently dry due to changes in the landscape or precipitation. Dry washes often exist in arroyos,
and if seasonal, they can suffer from sudden flash floods.
gap: A low area in a hill, ridge, or mountain. A gap often serves as a pass for travelers.
glen: These secluded valleys lie in the deep mountains, and are usually difficult to access.
gorge: \ˈgȯrj\ from Late Latin gurga: A narrow passage cut into a mountain or cliff characterized by
very steep cliff sides. A swift-running stream that may or may not run year-round cuts the gorgeas
it travels across the terrain’s surface, eroding it away.
hanging valley: a valley whose lower end is notably higher than the level of the valley or the
shore to which it leads.
hollow: \ˈhä-(ˌ)lō\ These small valleys lie in between large mountains, and they are dominated by
ready water and one more stands of trees, either groves or small wooded areas.
kettle: \ˈke-təl\ Middle English ketel: a steep-sided hollow without surface drainage especially in
a deposit of glacial drift and often containing a lake or swamp.
maar: \ˈmär\ German: a volcanic crater that is produced by explosion in an area of low relief, is
generally more or less circular, and often contains a lake, pond, or marsh.
ravine: \rə-ˈvēn\ French, mountain torrent, ravine, from Old French, rapine: a long, deep hollow in
the earth’s surface similar to a gorge, and it is likewise usually cut by a stream.
rift, valley: An area of rocky surface that splits, causing a fissure. This rift reveals a natural
break in the stone, a weak spot that usually grows larger with time and erosion.
sinkhole: Middle English sinke holl, from sinke sink + holl hole: a hollow place or depression
where drainage or waste collects or is deposited.
trench: \ˈtrench\ Middle English trenche: a long narrow ditch in the earth.
vale: \ˈvāl\ Middle English, from Old French val: A wooded valley crossed by some course of running
water where soil erosion is slow due to the land’s contours. A vale attracts a large variety of fauna
and flora, the latter of which grows vigorously in the area’s rich soil.
valley: A large area of lowland lying between larger more prominent land features, such as hills,
mountains, ridges, plateaus, etc. The valley, like the vale, is home to a wide variety of fauna and
flora; the flora tends to thrive as the area’s water runoff is not too severe, allowing for soil growth.
valley train: Compound: a deposit of sand and gravel along the floor of a valley.
yardang: \ˈyärˌdäŋ\ Turkish, ablative of yar steep bank, precipice: steep, sharp ridge caused by
wind erosion.
FORESTS
There are many types of forested areas, from small hardwood copses to continent-wide boreal
forests and vast tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon. Each type of forest has its own
environmental conditions allowing it to grow, as well as its own particular history. A broad-stroke
description of several forest types is provided below. . A forest glossary also follows.
copse: \ˈkäps\: alteration of coppice: These small woodlands have moderate to dense undergrowth,
such as those areas near creek beds or bodies of water. Also, known as coppice.
grove: \ˈgrōv\ Middle English, from Old English grāf: A grove is a small woodland area with little or no
undergrowth which can exist in larger forests or stand by itself in the open country. Groves usually
exist near water or in areas receiving sufficient annual precipitation.

CHAPTER 1 —
forest: \ˈfȯr-əst\ from Medieval Latin forestis: An extensive area of land covered in trees. A forest
usually consists of mixed tree species due to the proximity to water and the overall agreeable
climate. The trees usually grow in dense patterns, choking out most undergrowth. A forest almost
always consists of older-growth tree stands.
jungle: \ˈjəŋ-gəl\ Hindi jaṅgal, from Sanskrit jāṅgala: A forest growing in the tropics, which consists of flora
that thrives in hot and humid climates.
orchard: \ˈȯrchərd, ˈȯ(ə)chəd\ from Old English ortgeard, orceard: An artificially planted grove of
trees, usually containing fruit- or nut-bearing trees.
stand: A small group of similar trees; a stand is almost always in a larger growth of trees like a
forest or grove.
timberland: An area marked or purposely grown for the cultivation of timber.
wood: \ˈwu̇ d\ Middle English wode: A moderately large area of trees with moderate to dense undergrowth.Like
the grove, the wood can exist in larger forests, and usually borders some terrain feature allowing
for variations in the patterns of undergrowth.
UNDERGROUND BIOMES, CAVES

caves: These are isolated, shallow openings in the earth. They are usually barren of any life except
surface species living in or near the mouths of these caves. Unique plant and animal species can
be found in these caves.
deep caves: These caves extend deep under the earth. Their upper portions support an abundance
of lichen, mosses and small growth. There are large, cavernous areas connected by small chutes
and tunnels. They are well-watered. The lower areas are inhabited by an array of unique plant
species, but they are very sparse.
dismal deeps: These areas have no real-world equivalent. However, in the fantastical realms,
there are worlds beneath ours with ecosystems all their own. They are typified by massive caverns
and cavern complexes joined by narrow chutes and tunnels. These humid environments have
consistent temperatures except when near volcanic activity. Cavern complexes have unique plant
and animal species found in small enclosed zones with some few species varying over extensive
periods. Vegetation is sparse, generally low growing and found in large communities. Plants and
animals tend to respond to heat, movement, sound, and smell more than sight. Some areas are
well-watered, while others are not.
TYPES OF CAVES
Caves are circuitous, massive, twisting affairs that follow the logic of the earth. There are several
types of caves, each with their own distinctive formation patterns and developmental histories,
making them unique and easily recognizable. Each type of cavern listed below has many subtypes
and unique features depending upon locality, acidity of the soil, chemical make-up of the rock and
the water which dissolves them.
waterways: many caves form or are widened by the flow of water through them. These waterways
deform the caves much as rivers deform the surface world, creating crevices, trenches, or watercourses.
This water accounts for the constant humidity in caves, the clay, damp air, and it helps regulate
the temperature.
solution caves: these are the most common caves. They are formed in rock which is soluble
by the chemicals in the rainwater or river water which percolates into the ground. The process
of the water and chemical erosion of the rock underground creates vast and sprawling caverns
stretching for miles in many directions. Commonly, these caves form in limestone and dolomites
and even salt deposits. The erosion zones follow natural faults in the rock and expand over time

GEOGRAPHY
becoming very large, reaching hundreds of yards or meters across. The passages connecting
rooms and chambers can be both small and large, rise and fall suddenly or even slope gently over
long distances. These are fairly random in appearance creating an almost sponge-like formation
of chambers and passages. Generally, these caves initially form below the water table. As the
water table drops, the chambers and passages open up which results in a secondary stage of
development where dripstone features such as stalactites and flowstone occur.
The lower portions of these caves are often beneath the water table and immersed in water. Like
the upper portion, they have a sponge-like pattern but generally lack the dripstone features. Water
flows fairly constantly in the lower zones and can be quite powerful. There is a zone where the
water table rises and falls periodically which can immerse dripstone features or uncover portions
of the cave without dripstone features.
lava caves: lava caves are almost exclusively caves formed by lava. When magma flows through
the earth or even above ground it both strips away rock and melts it, leaving tubes and hardened
shells or casing where the lava once flowed. The caves are typically tube and funnel shaped caverns
stretching in a branch-like fashion sometimes several miles in length. Once magma retreats from
areas it can leave large open chambers or numerous open chambers connected by lava tubes and
funnels. These caves tend to have few erosion features initially and the rock generally does not support
the formation of extensive flowstone features. In general, these caves have a nearly dendritic pattern
(much like rivers) near the surface with long tubes and tunnels beneath the surface connecting
large empty magma chambers. Rift caverns also form in volcanic regions. These caverns are typified
by long and deep splits in volcanic material caused during cooling.
These caves can be located near active volcanic regions. In this case, the area of the caves is
under constant flux, have a much higher temperature and are far more deadly an environment
(earthquakes would be prevalent in these areas). In inactive volcanic regions, the cave complexes
would be more stable and have a more constant humidity and temperature but would be subject
to collapses and cave-ins. In both cases, the rock formation in these areas can be quite deadly as
they form sharp angles and ridges making movement over them very difficult.
coastal caves or sea caves: these caves lie along most coastlines with rocky bluffs or cliffs
which extend to the ocean’s edge. Generally, the action of the ocean’s waves and tides effect erosion
of the cliff faces in fault lines. The rock wears away and deep caverns form in the cliffs. The caves
can extend several hundred yards or more into the cliff faces but are rarely much deeper. These
caves form in almost any type of rock.
These caves are usually narrow and tall though they can be broad. Typically, they have a series
of a few connected chambers or one large chamber that varies in size and width along its length.
High tide tends to inundate them with water and low tide leaves them empty. Some sea caves lie a
little inland or above the sea level should the sea level have changed. The caves which are active
and located by the ocean can be dangerous in high tide as the power of ocean waves increases
in the narrow confines.
erosional caves: these caves form by water flowing over, around, and eventually through rock.
The water carries heavy sediments with it that help to grind out these caverns. They can be found
in any type of rock with the most spectacular being located in granite. They occasionally intersect
with solution caves deep underground. These caves can be extensive with large columns, deep
channels, potholes, and flutes. The patterns of the caves follow the fractures or faults in the rock
and therefore can be chaotic.
Erosional caves and canyons can be exceedingly dangerous areas to explore. Because they can
extend for many miles with their water source being dozens of miles away, the risk of flash flooding
is really high. Water flows very fast through these narrow passages and carries a lot of force. The
rock face in the caves is often very smooth though, making movement easier.
crevice caves: these caves form in many types of rocks and they are typified by interconnected
rectilinear crevices or slits in rock. These caves are likely as common as solution caves just much

CHAPTER 1 —
less explored as they are singularly difficult to navigate, map, and lack the ‘fascinating’ features
and natural beauty of other types of caves. They form by tectonic upheaval, whereby rocks fracture
or split and are thrust apart leaving small vertical spaces between them. Horizontal crevices are
less common.
Erosion of mineral veins with rocks, slope movement, or even frost heaves cause large rocks to
split from one another. These caves appear as a series of interconnected narrow crevices. The
crevices may vary from the very deep and narrow to the shallow and wide. Most crevices are not
very wide, but an occasional example does exceed a few feet in width. Crevice caves can be extensive
and are often located in areas where other unconnected crevice caves exist.
talus caves: these caves form by large accumulations of boulders piled atop one another. Glacial
retreat creates many of these caves as the boulders the glaciers carried with them tend to drop
off in massive talus piles. These caves also lie at the base of cliffs in active or extinct earthquake
zones. There is very little patterning to these caves as they resemble a large pile of massive rocks.
Many talus caves are small and may even consist of nothing more than a space between a few
large boulders. However, they can be very extensive consisting of thousands of yards of interconnected
spaces, because they lie in nearly every clime with steep rocky faces.
glacial caves: these caves form in glaciers, typically where the glacier meets the earth and the
water of the glacier melts. These melt-water tunnels are long, resemble erosional caves, and can
be quite extensive. Another type of cave found in glaciers resemble crevice caves where large
blocks of ice have cracked and split apart leaving gaping crevices between them. Glacial caves
are quite active caves and are constantly shifting from season to season as the glacier moves,
weather changes, and snowfall accumulates and melts. Because they are made of ice and snow,
travel in glacial caves can be exceedingly hazardous.
CAVE STRUCTURES
cave: \ˈkāv\ from Middle English: underground cavity formed by erosion or tectonic forces.
cave popcorn: Compound: small popcorn like features found on cave walls. They are almost
exclusively found in solution caves.
cavern: \ˈka-vərn\ from Middle French: a large cavity found in a cave.
chamber: \ˈchām-bər\ from Latin: largest of cavities found in caves, perhaps 100 or more yards
in any direction.
columns: \ˈchām-bər\ from Old French: stalactites joining with stalagmites to form a single col-
umn. These are typically found in well-formed solution caves.
dark zone: Compound: area of a cave that never gets light.
drapery: \ˈdrāp(ə)rē\ from Middle French: mineral deposit formed by calcite that looks like thin
sheets hanging in folds. They are typically found in solution caves.
dripstone: puddles of mineral deposits formed where water drips from the ceiling to floor and
leaves a mineral in place. They are typically found in solution caves.
flowstone: deposit of calcium formed by slow-moving water which deposits mineral in a manner
such that it looks like frosting or icicles.
fissure: \ˈfi-shər\ from Latin fissura: an opening or crack in a rock.
grotto: \ˈgrät(ˌ)ō, -ä(ˌ)tō\ from Latin crypta: refers to a chamber or cavern that has many unusualor rare
features in it making them quite beautiful. Helictites have knotted or twisted shapes dueto slowly
seeping water that causes a thin film of calcium carbonate to stick to the side of a cave formation
in a random manner.

GEOGRAPHY
passages: \ˈpa-sij\: cavities in caves that are longer than they are wide or high and they may
join larger cavities.
pits: vertical holes found in the floor of a cave. They can be quite deep and follow fractures or
imperfections in the rock.
rimstone dams: \ˈrimzˌtōn, -mˌst-\: terraces or steps found along underground streams and on floors that
contain water.
rooms: \ˈrüm\ from Middle English: Wide areas in passages but not quite chambers.
sinkhole: round and “bowl-shaped” holes created when a cave collapses.
soda straws: Compound: hollow stalactites that look like straws.
stalactite: \stəˈlakˌtīt\ from Latin: cave formation refers to many types of features that hang from
the ceiling of a cave. They are typically columnar with a pointed end.
stalagmite: \stəˈlagˌmīt| From Latin: a formation that develops from the ground up. They can
be of many shapes.
DESERTS
Deserts are regions receiving very little annual precipitation, usually less than 10 inches (25 centimeters)
a year. Deserts have specialized flora and fauna, and they lie in both cold and hot climates. This former
point is important to understand, as deserts can exist in arctic environments.
barchan: \(ˌ)bär-ˈkän, -ˈḵän\ from Russian barkhan: A sand dune that faces wind that comes
predominantly from one direction. The wind forms a convex, arc-shaped dune with two horns facing
away from the wind. Their slope facing the wind is gentle, but ends in a steep side on the far side
of the dune, creating a semi-protected area behind the dune.
blow out: An irregular depression in a desert or sandy area created by the wind. The wind removes
layers of sediment creating the depression. They are usually formed in an area with some vegetation
where the plants can hold the depression together. They are not commonly found in the more fluid
or active sand dunes.
coastal: Deserts along coasts that generally have long, cool summers and longer winters. Their
proximity to the salt-water ocean or sea allows for moderate salt buildup in the soil, therefore reducing
the chances of vegetation thriving.
cold: These deserts experience long winters and short, very cool summers. Their low temperatures
are conducive to permafrost forming in the soil and less melt from the fallen snow, leaving
accumulated build up over long periods.
drylands: a place of very little rainfall.
hot and dry: The most common type of desert and often the largest, these deserts are always
warm, even in winter, and have very little precipitation. Vegetation is small, ground-hugging shrubs
and bushes.
rain shadows: These regions are created along the basin in of mountains that stop the inward
flow of moisture-bearing clouds. The windward side of the mountains receives plenty of yearly
precipitation, but the leeward side receives very little.
salt flats: Formed from an evaporated body of salt water, the soil of a flat is very salty, with
sparse flora and little fauna.
sand dune: \ˈd(y)ün\: a dune, usually in the desert, comprised of sand.
slipface: the lee side of a dune where the sand is fine and loose.

CHAPTER 1 —
semi-arid: These deserts have long, dry summers, but with short winters with more precipitation.
This allows for a wider variety of underbrush to grow which in turn supports a great variety of fauna.
transverse dune: \(ˈ)tran(t)s-¦vərs, (ˈ)tranz-\\ˈd(y)ün\ also called barchan, it is a crescent

shaped dune.
RIVERS, LAkES & OTHER

alluvial fan: \ə-ˈlü-vē-əl, -vyəl\: That area of a stream where it moves from a steep gradient to a flatter
one, showing a marked decrease in speed and power. It is marked by sediment spreads. Itis most
notable in arid or semi-arid zones; however, it can be found anywhere.
aquifer: \ˈa-kwə-fər, ˈä-\ from French aquifère: A porous or open area in the rock, such as gravel, limestone
or sandstone, through which water can freely move or is stored. They can be localized or regional,
supplying water to wells, farmlands and marshes.
artesian well: \(ˈ)är-¦tē-zhən\ from Old French: A well that taps into the water of a confined
aquifer, where the water encounters such pressure that the water is pushed above the line where
the well first encountered the water/aquifer, or to the surface. Those aquifer is generally located in
rock or clay where the water cannot be defused and is fed by an underground source.
bar: \ˈbär\ from Old French: An area where sand, gravel or sediment builds up on the bed of a
stream, lake or sea. Bars are often temporary, changing with the season or the amount of water
that flows over or around them. Some may become permanent features of the body of water.
beheaded stream: The upper portion or headwaters of a stream that have been cut off, usually
by natural erosion, and consumed by another stream.
braided stream: A stream or river that has multiple channels that are separated by small islands
(called braid bars). They occur in rivers with high slopes or large sediment loads which naturally
slows the flow of water, forcing it into lower areas, or channels. They also occur where the river is
not deep and with a slower velocity, both conditions allow the water to cut new channels.
brook: \ˈbru̇ k\ from Old English brōc: A slow-moving creek or stream with trees, rocks, and
undergrowth dominating its course.
cataract: \ˈka-tə-ˌrakt\ from Latin cataracta, catarractes: A large waterfall that creates steep rapids.
canal: \kə-ˈnal\ from Latin canalis: A waterway constructed to facilitate travel and trade. Canals extend
from any body of water to another, allowing water to move between them. Canals range from small
to large.
creek: \ˈkrēk, ˈkrik\ Middle English creke, crike: A small, free-flowing body of water that usually feeds
larger rivers or into estuaries. Creeks usually originate in high mountains from snowmelt orfrom
underground aquifers.
delta: \ˈdeltə\ Middle English deltha, from Greek delta: Land, usually shaped like a triangle, that
lies at the mouth of a river, where it spills into a larger body of water.
estuary: \ˈes(h)chəˌwerē, -ri\ Latin aestuarium: An estuary is either the mouth of a river, or it is an
arm of the sea/ocean meeting it and the surrounding area; it is an area where the sea’s tide meets
the river.
falls: A waterfall.
firth: \ˈfərth\ from Old Norse firth-, fjörthr: A long, narrow inlet of the sea or ocean.
fjords: This narrow inlet lies on an ocean or sea and is surrounded by steep cliffs.
floodplain: a low-lying area subject to frequent flooding. Also, a plain formed by the deposit of
sediment from floods.

GEOGRAPHY
lake: \ˈlāk\ from Middle English lak, from Old English lacu stream: A body of saltwater or freshwater
of any size with land all around it, usually fed by rivers, streams, creeks, or underground aquifers.
meander: \mēˈandə(r), -ˈaan-\ from Greek maiandros: a turn in a stream or river.
ox bow: Middle English oxbowe: a river meander (see above) with extreme curvature such that
only a neck of land is left between two parts of the stream.
rapids: \ˈra-pəd\ named for swift motion it makes: portion of a river where the current is swift,
usually narrowed by land, and filled with obstructions, creating a choppy, broken surface.
rill: \ˈril\ Dutch ril or Low German rille: A very tiny watercourse feeding into a stream, brook, or
creek. Rills often bubble up in and around small rocks. The water is very fresh and cool.
river: \ˈri-vər\ from Old French rivere, riviere: A large body of flowing freshwater following natural
channels and feeding into larger rivers or the sea.
run: A section of a creek, brook, or stream that flows very fast, almost always down steep channels in
mountains or hills or into depressions.
runoff: precipitation that ultimately lands in a river or sea; the overflow of water not absorbed by
the ground.
spring: \ˈspriŋ\ Old Frisian spring: water rising from the earth, usually into a river or stream.
stream: A small body of flowing freshwater following natural channels and feeding into larger
streams, creeks, rivers, or the sea.
tarn: \ˈtärn\ of Scandinavian origin: a small lake on a mountain.
thermal spring: \ˈthərməl, ˈthə̄ m- ˈthəim-\ Greek thermē: A spring that emits forth in conditions
that are not as warm as the area where the spring is located.
torrent: \ˈtȯr-ənt, ˈtär-\ from Latin torrent-, torrens: Very similar to a run, but a larger, violent, fastflowing
stream; a torrent almost always flows down steep slopes and hills. A torrent is more often a section
of a creek, stream, or river.
undercurent: Where water flows beneath the surface of another body of water, such as a river,
bay or ocean. It usually flows in the opposite direction of the top current.
wash: A streambed created by rainfall or sudden snowmelt. The wash is the actual bed carved
out of the ground and serves as a channel for the water.
water gap: Compound: stream that runs through a mountain pass.
waterfall: Steep descent of water in a stream or river.
yazoo-type river: \ˈyaˌzü, ˈyäˌ-\ River that runs parallel to, and within the floodplain of a larger
river for considerable distance, before eventually joining it.
WETLANDS
Wetlands maintain high levels of water all year long, or at the very least, become inundated with
seasonal rain or snow. These areas are not restricted to lowlands, as mountainous lowland regions
can experience intense levels of precipitation, as well. Wetlands suffer from thick, soup-like soil
that retains moisture. Many wetlands include small pools, ponds, and interconnected water canals
separated by areas of thicker, rocky soil, or vegetation.
backswamp: A swamp that forms in low-lying areas behind natural levees around streams,
creeks, or coastal areas. They consist of floodplains where deposits of silts and clays predominate.

CHAPTER 1 —
bayou: \ˈbī-(ˌ)ü, -(ˌ)ō, especially Louisiana also ˈbī-ə\ from Louisiana French: A marshy area
around a lake, sea, or other body of water, usually stagnant or, at the very least, sluggish.
bog: \ˈbäg, ˈbȯg\ of Celtic origin: An area of wet, spongy ground with deep mosses and poor
deterioration. Thick, sodden vegetation covers the surface of the bog.
fens: \ˈfenz\ from Old English fenn: These flat, marshy lands have high water tables and sedge
grasses.
marsh: \ˈmärsh, ˈmȧsh\ from Old English mersc, merisc: These treeless areas of water-logged soils
and shallow water allow bushes and low plants to grow in profusion. Marshes reside near lakes,
slow-moving rivers, and low-lying regions.
moor: \ˈmu̇ r, ˈmȯr\ from Old English mōr: A large area of land with poor drainage, where heath
and peat moss grows in abundance. Moors are usually damp, swampy, and foggy.
peatlands: \ˈpēt\ from Medieval Latin peta: Peat consists of highly organic material, such as
swamp grass, that is partially decayed. Peat forms in damp, marshy areas and is very useful as a
fuel. Peatlands are marshy areas where a great deal of peat has formed.
swamp: \ˈswämp, -wȯmp\ Middle English sompe: Similar to a marsh except enough soil has
accumulated to allow trees adapted to perennial flooding and waterlogged soils to grow. Swamps
can occur on coasts or inland.
OCEANS
Water dominates most worlds. As the cornerstone of life and the major source of erosion, water
plays a huge role in any world with a vibrant life cycle. As such, the world’s languages include
many words describing types of water encountered. Building upon the above section on flowing
water, the section below provides a small sampling of terms and definitions about standing bodies
of water and the land surrounding them.
abyssal plain: \ə-ˈbi-səl, a-\\ˈplān\ from Medieval Latin abyssālis, from Latin planum: A large, flat area
of the ocean floor, generally located near a continent and about 2 miles below the surface of the
water.
atoll: \ˈa-ˌtȯl, -ˌtäl, -ˌtōl, ˈā- sometimes a-ˈtȯl, -ˈtäl, -ˈtōl or ə-\ native name in the Maldive islands: A ring-shaped
coral reef that encircles or partially encircles a lagoon. The atoll often sits on the rim of a volcanic
crater or caldera. The rim and the lagoon are often ringed by sand bars.
back arc basin: A region located between an island arc and a continental mainland. There is
generally oceanic crust between the two formations. The water between can be of various depths.
backshore: This is the limit that tidal waves reach on a beach. It is the area between the high
tide mark and the foot of the dune line.
barrier beach or island: a narrow beach that rises above the surface of a body of water, but
is separated from and runs parallel to the shore. It is separated from the shore by a lagoon. See
also shoal.
barrier reef: a reef of coral that runs roughly parallel to the shore and consists of coral. It is
separated from the shore by a lagoon.
basin: \ˈbā-sən\ from Old French bacin: A natural or man-made area along a shore that is fully or
partially enclosed. It is roughly circular in shape and all sides dip gently toward the center. A basin
is often protected from the sea and wind. They are commonly used to moor boats.
bay: \ˈbā\ from Middle French baie: Partly surrounded by land, a body of water smaller than a
gulf, but larger than an inlet.
GEOGRAPHY
bay barrier: A small section of land, shoal, beach, etc, that separates the area of a bay from a
sea or ocean.
beach: A collection of sediments that collects on a shore between low and high tide water marks
of a lake, sea or ocean. It is usually composed of sand, gravel, pebbles or cobbles. Beaches have
biological origins, being composed of mollusk shells or coralline algae.
breakwater: A structure built offshore parallel to a shore intended to protect the shoreline from
erosion or harbors from wave action. They occur naturally but are more commonly constructed.
Generally, breakwaters are made of rock, sand, or concrete.
cape: \ˈkāp\ from Old Provençal: An area of land pushing into a large body of water or the sea.
coast: \ˈkōst\ Middle English cost: An edge of land nearest an ocean or sea.
cove: \ˈkōv\ Middle English, den, cave, from Old English cofa den: A recess in the sea, shoreline,
river, or lake.
epeiric: \ə̇ ˈpīrik, (ˈ)e¦p-\ Greek ēpeiros: That covers a large part of a continent while remaining
connected with the ocean.
fetch: \ˈfech\ from Old English feccan, fetian: A unit of distance signifying the length the wind
blows over a body of water or land.
foreshore: land that is on the margins of or near the water; the shore exposed between low tide
and high tide.
gulf: \ˈgəlf\ Middle English goulf, golf, from Middle French golfe: A very large section of a sea or
ocean partly surrounded by land.
harbor: \ˈhär-bər\ Middle English herberge: An area having many port facilities or docks for ships
to anchor, load, and unload.
inland: a shallow sea that covers central areas of continents during periods of high sea level that
result in marine transgressions.
island: \ˈīlənd\ Old Norse eyland: Land that is entirely surrounded by water. It is smaller than a
continent.
island arc: \ˈīlənd\ from Old English īgland: A chain of islands in the bent or curved form of a bow.
isthmus: \ˈisməs\ chiefly British sometimes ˈistm-\ from Greek isthmos: A slim strip of land with
water on both sides that connects two bigger pieces of land.
key: \ˈkē\ from Lucayo cayo: A small island.
lake: \ˈlāk\ from Middle English lak, from Old English lacu stream: A body of saltwater or freshwater
of any size with land all around it, usually fed by rivers, streams, creeks, or underground aquifers.
levee: \ˈle-vē; lə-ˈvē, -ˈvā\ from Middle French: A raised embankment to prohibit flooding.
marginal: \ˈmärjə̇ nəl, ˈmȧj-\ from Latin margin-: A division of an ocean, partially enclosed byislands,
archipelagos, or peninsulas, adjacent to or widely open to the open ocean at the surface, and/or
bounded by submarine ridges on the sea floor.
mediterranean: \¦medətə¦rānēən, -nyən\ from Latin mediterraneus: Sea 2300 long between Europe
and Africa connecting with the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar and with the Red Seathrough
the Suez Canal.
ocean: \ˈōshən\ Middle English occean: A massive expanse of water whose currents and movementsare
predominately free of influence by a land mass.

CHAPTER 1 —
pocket beach: Small beach at the head a of a bay.
peninsula: \pə-ˈnin(t)-s(ə-)lə, -shə-lə\ Latin paeninsula: A land mass surrounded on three sides
by water. This land mass projects out from a larger land mass.
rip current: Strong surface current headed away from shore.
regional: A sea near a body of water; contrasted with international sea.
sea cave: Also, known as a littoral cave, is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action
of the sea.
shore: \ˈshȯr\ Middle English shor: land that borders a large body of water, such as the sea.
sea: \ˈsē\ Middle English see: A large body of water partially surrounded by land. A sea often
abuts an ocean, connecting to it through various tidal currents.
shore: \ˈshȯr\ from Old English scor, scora: Land bordering any body of water: lake, pond, ocean,
river, stream, river, etc.
sound: \ˈsau̇ nd\ from Old English sund: A long, narrow, often deep inlet lying just offshore.
spit: \ˈspit\ from Old English spit: a small point of land commonly consisting of sand or gravel
deposited by waves and currents and running into a body of water.
storm surge: tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure
weather systems.
strait: \ˈstrāt\ Middle English streit, strait: A narrow waterway connecting two larger bodies of
water, such as two oceans or a bay and the sea.
surf: \ˈsərf, ˈsə̄ f, ˈsəif\ The swell of the sea as it rises to the shore and breaks.
swash: \ˈswäsh\ A body of water that splashed forth.
swell: \ˈswel\ A long relatively low wave or an unbroken series of such waves.
wave: \weɪv\: A swell of water that has forward momentum.
ATMOSPHERE, SKY, WEATHER

altitude: \ˈal-tə-ˌtüd also -ˌtyüd\ from Latin altitudo: the angular elevation of a celestial object above
the horizon measured by the arc of a vertical circle intercepted between the object and the horizon.
altocumulus: \¦al-(ˌ)tō-¦kyü-myə-ləs\ New Latin, from Latin altus high + New Latin -o- + cumulus: a
fleecy cloud or cloud formation consisting of large whitish or grayish globular cloudlets with shaded
portions often grouped in flocks, rows, or layers and similar to cumulus clouds but at higher
altitudes.
altostratus: \¦al-(ˌ)tō-¦strā-təs, -¦stra-\ New Latin, from Latin altus + New Latin -o- + stratus: a
cloud formation similar to cirrostratus but darker and at a lower level.
anticyclone: \ˌan-ti-ˈsī-ˌklōn\ \ˌan-ti-ˈsī-ˌklōn\ a system of winds that rotates about a center of high atmospheric
pressure clockwise in the northern hemisphere, counterclockwise in the southern, that usually
advances at 20 to 30 miles per hour, that often brings cool dry weather, and that usually has a
diameter of 1500 to 2500 miles.
anti-sunbeams: parallel rays of sunlight that penetrate through holes in clouds as columns of
sunlit air are divided by darker shaded regions.

GEOGRAPHY
anvil cloud: \ˈan-vəl, sometimes -(ˌ)vil\ from Old English anfealt, anfilt: Convective cloud meaning
accumulated cloud, where nimbus means rain and cumulus means convective. This cloud has a
flat cloud bottom with great vertical growth and can extend up to 13 miles.
arcus: \ˈär-kəs\ New Latin, from Latin, bow, arch, arc: an arch-shaped cloud that sometimes
accompanies a cumulonimbus.
asperatus: Clouds with a dark and stormy appearance.
aurora: \ə-ˈrȯr-ə, ȯ-\ Latin: A luminous phenomenon that consists of streamers or arches of light appearing
in the upper atmosphere of a planet’s polar regions and is caused by the emission of light from
atoms excited by electrons accelerated along the planet’s magnetic field lines.
blizzard: \ˈbli-zərd\ origin unknown: An intensely strong cold wind filled with fine snow.
cap cloud: A small cloud surmounting a mountain peak.
cirrocumulus: \¦sir-(ˌ)ō-¦kyü-myə-ləs\ New Latin, from cirr- + cumulus: a cloud form of small white
rounded masses at a high altitude usually in lines and regular groupings forming a mackerelsky and
often preceding a change in the weather especially from calm to windy.
cirrostratus: \¦sir-(ˌ)ō-¦strā-təs, -¦stra-\ New Latin, from cirr- + stratus: a fairly uniform layer of
high whitish stratus darker than the white cirrus.
cirrus: \ˈsir-əs\ from Latin cirrus: a white filmy variety of cloud usually formed in the highest cloud
region at altitudes of 20,000 to 40,000 feet and normally consisting of minute ice crystals.
cloud: \ˈklau̇ d\ from Old English clūd: \ˈklau̇ d\ a visible assemblage of particles of water oricein the
form of fog, mist, or haze formed by the condensation of vapor in the air and suspended in the air
generally at a considerable height.
cloud to cloud lightning: the most common type of lightning, going from cloud to cloud or in
a single cloud.
cloud to ground lightning: a discharge between cloud and ground initiated by an upward moving
leader originating from an object on the ground.
cloudy: \ˈklau̇ -dē\ a condition of clouds being in a certain area.
convection: \kən-ˈvek-shən\ Late Latin convection-, convectio: a mechanically or thermally produced

upward or downward movement of a limited part of the atmosphere that is essential to the formation
of many clouds (as cumulus clouds) and is used in certain heating systems.
crepuscular ray: \kri-ˈpə-sk(y)-ə-lər\ Latin crepusculum: a streak of light that seems to radiate from
the sun shortly before or after sunset when sunlight shines through a break in the clouds or a
notch in the horizon line and illuminates atmospheric haze or dust particles.
cumulonimbus: \¦kyü-myə-(ˌ)lō-¦nim-bəs, ÷-mə-\ New Latin, from cumul- + nimbus: A mountainous

cumulus cloud often spread out in the shape of an anvil extending to great heights and topped
with a fibrous veil of ice crystals
cumulus: \ˈkyü-myə-ləs, ÷-mə-\ Latin: A massy cloud form usually occurring in the low or middle cloud
regions at elevations between 2,000 and 15,000 feet, having a flat base and rounded outlinesoften
piled up like a mountain, commonly appearing in the early afternoon on warm days, and
sometimes affording rain or thunder gusts.
cumulus congestus: \-kənˈjestəs\ New Latin: a form of cumulus cloud that can be based inthe
low or middle height ranges. They achieve considerable vertical development (family D2) in areas
of deep, moist convection.
cumulus humilis: \-ˈhyümələ̇ s\ New Latin: cumuliform cloud with little vertical extent that is
commonly referred to as “fair weather cumulus” and common in the summer.

CHAPTER 1 —
cumulus mediocris: New Latin: A low to middle level cloud with some vertical extent (Family
D1) of the genus cumulus, larger in vertical development than cumulus humilis.
cyclone: \ˈsī-ˌklōn\ modification of Greek kyklōma: A storm or system of winds that rotates abouta center
of low atmospheric pressure clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
northern, advances at a speed of 20 to 30 miles an hour, is often violent in the tropics and usually
moderate elsewhere, often brings abundant precipitation, and usually has a diameter of 50 to 900
miles.
disk: \ˈdisk\ Latin discus: The seemingly flat figure or image of a celestial body as it appears in the heavens.
double rainbow: An occurrence when there are two rainbows in the visible sky. They are
caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the raindrops, and are centered on the sun itself.
drizzle: Rain that is very fine, like a mist.
dry lightning: A thunderstorm that produces thunder and lightning, but most or all of its precipitation
evaporates before reaching the ground, and dry lightning is the term which is used to refer to
lightning strikes occurring in this situation.
dust devil: a whirlwind containing sand or dust seen especially in arid and semiarid regions.
Also, called dirt devil.
eclipse: \ə̇ ˈklips, ēˈk- sometimes ˈēˌk-\ from Latin eclipsis: when once celestial body passes into
the shadow of another, obscuring the one behind.
equinox: \ˈēkwəˌnäks also ˈek-\ alteration of Latin aequinoctium: the two times of the year when
the sun comes in line with the equator.
evaporation fog: this type of fog forms when much colder air forms over areas of water.
facula: \ˈfakyələ\ New Latin, from Latin, small torch, diminutive of fac-, fax torch: any of the bright
regions of the sun’s photosphere seen most easily near the sun’s edge and occurring most
frequently in proximity to sunspots.
fair weather cloud: a cloud appearing in the sky, but with otherwise benign conditions.
fall streaks: a large, usually round gap that can appear in higher clouds. They are formed when
the water temperature in the clouds is below freezing but the water, in a supercooled state, has
not frozen yet due to the lack of ice nucleation.
fire cloud: a dense cumuliform cloud associated with fire or volcanic eruptions that may produce
dry lightning.
fire tornado: also, called a fire devil or fire whirl, it is a whirlwind caused by wind and fire.
fire vortex: see fire tornado above.
flurries: showers or snowfall that comes up suddenly. Usually light.
fog: \ˈfȯg, ˈfäg\ probably of Scandinavian origin: vapor condensed to fine particles of water suspended in the
lower atmosphere that differs from cloud only in being near the ground and is sometimes
distinguished from mist in being less transparent.
freezing fog: occurs when the water droplets that the fog is composed of are “supercooled.”
Supercooled water droplets remain in the liquid state until they come into contact with a surface
upon which they can freeze.
frozen rain: rain that falls when surface temperatures are below freezing. Unlike a mixture of
rain and snow, ice pellets (both of which are sometimes called “sleet”), or hail, freezing rain is
made entirely of liquid droplets.

GEOGRAPHY
frost: \ˈfrȯst\ Middle English frost, forst: a covering of small frozen particle on a surface formed
by condensation.
funnel cloud: \ˈfə-nəl\ from Old Provençal fonilh: a funnel-shaped cloud that hangs below the
greater thundercloud mass of a tornado.
glaze: \ˈglāz\ a smooth coating of ice that forms when freezing rain falls onto surfaces that are
below the freezing mark.
hail: \ˈhāl\ from Old English hægl, hagol: a precipitation in the form of small balls or lumps usually
consisting of concentric layers of clear ice and compact snow produced by the oscillation of
raindrops within cumulonimbus clouds or by the freezing of raindrops from nimbus clouds.
hailstone: A single ball of hail.
halo: \ˈhā(ˌ)lō\ from Greek halōs: A circle, arc, or splotch of light either white or prismatically colored
and definitely situated with reference to a luminous body and resulting from the reflection or
refraction or both of its light.
haze: \ˈhāz\ Fine dust, salt particles, smoke, or particles of water finer and more scattered than
those of fog causing lack of transparency of the air and making distant objects indistinct or invisible.
heat lightning: A flash or flashes of light seen near the horizon, especially on warm evenings,
believed to be the reflection of distant lightning on high clouds.
helmet streamers: Bright magnetic looping structures that develop over portions of the sun.
hill fog: A low cloud that seems to hover over a high area or hill.
hoarfrost: Middle English horforst: another word for frost. See frost above.
humidity: \hyüˈmidətē, -ətē, -i also yü-\ from Latin humidus, umidus: A moderate degree of
moisture that can be seen or felt.
hurricane: \ˈhər-ə-ˌkān, -i-kən; ˈhə-rə-ˌkān, -ri-kən\ from Taino hurakán: A cyclone that is over
73 miles per hour. Typically, is accompanied by rain, lightning and thunder.
ice pellets: Pellets of ice that fall to the ground in their frozen state.
mackerel sky: \ˈma-k(ə-)rəl\ Middle English makerel: A sky with rows of small white fleecy
clouds, much like the pattern on a mackerel’s back.
mammatus: \məˈmātəs, maˈ-\ New Latin: A bunch of low hanging pouches from a cloud, giving
the cloud an appearance of mammaries.
mare’s tail: Cirrus Uncinus: very thin, wispy, curly hooks on clouds.
mist: \ˈmist\ from Old English; akin to Middle Dutch mist, mest: particulates of water suspended
in the atmosphere.
mostly cloudy: a condition in where the prevailing sky shows more clouds than it does sunshine.
mostly sunny: a condition in where the prevailing sky shows more sunshine than it does clouds.
nimbostratus: \¦nim-(ˌ)bō-¦strā-təs, -¦stra-\ New Latin: cloud cover that is low and dark, usually
signifying rain.
noctilucent clouds: tenuous cloud-like phenomena that are the “ragged edge” of a much
brighter and pervasive polar cloud layer called polar mesospheric clouds in the upper atmosphere,
visible in a deep twilight. They are made of ice crystals. Noctilucent roughly means night shining
in Latin.

CHAPTER 1 —
overcast: condition when the sky is mostly obscured by clouds.
partly cloudy: a condition in where the prevailing sky is of about equal proportions of sunshine
and clouds.
partly sunny: similar to partly cloudy, just expressed differently.
pileus: \ˈpīlēəs, ˈpil-\ from Latin pilleus, pileus: similar to a cloud cap; a cloud resembling a cap
that sometimes appears above and partially obscures the bulging top of a cumulus cloud.
prevailing wind: wind that blows generally from one direction over the earth.
pyro-cumulus: New Latin: see fire cloud above.
rain: \ˈrān\ from Old English regn, rēn: water falling to the earth from condensed vapor.
rainbow: \ˈrān-ˌbō\ Middle English reinbowe, from Old English rēnboga: an arc (or full circle) showing
the spectrum of color. It is formed opposite the sun by the refraction and reflection of thesun’s rays
in drops of rain.
rime: \ˈrīm\ from Old English hrīm: an accumulation of granular ice tufts on the windward sides of
exposed objects slightly resembling hoarfrost but formed only from undercooled fog or cloud and
always built out directly against the wind.
roll cloud: a low, horizontal, tube-shaped, and relatively rare type of arcus cloud (see above).
They differ from shelf clouds by being completely detached from other cloud features.
scarf cloud: see pileus above.
scattered clouds: term denoting clouds that are “loose” in the sky, meaning there are a few
clouds in the sky that are not clumped together.
sea smoke: a type of fog in arctic regions that forms when freezing air passes over a warmer
sea surface.
sheet lightning: lightning in diffused or sheet form due to reflection and diffusion by the clouds
and sky.
shelf cloud: a low wedge-shaped arcus (see arcus above) cloud.
sidereal: \sīˈdirēəl\ Latin sidereus: relating to star and constellations.
sleet: \ˈslēt, usually -ēt+V\ Middle English slete: a type of rain that is full or partly frozen.
snow: \ˈsnō\ from Old English snāw: small branched crystals of water that are formed from water
vapor around the freezing mark or below.
solstice: \ˈsäl-stəs, ˈsōl-, ˈsȯl-\ from Latin solstitium: one of the two points on the ecliptic at which its
distance from the celestial equator is greatest and which is reached by the sun each year about
June 22 and December 22.
steam fog: fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water.
stratocumulus: \¦stra|tō, -rā| also -rä| or -rȧ|+\ New Latin: low lying clouds. Usually clumped
and gray in appearance.
stratus: \ˈstrā|təs, |təs, -ra| also -rä| or -rȧ|\ from Latin: cloud forming a continuous horizontal
gray sheet, often with rain or snow.
stratus fractus: New Latin: small irregular cloud formations.
sun dogs: an atmospheric phenomenon that consists of a pair of bright spots on either horizontal
side on the Sun, often co-occurring with a luminous ring known as a 22° halo.

GEOGRAPHY
sun pillars: an atmospheric optical phenomenon in the form of a vertical band of sunlight which
appears to extend above and/or below a light source.
sun rays: bands of sunlight that appear to radiate from the point in the sky where the sun is
located.
sunny: a condition of the sky when there are none, or very little, clouds.
supercell: a thunderstorm that is characterized by the presence of a deep, persistently rotating

updraft.
sustained winds: winds that persist at a relative speed for a period of time over 1 minute in length.
temperature: \ˈtem-pər-ˌchu̇ r\ Latin temperatura: a degree of hotness or coldness, expressed in

several ways, including fahrenheit, celsius, and other arbitrary scales.
thunderstorm: a storm where thunder is occurring.
tornado: \tȯr-ˈnā-(ˌ)dō sometimes tər-\ modification of Spanish tronada: a violent destructive whirling
wind accompanied by a funnel-shaped cloud that progresses in a narrow path often for many miles
over the land.
tsunami: \(t)su̇ -ˈnä-mē\ Japanese: a seismic disturbance of the ocean; a great sea wave produced
by submarine earth movement or volcanic eruption
tule fog: a thick ground fog that settles in the San Joaquin Valley and Sacramento Valley areas
of California’s Great Central Valley. Tule fog forms from late fall through early spring (California’s
rainy season) after the first significant rainfall. The official time frame for tule fog to form is from
November 1 to March 31. This phenomenon is named after the tule grass wetlands (tulares) of
the Central Valley.
twilight: \ˈtwī-ˌlīt\ Middle English, from twi- + light: the light from the sky either between night and
sunrise or between day and sunfall.
typhoon: \(ˈ)tī¦fün\ alteration (influenced by Greek typhōn whirlwind and Chin—Cant—taaî fung: a
tropical cyclone that occurs in the China Sea and surrounding areas.
upslope fog: warm, moist air that condenses into fog on a mountainside or ridge.
virga: \ˈvərgə\ New Latin, from Latin, branch, rod, streak in the sky suggesting rain: precipitation
falling from the trailing end of a cloud that evaporates before hitting the ground.
wall cloud: a large, localized, persistent, and often abrupt lowering of cloud that develops beneath
the surrounding base of a cumulonimbus cloud and from which sometimes forms tornadoes.
waterspout: a slender funnel-shaped or tubular column of rapidly rotating cloud-filled wind usually
extending from the underside of a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud down to a cloud of spray torn
up by the whirling winds from the surface of an ocean or lake.
wind: \ˈwind\ Middle English wind, winde: the natural movement of air over the earth’s surface.
wind shear: a variation in wind velocity occurring along a direction at right angles to the wind’s
direction.
wind chill: an expression of the lowering of temperature as wind is felt upon the surface of the
skin.
windy: an expression of the wind at a rate that is above normal.

CHAPTER 1 —
GEOLOGIC TERMS
aa: \ˈä-ˌä, ä-ˈä\ Hawaiian: A term used to describe a lava flow with a rough jagged surface.
accretion: \ə-ˈkrē-shən, a-\ from Latin: A planet building process where terrestrial planets consume
smaller planetesimals, gradually increasing their mass.
after shock: \ˈaf-tər\\ˈshäk\ Old English æfter, Middle Low German schok: A small earthquake
that follows an earthquake. Its epicenter is generally close to the previous earthquake.
agate: \ˈa-gət\ Middle English achates, accate, agaten: Siliceous rock with bands of colored
chert and chalcedony a cryptocrystalline form of quartz
amygdule: \əˈmigˌd(y)ül, ˈamig-\: A cavity in volcanic rock caused by gas but that has been filled
with other sediments, such as quartz or calcite.
anchialine cave: \ˈaŋ-kē-ə-ˌlīn, -lən\ Greek anchíalos: Coastal caves that contain a mixture of fresh
and saline water. They are common on most rocky shorelines and often contain specialized fauna.
andesite: \ˈan-di-ˌzīt\ from German Andesit: A very fine-grained volcanic rock of indeterminate size.
Andesite is most commonly found in island arcs or continental crusts. It is also found inlandbut
generally where volcanic activity has taken place in the past.
aphanitic: \¦afə¦nitik\ French, from aphan-: A term used to describe igneous rocks that are com-
posed of fine grains.
aquitard: \ˈa-kwə-ˌtärd\: Solid rock, clay or soil that slows or stops the movement of water.
arch: \ˈärch\ from Latin arcus: In geologic terms an arch is formed in a coastal headland where
waves are able to erode or cut into the rock.
arete: \ˌa-rə-ˈtā, -tē\ Greek aretē: A jagged, narrow stretch of mountain ridge line formed through
glacial erosion.
arkose: \ˈär-ˌkōs, -ˌkōz\ French arkose: A type of sedimentary rock formed of sand-sized grains through
extensive weathering in cold or arid environments. It is typically gray to reddish in color and may
be anywhere from very fine to very course.
asymmetric rock knob: \¦ā-sə-¦me-trik\ An area in the bedrock marked by a gentle slope rising up
to a knob and steep slow on the far side. It is caused by glacial abrasion on the gentle slope and
glacial plucking, whereby small or large pieces of the bedrock are moved or eroded
aureole: \ˈȯr-ē-ˌōl\ from Medieval Latin aureola: A fine-grained rock that is found where intrusive igneous
rocks are formed. The igneous rock is generally formed with hotter magma is injected into cooler
rock. The area around the injection is the aureole.
basalt: \bə-ˈsȯlt, ˈbā-ˌsȯlt British usually ˈba-ˌsȯlt\ from Latin: A fine-grained igneous rock. It is usually gray or
black in color, though can range to light and tan due to chemical weathering, and is the most
common form of volcanic rock. It is created by rapid cooling of basaltic lava flow.
batholith: \ˈba-thə-ˌlith\ German batholith: A large region, usually larger than 40 square miles, of
continuous igneous rock. A batholith is relatively smooth and round. A batholith forms deep in the
earth of a large amount of granite. They are exposed to the surface by weathering and continental
uplift. The erosion has removed layers of covering rock, leaving the batholith exposed.
bauxite: \ˈbȯk-ˌsīt, ˈbäk-\ French bauxite: A rock that serves as the primary source for aluminum.
The rock is generally a light gray, yellow, brown or orange.
bedrock: The compacted rock that lies beneath regolith, loose soil, subsoil and organic matter,
on the surface of any planet. The bedrock may lay very close to the surface or lie hundreds of feet
beneath the regolith. Bedrock is often exposed on the slopes of hills, cliffs, etc.

GEOGRAPHY
black smoker: A vent on the ocean or sea floor that emits hydrothermal fluids. After mixing with
the sea water the fluids cool and precipitate a cloud of sulfides that appear as a black cloud.
Related to white smokers that act in much the same way.
boulder train: A tight line of boulders moved by glaciation. The boulders follow the line of the
glacier’s drift. The boulders range in size from very small to extremely large.
boundary: In geologic terms the boundary is the area where two tectonic plates meet.
branchwork cave: These caves are very common and resemble a stream and its branches.
They are created where there are multiple inlets for water and the sediment is eroded by the force
of the stream. These inlets create small branch caves that eventually join large trunk caves further
downstream. They are continually refreshed with constant or seasonal water flows. They range in
size from small to large.
breccia: \ˈbre-ch(ē-)ə, -sh(ē-)ə\ Italian: A rock that consists of small, angular rocks that are cemented
together. It is formed naturally through a variety of geologic forces. The often-multiple colors of
breccia rock made it a commonly used decorative stone, being most famously used as the bases
for the columns of Knossos, the Minoan palace.
calcarenite: \ˌkalkəˈrēˌnīt\ Latin + English: A type of limestone that is made up of sand-sized grains
of carbonite. The carbonite grains are either corals, shells, pellets or some combination thereof.
Calcarenite formations accumulate due to coast sand dunes, beaches, shoals or other
depositional settings.
calving: \ˈkav, ˈkäv\ from Old English cealfian: The process by which an iceberg is created. The
calving occurs as the glacier expands, forcing large, unstable sections of ice to break away, or
calve. The collapsing ice causing large waves and creates dozens of icebergs of a variety of sizes.
cave: \ˈkāv\ from Latin cava: A hollow space underground large enough for a human to enter.
They are formed through chemical weathering, erosion, tectonic forces, organisms or atmospheric
influences. There are many types of caves: solutional, primary, branchwork sea caves, corrasional,
glacier, fracture, talus and anchialine caves.
chalcedony: \kal-ˈse-də-nē, chal-; ˈkal-sə-ˌdō-nē, ˈchal-, -ˌdä-\ from Greek chalkēdōn: A form of quartz with a
fibrous, waxy look. They range from transparent to translucent and form in a variety of colors.
Chalcedony occurs in many forms, and includes many semi-precious gems. It includes agate,
carnelian, heliotrope and onyx to name but a few.
chalk: \ˈchȯk\ from Greek chalix: A soft, white porous sedimentary rock. It forms in marine environments
through the accumulation of minute shells shed from micro-organisms. Though not as hard as
stone it is more resistant to weathering than clay. Chalk deposits can hold large amounts of water
and drain slowly. Not to be confused with blackboard chalk.
chert: \ˈchərt, ˈchat\ origin unknown: A fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains small fossils. It
ranges in color but often reflects the trace elements of other rocks. Red or green chert usually has iron
in it and so on. It is often used in the formation of primitive tools and weapons. Flint is a type of chert.
clay: A very fine-grained natural rock that combines clay minerals with metals and/or organic
matter. Clay is plastic due to a high-water content, and very malleable, but becomes hard and
brittle after drying. If heated, or fired, as in a kiln, it becomes a hard-ceramic material. It appears
in various colors.
cleavage: \ˈklē-vij\ the structure possessed by some rocks by virtue of which they break more
readily and more persistently in one direction or in certain directions than in others.
coal: \ˈkōl\ Middle English cole: a black or brownish-black solid combustible mineral substance formed
by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter without free access of air and under the influence
of moisture and in many cases increased pressure and temperature, the substance being widely
used as a natural fuel and containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur as well as
inorganic constituents that are left behind as ash after burning.

CHAPTER 1 —
col: \ˈkäl\ from Middle French, neck, from Latin collum: a pass over in the mountains. Often over
a body of water.
coquina: \kō-ˈkē-nə, kə-\ Spanish: a soft whitish limestone formed of broken shells and corals
cemented together that is found in the southern U.S. and used for roadbeds and for building.
core: in this instance, core refers to the innermost part of the Earth, a solid sphere that is almost
800 miles in radius. It is composed of an iron–nickel alloy and some light elements.
crater: \ˈkrā-tər\ from Greek kratēr: a large hole in a planet’s surface, caused by many things,
including meteors and volcanoes, to name a few.
craton: \ˈkrā-ˌtän, ˈkra-\ modification of Greek kratos: a relatively stable and fixed area of the earth’s
crust centered near the mass of a continent.
crevasse: \kri-ˈvas\ from Old French crevace: a break, opening, or chasm of some width and
considerable depth.
crust: \ˈkrəst\ Middle English crouste, cruste: the outer part of a planet, moon, or asteroid composed
essentially of crystalline rocks and varying in thickness from place to place as distinguished from
the underlying zones composed of denser but less rigid matter.
crystal: \ˈkri-stəl\ from Latin crystallum: a body formed by the solidification under favorable conditionsof
a chemical element, a compound, or an isomorphous mixture and having a regularly repeating
internal arrangement of its atoms.
debris flow: \də-ˈbrē (ˈ)dā-¦brē, British usually ˈde-(ˌ)brē\ geological phenomena in which waterladen masses of
soil and fragmented rock rush down mountainsides, funnel into stream channels, entrainobjects in
their paths, and form thick, muddy deposits on valley floors.
desert pavement: a desert surface covered with closely packed, interlocking angular or rounded
rock fragments of pebble and cobble size.
dike ridge: a small wall-like ridge on a glacier resulting from differences in the rate of melting.
dip fault: a geologic fault whose trend is at right angles to the strike.
dome: \ˈdōm\ French, Italian, & Latin; French dôme dome: a natural formation of earth or rock
that resembles a man-made dome.
drift: \ˈdrift\ Middle English; akin to Middle Dutch drift herd: rock debris moved from one place to
another by natural/geological mean.
dripstone: stalactites or stalagmites formed of calcium carbonate.
drumlin: \ˈdrəmlə̇ n\ Irish Gaelic druim: a hill cause by glacial drift.
elevation: \ˌeləˈvāshən\ Middle English elevacioun: the height of an object relative to sea level or
another fixed point.
esker: \ˈeskə(r)\ Irish Gaelic eiscir: a long narrow ridge of boulders or sand deposited betweenice
walls by a stream flowing on, within, or beneath a stagnant glacier.
fault: a fracture in a planet’s crust. These occur in places of instability and create fault lines. fjord:
\(ˈ)fē-¦ȯrd, ˈfyȯrd\ from Old Norse fjörthr: a deep inlet of the sea between tall cliffs. flint: \ˈflint\ from Old
English: a variety of quartz that shears sharply.
flow: \ˈflō\ Middle English, from flowen: In geologic terms, it is the movement of liquids from one
point to another.
foreshock: one of possibly many small tremors before an earthquake.

GEOGRAPHY
gabbro: \ˈga(ˌ)brō\ Italian: a rock of a family of granular igneous rocks composed essentially of calcic
plagioclase (as labradorite), a ferromagnesian mineral (as augite, hypersthene, olivine, or
hornblende), and accessory minerals (as apatite, magnetite, ilmenite).
geode: \ˈjēˌōd\ from Greek geōdēs: a cavity lined stone with crystals inside.
geyser: \ˈgīzə(r)\ Icelandic Geysir: spring that occasionally spews forth heated water, causedby
subterranean water passing over heated rocks in the earth that creates steam and heat that
obscures free circulation.
glaciation: \ˌglās(h)ēˈāshən\ from Latin glaciatus: the act of freezing; forming of ice sheets.
glacier: \ˈglā-shər sometimes -zhər, especially British ˈgla-sē-ər or ˈglā-\ from Late Latin glacia:
a large body of ice moving slowly down a slope or valley.
glacier cave: a cave inside a glacier, either by melting or natural formation.
gneiss: \ˈnīs\ German gneis: a laminated or foliated metamorphic rock corresponding in composition to
granite or some other feldspathic plutonic rock and often named for a conspicuous mineral
constituent.
gouge: \ˈgau̇ j\ from Middle French gouge: clay-like material often present between a vein anda
wall or along a fault.
graben: \ˈgräbən\ from Old High German grabo: a depressed segment of earth surrounded by two faults.
granite: \ˈgra-nət\ from Latin granum: a naturally occurring igneous rock formation, consisting of
quartz, mica, and various other minerals.
graywacke: \ˈgrā + ˌ-\ translation of German grauwacke: coarse sandstone that is usually dark gray
and is composed of subangular to rounded fragments of quartz, feldspars, and bits of other dark-
colored minerals.
greenstone: numerous dark green rocks, usually compact.
groove: \ˈgrüv\ Middle English grofe, groof: a long, usually hollow and narrow, channel occurring
either naturally or manmade on the surface of rock.
heave: \ˈhēv\ the displacement of rock or earth along a fault line.
hoodoo: \ˈhü-(ˌ)dü\ of African origin: a natural rock column resulting from weathering and erosion.
humus: \ˈ(h)yü-məs\ from Latin: the part of soil that is organic, caused by decomposition of plant
or animal material.
igneous rock: \ˈig-nē-əs\ Latin igneus: rock that is formed by the cooling and hardening of
molten magma from a volcano.
jasper: \ˈja-spər\ from Greek iaspis: an opaque quartz of many colors.
karst: \ˈkärst\ German: an area of limestone filled with ridges, sinks, caverns and underground streams.
lahar: \ˈläˌhär\ Javanese: volcanic debris within a mudflow.
lava: \ˈlä-və, ˈla-\ Italian: fluid rock that is sent out of a volcano or a fissure in the earth.
limestone: a rock that is chiefly formed by accumulation of organic remains (as shells or
coral), that consists mainly of calcium carbonate though sometimes also containing magnesium
carbonate, and that is extensively used in building, agriculture, and metallurgy and yields lime
when burned.
loess: \ˈles, ˈləs, ˈlōˌes\ Old High German lōs: yellowish brown loam that ranges to clay at the one extreme
and to fine sand at the other.

CHAPTER 1 —
mafic: \ˈmafik\ magnesium + Latin ferrum + English -ic: group of minerals characterized by their
dark color, usually consisting of iron and magnesium.
magma: \ˈmagmə, ˈmaig-\ from Latin: liquid molten rock; see lava above.
magnetic pole: one of two small regions in the polar areas of the northern and southern hemispheres.
mantle: \ˈman-təl\ from Latin mantellum: the part of the earth’s interior beneath the lithosphere
and above the central core from which it is separated by a discontinuity at a depthof about 1800
miles.
marble: \ˈmär-bəl\ from Old French marbre: crystallized limestone that is capable of taking a high polish.
maze cave: dense network of caves, often on many levels resembling a maze because of its
complexity.
metamorphic rock: \¦me-tə-¦mȯr-fik\ rock that transforms, in both shape and sometimes
chemistry due to heat and pressure.
migmatite: \ˈmigməˌtīt\ Late Latin migmat-: a gneiss (see above) produced by the injection of
igneous material between the laminae of a schistose formation.
mineral: \ˈmin(ə)rəl\ from Medieval Latin minerale: solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or
compound.
moraine: \-ān\ French: earth and stone moved along and deposited by a glacier.
mylonite: \ˈmīləˌnīt, ˈmil-\ Greek mylōn: a schist (see below) caused by the intense crushing of rock.
nappe: \ˈnap\ French: a sheet of flowing water caused by a dam.

oolite: \ˈōəˌlīt\ from French oolithe: a rock consisting of many round fine grains that resemble
roe, hence the “oo” as in egg.
orogeny: \ȯˈräjənē\ International Scientific Vocabulary oro-+-geny: mountains formed by the folding
of the earth’s crust.
parabolic dune: \¦parə¦bälik\\ˈd(y)ün\ from New Latin parabola: u-shaped mounds of sand with
convex noses trailed by elongated arms.
pedalfer: \pə̇ ˈdalfə(r)\ ped- + alumen + Latin ferrum: soil that lacks a solid layer of carbonates.
pedocal: \ˈpedəˌkal\ ped- + Latin calc-, calx: pedalfer. (see above)

pegmatite: \ˈpegməˌtīt\ from Greek pēgmat: coarse textured igneous rock occurring in veins of
rocks caused by magma.
permafrost: \ˈpərmə+ˌ-\ permanently frozen layer of soil.
pipe: \ˈpīp\ from Old English pīpa: an elongated tube of ore.
placer: \ˈplā-sər\ Spanish: an alluvial or glacial deposit (as of sand or gravel) containing particles
of gold and/or other valuable minerals.
playa: \ˈplīə\ from Medieval Latin plagia: the flat bottom of an undrained desert basin.
quartzite: \ˈkwȯrtˌsīt\ International Scientific Vocabulary quartz + -ite: a compact granular rock
composed of quartz.
rhyolite: \ˈrīəˌlīt\ German rhyolith: very acidic volcanic rock.
rift: \ˈrift\ of Scandinavian origin: an opening in rock caused by splitting. (see fissure above)
rockslide: downward movement of rocks over an inclined surface. salinization: \ˌsāˌlēnə̇ ˈzāshən,
-līn-\ salt that accumulates in soil. sandstone: sedimenatry rock comprised of mostly sand.
GEOGRAPHY
schist: \ˈshist\ from Latin schistos: a metamorphic crystalline rock having a closely foliated structure.
Compare with gneiss, which consists of feldspar.
sea level: the level at which the sea is. Also: sea level at its mean position midway between
mean high and low water adopted as a standard for the measurement of heights.
sedimentary rock: \¦sedə¦mentərē, -n.trē, -ri\ rock formed from sediment, such as limestone,
gypsum, and sandstone.
shale: \ˈshāl \ from Old English scalu, scealu: rock that is formed by the consolidation of clay,
mud, or silt, has a finely stratified or laminated structure parallel to the bedding.
shatter cone: a conical fragment of rock that has striations radiating from the apex and that is
formed by high pressure.
silica: \ˈsilə̇ kə, -lēkə\ from Latin silic-, silex: the chemically resistant dioxide SiO2 of silicon thatoccurs
naturally in the three crystalline modifications of quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite.
slate: \ˈslāt\ from Middle French esclate: a thin, flat slab of laminated rock.
soil: \ˈsȯi(-ə)l\ from Old French soiller, souiller: upper layer of the earth that is firm but plowable.
stalactite: \stəˈlakˌtīt sometimes ˈstalək-; usually -īt+V\ from Greek stalaktos: a deposit of crystalline
calcium carbonate descending from the roof or side of a cave.
stalagmite: \stəˈlagˌmīt, -ˈlaig- sometimes ˈstaləg-; usually -īt+V\ from Greek stalagma: a deposit of crystalline
calcium carbonate formed on the floor of a cave by the drip of water saturated with calcium
bicarbonate.
star dune: \ˈd(y)ün\: pyramidal sand mounds with slip faces on three or more arms that radiate
from the high center of the mound.
stoping: the process whereby magmas make space for their advance by detaching and engulfing
fragments of the invaded rocks
stratification: \ˌstra-tə-fə-ˈkā-shən\ Latin stratification-, stratificatio: arrangement of sedimentary

rock in layers.
surging glacier: short-lived event where a glacier moves much faster than normal.
taconite: \ˈtakəˌnīt\ Taconic range + English -ite: flint-like rock containing iron oxide.
talus: \ˈtā-ləs, ˈta-\ from Latin talutium: debris of rock found at the bottom of a cliff, usually caused
by gravity upon a slope.
tar: \ˈtär\ from Old English teoru: dark brown or black bituminous liquids or semiliquids that are
caused by the destructive distillation of wood and other organic materials.
till: \ˈtil\ subsoil containing gravel and stone.
vesicle: \ˈvesə̇ kəl, -sēk-\ from Latin vesicula: a small hole in a mineral or rock and especially in
a basaltic lava produced by the expansion of vapor in the molten mass.
volcano: \väl-ˈkā-(ˌ)nō, vȯl-\ from Latin Volcanus, Vulcanus: a more or less conical hill or mountain
composed wholly or in part of the material ejected from such a vent and often having a depression or
crater at its top.
water table: the limit of ground wholly saturated with water whether very near the surface or
many feet below it.
weathering: the action of the elements upon objects exposed to the weather.

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CHAPTER 1

Average Annual Rainfall: 100 in. (250 cm)

Average Annual Rainfall: 42 in. (106 cm)

Average Annual Rainfall: 32 in. (81 cm.)

Average Annual Rainfall: 9 in. (23 cm.)

Average Annual Rainfall: 12 in. (31 cm.)

12 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

Average Annual Rainfall: 8 in. (20 cm.)

Average Annual Rainfall: 5 in. (13 cm.)

Average Annual Rainfall: 4 in. (10 cm.)

mediterranean climate (chaparral): \¦sha-pə-¦ral, -¦rel\ Spanish: Seasonal differences are

Average Annual Rainfall: 17 in. (43 cm.)

Average Annual Rainfall: 32 in. (81 cm.)

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 13

14 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands: Semi-arid to semi-

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 15

grassland: An area in which various grasses predominate, such as a prairie.

16 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

MOUNTAINS & HILLS

knoll: \ˈnōl\ from Old English cnoll: A small knob.

hill: A natural elevation in the earth, usually smaller than a mountain.

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 17

peak: The pinnacle of a mountain.

snowline: elevation where snow remains all year.

18 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 19

timberland: An area marked or purposely grown for the cultivation of timber.

UNDERGROUND BIOMES, CAVES

20 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 21

cavern: \ˈka-vərn\ from Middle French: a large cavity found in a cave.

dark zone: Compound: area of a cave that never gets light.

fissure: \ˈfi-shər\ from Latin fissura: an opening or crack in a rock.

22 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

sinkhole: round and “bowl-shaped” holes created when a cave collapses.

soda straws: Compound: hollow stalactites that look like straws.

drylands: a place of very little rainfall.

sand dune: \ˈd(y)ün\: a dune, usually in the desert, comprised of sand.

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 23

transverse dune: \(ˈ)tran(t)s-¦vərs, (ˈ)tranz-\\ˈd(y)ün\ also called barchan, it is a crescent

RIVERS, LAkES & OTHER

24 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

meander: \mēˈandə(r), -ˈaan-\ from Greek maiandros: a turn in a stream or river.

tarn: \ˈtärn\ of Scandinavian origin: a small lake on a mountain.

water gap: Compound: stream that runs through a mountain pass.

waterfall: Steep descent of water in a stream or river.

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 25

key: \ˈkē\ from Lucayo cayo: A small island.

THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY 27

rip current: Strong surface current headed away from shore.

regional: A sea near a body of water; contrasted with international sea.

swash: \ˈswäsh\ A body of water that splashed forth.

wave: \weɪv\: A swell of water that has forward momentum.

ATMOSPHERE, SKY, WEATHER

28 THE STORYTELLER’S DICTIONARY

asperatus: Clouds with a dark and stormy appearance.

cap cloud: A small cloud surmounting a mountain peak.

cloudy: \ˈklau̇ -dē\ a condition of clouds being in a certain area.