HYDROGEN

COMPRESSION
BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY

NOVEMBER 2022
2 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 3

HYDROGEN TABLE OF CONTENTS

COMPRESSION INTRODUCTION
BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 5

HYDROGEN IN OUR FUTURE

6

HYDROGEN COMPRESSION
8

COMPARISON OF TECHNOLOGIES
FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
23

CONCLUSIONS
30

REFERENCES
31
4 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 5

INTRODUCTION
The European hydrogen economy is being The European Forum for Reciprocating
shaped at this very moment. On a regular Compressors (EFRC) presents this document
basis, governmental bodies and industrial with the purpose of providing the reader with
parties or consortia present their plans for the latest insights in compression technology
large scale hydrogen production sites, for pure hydrogen (>95%). An objective
hydrogen import, hydrogen distribution overview of advantages and disadvantages of
networks and hydrogen storage. Press these technologies is provided to enable
releases of end user intentions to investigate different applications that are foreseen in
hydrogen as their preferred future energy the hydrogen economy. It aims to showcase
source appear frequently. The ambitions of existing hydrogen compressor technology,
the European Commission stress that many the challenges ahead and the ongoing
more of these projects and ambitions are developments to support the transition
required to reach our climate goals and towards a green hydrogen economy.
secure our energy supply. These ambitions EFRC supports end users, manufacturers
and the growing demand boost the complete and scientists working in the field of recipro-
supply chain for the hydrogen economy, cating compressors in terms of technology
including the hydrogen compressor industry. and innovation, exchange of experience,
formation and enforcement of precompetitive
With years of experience in gas transport, research, standards and guidelines, training
storage and the petrochemical industry, the and student exchange. Its geographical reach
compressor manufacturers and supporting has grown from Central Europe to entire
industrial parties have made significant Europe and recently to the US. EFRC has
investments to keep up the pace with the conducted literature surveys, interviews and
increasing demand on hydrogen compres- data processing to identify the status and
sors. The hydrogen molecule is not new to challenges for compression in the hydrogen
the industry, even up to relatively high economy. This resulted in a detailed techni-
percentages in a gas stream. However, for cal report for EFRC members and this white
compression of nearly pure hydrogen, this paper for the general audience.
situation is different.
6 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 7

HYDROGEN IN OUR FUTURE

Solar and wind energy have a significant The combined potential capacities of gas in industry, a reactive agent for green Hydrogen has been in our economy for a long
potential in Europe, that is currently under- renewable energy from sun and wind is steel production and for the production of time. Hydrogen compression has been
utilised. This potential is of great importance expected to be much larger than what can be electricity (see Figure 1). Moreover, hydrogen performed in the petrochemical industry for
for the decarbonization strategies of directly absorbed as electricity in the energy can be stored and transported from parts of decades and dedicated (and re-used)
European countries, and is now increasingly systems (Kakoulaki, et al., 2021). Using the world with an abundance of renewables hydrogen transport pipelines are operational
considered strategically important for future renewable electricity for water electrolysis, to areas where renewables are insufficiently in Europe. The envisioned volumes of
energy security. To exploit this potential, large capturing wind and solar energy in hydrogen, available. In addition, electrolysis-based hydrogen (and related molecules like
volumes of variable wind and solar power will provides an additional route to incorporate plants can represent a great source of ammonia or methanol), as well as the
have to be integrated into the energy systems much larger amounts of variable renewable flexibility on the demand side in supporting number of applications for end use are
in European countries. The European energy into the energy systems and markets. controlled integration of variable electricity expected to grow significantly over the next
Commission in their Green Deal see a Hydrogen is a very versatile energy carrier supply into the electrical grid. years (Council, 2022).
significant role of hydrogen next to electricity that can be used as a gaseous fuel in
in our future energy system (European various applications that are difficult to
Commission, 2020). electrify, but also as feedstock and industrial

Figure 1. The roles of hydrogen and electricity in our

future energy system.
8 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 9

HYDROGEN COMPRESSION
Although the hydrogen economy of the future as reciprocating compressors and centrifugal on its own. Discharge (fueling) pressures are
is still being defined, it is evident that compressors), to less frequently seen HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS currently 350 bar for large vehicles, to 700
compression will be required at different non-mechanical compressors like electroche- The selection of compressor will depend bar for personal vehicles. Although the use
applications and scales (see Figure 2). mical compressors. Each compressor type heavily on the application requirements, as of hydrogen in passenger cars may be
Over the past centuries several types of has its own specific design, with its specific well as available space and total costs of limited, the long distance heavy duty
compressors have been developed, from advantages and drawbacks. ownership. Generally speaking, four roles for transport is a likely candidate to use
the renowned mechanical compressors (such compressors are identified: hydrogen or a synthetic fuel as an energy
source. Fueling station compressors are
1. Injection into the transport grid different from other storage compressors
Hydrogen Production Transport and Storage Hydrogen End Use
This application comprehends the boosting because of the requirements on high
of hydrogen to approximately 30 to 80 bar, hydrogen purity, relatively small capacity and
as is currently foreseen for the European intermittent operation.
Underground
gas storage Hydrogen Backbone (van Rossum,
Tank storage et al., 2022). In the early stage of (inter) 4. End user demand
Industry
national hydrogen distribution networks, Whether it is hydrogen use for high tempera-
the pressure is expected to be built up by the ture heating in industrial processes, for
Offshore Hydrogen
electrolysis import injection compressors only, which are feedstock in chemical processes or the use
located near electrolysers. In case of in power generation, each end user will have
increased exploitation of these networks, its specific requirements to the capacity,
Powerplant
larger pressure losses can be foreseen that pressures, temperature, purity etc. of the
may bring the need for booster compressors. hydrogen it will process. Tailor made compres-
Compressors will also be required at sion solutions will therefore be required at the
injection stations that blend hydrogen into end users. End users that are located close to
Onshore
electrolysis existing natural gas streams. a hydrogen distribution grid may not require
Boosting
Fueling stations compression, in case the grid pressure is
2. Storage always higher than the required pressure.
Hydrogen storage is an important component
in the hydrogen value chain to assure
security of supply at periods of lower
Figure 2. Typical applications where compression will be required in our future hydrogen economy, based on a production. Tank storage sites are expected
hydrogen distribution grid. at different scales at several locations, both
onshore and offshore. On a larger scale, salt
caverns are currently prepared as under-
ground hydrogen storage sites, to allow for
larger capacities on longer time scales.
Typical discharge pressures are foreseen to
go up to 200 bara for salt caverns, whereas
storage tanks may even be operated at
higher discharge pressures.

3. Fueling stations
The discharge pressures, flow rates and
number of starts and stops make the
compressors used at fueling stations a topic
10 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 11

COMPRESSORS FOR also the required capacity shall be transpor- maps are actual, industrial reference cases, In the next sections, an overview of a
HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS ted by one or multiple machines. If intermit- for compression of pure hydrogen (MW<2.5). selected number of compressor types is
The major compression technologies used tent operation of the machine is expected, The reciprocating compressors (green dots) presented that are either currently seen, or
for hydrogen applications are then capacity control and the impact of the span a large range of flows, up to a pressure that may become operational at the appro­
(see Figure 3); number of starts and stops becomes more of around 400 bar and include both lubrica- priate scales in the future. It shall be noted
− Positive displacement (reciprocating piston, relevant. Some compressors operate only for ted and non-lubricated type. The diaphragm that research is done on existing and new
diaphragm/hydraulic/ionic, and screw a small range of gas composition changes, (black), hydraulic (red) and ionic (cyan) compressor types every day, to optimise
compressors), where a certain volume of whereas others may not be able to meet the compressors extend toward very high performance at the required scales.
gas is captured, compressed by a gradual hydrogen purity requirements for certain pressure (1000 bar), but have a limited
reduction within a control volume and applications. More general considerations, capacity. The screw compressors (blue) cover
discharged at elevated pressure. like CAPEX, OPEX, efficiency, MTBF, techno- an intermediate range of capacity, but are
− Dynamic (centrifugal compressors), where logy maturity and pulsations, vibrations and limited to a discharge pressure of typically
kinetic energy (impeller velocity) is added noise are also aspects used to determine the 30 bar. Centrifugal compressors are absent
to the incoming gas stream and, subse- most suitable compression type for the in this plot, as no industrial references were
quently, converted to into static energy specific application. found on pure hydrogen (active field of
(pressure). development in industry).
− Non-mechanical compression, using The interplay between capacity (e.g. flowrate)
different principles such as electrochemis- and head (differential pressure that is
try or via adsorption (or absorption) of introduced on the gas) of a compressor
hydrogen into porous materials provides an essential basis of comparison in
between different compression technologies
Different aspects of compressors determine and can be seen in Figure 4. The coverage of
which type is best applicable for the specific the map, for the different compressor types,
application or role. Not only shall the is comparable to generic maps that are
attainable discharge pressure of the machine found in reference text books on compres-
be higher or equal to the desired pressure, sors. It shall be noted that the dots in the

Figure 4. Compressor map with current industrial references (dots) and performance ranges lines) for pure hydrogen
applications. To the author’s best knowledge, no pure hydrogen centrifugal compression references are available.
Centrifugal compressors for natural gas applications typically operate at the lower right quadrant (high capacity, low to
medium discharge pressures).
Figure 3. Types of compressors.
12 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 13

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT piston movement is triggered by a hydraulic As a consequence of the operating principle, also pressure packings (piston rod), piston
COMPRESSION fluid. Positive displacement compressors reciprocating compressors have a large rings and rider rings (wear bands) are subject
Positive displacement compressors have provide a large range in capacity. The ability to adapt to varying process conditions to wear. With adequate design and operation,
been in use for centuries, including for compressor capacity is directly related to the such as flowrate or gas composition chan- replacement of wearing parts can be
hydrogen compression, and therefore this rotating speed, the number and size of the ges. The gas composition and corresponding scheduled within the overall maintenance
technology is considered very mature. control volumes (compressor cylinders or molecular weight of hydrogen gas is very strategy. Intermittent operation may intro-
Positive displacement compressors for screw compressor lobes). sensitive to even small percentages of duce extra challenges on wearing parts.
hydrogen compression come in different contamination.
configurations: Reciprocating compressors for hydrogen In terms of capacity control, various proven Depending on the application, the purity of
− reciprocating piston compressors; applications techniques exist for reciprocating compres- the hydrogen may be a key aspect.
− diaphragm, hydraulic and ionic The reciprocating compressor is the most sors, such as speed control, bypass lines, Many reciprocating compressors use
compressors; traditional member of the positive displace- suction valve throttling, suction valve lubricated pistons, thereby increasing the
− screw compressors. ment family, with the longest track record for unloading, clearance pockets and stepless maintenance intervals. The lubrication,
Positive displacement compressors use a hydrogen. It has a large range in capacity (up reverse flow capacity control. however, introduces oil into the hydrogen
simple and effective operating principle: to 200.000 Nm3/h) and discharge pressure The most common (proven) techniques for stream. For applications where high-purity
direct compression by reducing a controlled (in excess of 400 bar for lubricated compres- hydrogen compression are suction valve hydrogen is required (e.g. fuel cells and
volume by means of mechanical energy. The sors, up to 225 bar for non-lubricated unloading and stepless reverse flow control. hydrogen liquefaction), non-lubricated
control of inflow and outflow is enforced by compressors). The typical pressure ratio per Speed regulation for hydrogen is limited to a reciprocating piston compressors must be
opening and closing valves (reciprocating and stage is 1.6-2.5. In case a large total minimum of 60-70% of the maximum used. The absence of lubrication may
diaphragm compressors) or by mechanically compression ratio is required, this is capacity, to ensure proper operation of introduce extra wear and may increase
driven geometrical openings (screw compres- achieved by introducing multiple stages, the compressor valves at lower speeds. running surface temperatures due to friction.
sors). The volume expansion or compression typically up to 4 depending on the process. Reciprocating compressors are relatively Non-lube piston compressors have been
is controlled by a moving reciprocating piston A schematic overview of the elements in a insensitive to intermittent operation. used successfully up to 350 bar.
or revolving lobes. In case of diaphragm or reciprocating compressor cylinder is presen- Reciprocating compressors have a robust Development of pure hydrogen specific wear
hydraulic compressors, the membrane/ ted in Figure 5. track record, also in processes with many materials and seal ring designs will push this
starts-stops, for example in underground pressure limit higher in the near future. For
natural gas storage systems. current state of the art, higher outlet
pressures require lubricated piston compres-
By the nature of its design, the reciprocating sors which may then require additional
compressor has wearing parts. equipment in the form of oil separation and
Most obvious are the compressor valves, but filtering.

Figure 5. Schematic overview of a reciprocating compressor cylinder. Figure 6. Examples of two reciprocating hydrogen compressors. Courtesy of Neuman & Esser (left) and SIAD MI (right).
14 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 15

The intrinsic design of a reciprocating machines hydraulic oil drives a membrane or The key design feature for diaphragm low running speeds, to maintain integrity of
compressor results in an unsteady flow of a piston. In case of the ionic liquid compres- compressors is the hermetic sealing of the piston seals and hydraulic seals. Thus, the
gas. The pulsating flow will lead to pressure sor, the hydrogen is compressed and process gas from the lubricated parts. For capacity and efficiency is generally less
pulsations (a fluctuation around the mean expanded by pumping the ionic liquid in and diaphragm compressors, there is virtually no favorable than for the diaphragm
pressure), which may introduce vibration or out of the compression chamber volume. gas leakage across the membrane sealings, compressor.
damages to piping or equipment in the The ionic liquid has a low solubility which which allows for efficient compression up to
vicinity of the compressor. Typical methods eliminates the necessity of separation very high pressures. For hydraulic compres- The maturity of these compressors is
to control harmful effects of pulsations are a material between the hydrogen and the liquid sors, the low running speed and the distance considered high, with many examples running
good pulsation damper design, restriction (membrane or piston), which also increases piece between the gas side and the hydraulic in hydrogen compression systems (in
orifice plates, adequate pipe routing and cooling capacity and efficiency. Schematic side, ensure very clean hydrogen. For ionic particular for the mobility sector).
robust pipe supports. The risks of harmful overviews of the elements in these compres- compressors, fractions of ionic liquid may These compressors have wearing parts.
noise radiation are typically limited for sor cylinders are presented in Figure 7. carry over into the hydrogen flow; hence an The membranes, valves, sealings and
reciprocating compressors. Examples of the respective compressors are outlet separation unit is required. packings shall be periodically replaced.
presented in Figure 8. Careful operation is required, in particular in
Diaphragm compressors, Ionic liquid The capacity of these compressors is intermittent service to ensure optimum
piston compressors and hydraulic generally lower than the capacity of reciproca- reliability of the wearing parts. A typical
compressors for hydrogen applications ting compressors. This is caused by the replacement of a membrane (diaphragm
The diaphragm compressors, hydraulic limited swept volumes (diaphragm, ionic) and compressor) is relatively time-consuming and
compressors and ionic liquid compressors are the low running speed (hydraulic). In (pure) expensive, compared to for example replace-
typically applied when high-purity hydrogen is hydrogen service, reported capacities range ment of parts in hydraulic compressors.
to be compressed, to high discharge pressu- up to 1000 Nm3/h, with discharge pressures
res. The operating principle is similar to that ranging up to 1000 bar.
of a reciprocating compressor, but in these
Due to the minimal clearances, the favorable
cooling capacity and higher allowed
discharge temperatures for diaphragm
compressors, the pressure ratio per stage
in diaphragm compressors is generally higher
(2.5-5.5) than for reciprocating compressors.
This enables a design with less stages.
Hydraulic compressors are generally run at

Figure 7. Schematic overviews of the principles behind a hydraulic piston compressor, an ionic liquid compressor and a Figure 8. Examples of an ionic liquid compressor (left), a diaphragm compressor (middle) and a hydraulic piston
diaphragm compressor. compressor (right). Courtesy of Neuman & Esser for the diaphragm and hydraulic piston compressor examples.
16 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 17

Screw compression for hydrogen for pressurization. Unlike for the compres- Screw compressors operate at higher Screw compressors, similar to centrifugal
applications sors described above, the compression capacities than their reciprocating counter- compressors, contain a limited set of
Screw compressors are rotary type positive chamber is formed by the interlocked lobes parts but fall short of surpassing dynamic wearing parts, which allows for higher
displacement compressors. The initial of male and female screws (sometimes compressors. The rotor sizes and lobe reliability and availability compared to
dry screw compressor design by Alf Lysholm sealed with oil) and compression is realised profiles define the swept volume and, hence, reciprocating compressors.
dates back to 1930s (Lysholm, 1941). Since by the continuous rotation of the two lobes the maximum capacity of a screw compres-
then, screw compressors found traction in onto each other. The inlet and outlet ports of sor. The capacity control of a screw compres-
applications where large capacities are a screw compressor is open to suction and sor can be achieved robustly in a variety of
required with small footprints but limited discharge lines respectively. Hence, the ways, e.g. variable speed control, internal
discharge pressures, e.g. fuel gas boosting of pressurization within the rotating lobes need spillback via slide valves, recycling in the
gas turbines, vapor recovery and refrigeration to be carefully designed to achieve suitable process. Similar to capacity control, variable
applications (Hanlon, 2001). discharge pressure with the gas before pressure operation can be realised efficiently
discharging into the process piping. by adjusting internal volume ratios.
Similar to other positive displacement A schematic overview of the screw compres-
compressors, screw compressors rely on sor is presented in Figure 9. Screw compressors operate up to discharge
a gradually reduced compression chamber pressures of 30 bar. This limitation is caused
by leakages inside the compressor (especi-
ally for low molecular weight gases like
hydrogen), allowable discharge temperatures,
and loads on the screw compressor shaft
(Wennemar, 2009). Due to these limitations,
dry gas screw compressors are rarely applied
in hydrogen applications where significant
pressure ratios are needed (Takao Ohama,
2006). The cooling and sealing benefits, that
are inherent in oil or water injected screw
compressors, help solve these challenges to
a large extent. Oil injected screw compres-
sors are commonly used for pure hydrogen
applications with discharge pressures of 30
bar, as seen in Figure 4. Still, the load
bearing capacity of the screw compressor
shaft remains the bottleneck in achieving
higher discharge pressures with oil injected
screw compressors. Reaching higher
discharge pressures is a research topic in
Figure 9. Schematic overview of a screw compressor. the screw compressor industry (Amano,
2010). Furthermore, the benefits of oil
injection comes at the expense of reduced
capacities and require of oil separation units
to maintain gas purity for downstream
processes.
18 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 19

CENTRIFUGAL Centrifugal compressors offer high capaci- Centrifugal compressors are currently limited Furthermore, compared to positive displace-
COMPRESSION FOR ties, yet only perform optimally in case to low pressure ratios per stage for hydrogen ment machines, the compression process in
HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS the range of operating conditions is small applications. The head that a centrifugal a centrifugal compressor is more continuous
Centrifugal compressors are a mature and well defined. The flow range of a compressor generates is highly dependent by nature. Although, it is less likely
compression technology in hydrogen-rich centrifugal compressor is defined by on the impeller rotational speed (i.e. the to have vibration and noise problems in the
applications, such as recycle gas compres- aerodynamic effects at the lower end (surge) amount of imparted kinetic energy) and the attached pipe systems of a centrifugal
sors in refinery applications (Barton, 2021). and the choke point of the gas (reaching number of subsequent stages of compres- compressor, any hydrogen compression
However, centrifugal compressors that serve sonic velocity) at the higher end. Centrifugal sion. Compared to higher molecular weight system design should account for the
pure hydrogen applications (with comparable compressors are designed to operate at their gases (e.g. methane), low molecular weight expected higher hydrogen flow velocities and
pressure ratios to natural gas applications) highest efficiency at a given design condi- gases (e.g. hydrogen) require higher impeller its impact on flow induced pulsations.
are in development phase. tion, but the operating efficiency can change rotational speeds in order to realise compa-
Figure 11 presents the compression significantly at off-design conditions. Typical rable pressure ratios per stage. Pressure
process, where gas is taken in through the polytropic efficiencies range from 70 to 90 ratios per stage of 1.1 are typical for
inlet casing and into the eye of the impeller. percent (Gallick, 2006) and the loss of hydrogen applications even when high tip
The rotation of the impeller serves to efficiency is strongly related to internal speeds (around 350 m/s) are used (Brun,
increase the (kinetic) energy level of the fluid friction and incidence losses (especially at 2021).
by whirling it outwards. Subsequently, the off-design conditions). Similar to reciproca-
flow passes through the diffuser (or scroll) ting compressors, capacity control can be Although the high speed of sound of
and the imparted kinetic energy is converted achieved with speed variation (with a variable hydrogen allows an increase in impeller
into pressure. This latter process can be speed drive), with the operation of a recycle speed, commonly used impeller materials
enhanced by introducing a row of radial line, or with the use of inlet guide vanes that are not able to withstand the high centrifugal
diffuser vanes. help adjust the centrifugal compressor to forces generated due to required high
changes in inlet flowrate conditions. impeller tip speeds. Therefore, mechanical
considerations currently limit the compres-
sion of hydrogen to low pressure ratios per
stage.
Considering the fact that number of stages in
a casing is limited due to rotor dynamic
stability, centrifugal compressors have
traditionally been limited to lower pressure
ratios for hydrogen applications. Overcoming
these identified mechanical limitations and
enabling higher pressure ratio compression
of hydrogen lies at the heart of the current
research and development focus of the
centrifugal compressor industry.

Figure 10. Schematic overview of a centrifugal compressor stage.

20 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 21

NON-MECHANICAL even improve the hydrogen purity during Metal hydride compressors Electrochemical compressors
COMPRESSION FOR compression (up to 99.999%). There are still Metal hydride compressors exploit the Electrochemical compressors are based on
HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS challenges to bring the technology readiness property of some metals, alloys, and interme- the same principle of proton-exchange
Hydrogen can be compressed in non-mecha- level (TRL) and scale on par with conventional tallic compounds to absorb and desorb membrane (PEM) fuel cells: an electric
nical ways by exploiting different principles, compressors. Non-mechanical hydrogen hydrogen forming hydrides. The working current is applied to transport hydrogen
e.g. electrochemically or via adsorption (or compressors can be grouped in the following principle is a thermally-driven chemisorption through a proton-exchange membrane from
absorption) of hydrogen into porous materi- three categories: metal hydrides, electroche- process with reversible adsorption-desorption the (low-pressure) anode side to the (high-
als. Compared to conventional compressors, mical, and adsorption-desorption compres- kinetics: hydrogen absorption occurs at low pressure) cathode side. Unlike PEM fuel
key advantages of non-mechanical compres- sors. Their working principles are presented in temperature, and lasts until the equilibrium cells, the cathode side is blocked
sors are the absence of moving parts (no risk Figure 10, and typical characteristics are pressure is equal to the feed pressure. When (i.e. no air is fed), and water is not a reaction
of vibrations, less wear of materials, no use summarized in Table 1 and in the sections the metal hydride is heated, hydrogen can be product. Instead, water is fed
of lubricants) and the ability to maintain and below, based in input found in. desorbed and released at a higher pressure. (as water vapor) along with the hydrogen
Since the compression requires only thermal feed, or on the cathode side to maintain the
energy, this type of compressors can be membrane wet and ensure stable
Adsorption-
Characteristics Metal hydrides Electrochemical advantageous in applications where waste performance.
desorption
heat is available. Metal hydride compressors
Compression Rate <10 <10 No data
are nowadays commercially available for One of the main advantages of electrochemi-
(Nm3 h-1) Batch process Continuous process Batch process
pressures up to 200 bar, while compressors cal compressors is low energy requirements,
Outlet pressure (bar) 200 850 No data at higher outlet pressure are under develop- since they ensure isothermal compression.
Efficiency (%) <10 ~60 No data ment (Sdanghi, et al., 2019). In principle, very high discharge pressures
Energy consumption 10 4-8 No data can be reached (up to 1000 barg, or up to
(kWh kg-1) Metal hydride compressors suffer from slow 875 barg in a single stage (Hyet, 2020)),
adsorption/desorption kinetics in some although the efficiency decreases considera-
TRL ~6 ~7 3
cases, and require efficient cooling. bly at high pressure due to back-transport of
Applications − Refueling stations − Refueling stations − Refueling stations Moreover, these compressors have relatively hydrogen through the membrane. In practice,
Advantages − No moving parts − No moving parts − No moving parts high specific energy consumption due to the the main applications are limited to
− Thermally driven − High compression − Low costs of low thermal conductivity of the absorbent discharge pressures up to 100 barg.
− Low footprint efficiency adsorbents materials and the high heat of adsorption. Electrochemical compressors with capacity
− High purity H2 − Low footprint − Low heat of
production − High purity H2 adsorption
production
Disadvantages − High desorption − Difficulty in − Low thermal
temperature manufacturing of conductivity of
− High heat of high-pressure cells adsorbents
desorption − Difficulty in water − Difficulty in
− Limited heat management thermal
transfer − High electrical cell management
− High weight resistance − Low-temperature
− Low efficiency at operation (77 K)
high outlet
pressure

Table 1. Characteristics of non-mechanical compressor types, as found in (Sdanghi, et al., 2020), (Hyet, 2020),
(Bellosta von Colbe, et al., 2019).
22 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 23

COMPARISON OF TECHNOLOGIES
FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
in the range of 120-600 kg/day are already
available in the market (Hyet, 2020). One of HYDROGEN FUELING sor. Other important selection criteria are the
the disadvantages is that the high-pressure Critical aspects for fueling station compres- possibility of large numbers of starts and
hydrogen is wet, and thus a desiccant must sor types are the discharge pressure that stops and the maturity or reliability of the
be used downstream of the electrochemical can be achieved, as well as the purity of the compressor.
compressor to dry the compressed hydrogen hydrogen that is discharged by the compres-
(e.g., prior to a subsequent compression
stage).

Adsorption-desorption compressors
The working principle behind this class of
non-conventional compressors is thermally-
driven bonding of hydrogen onto microporous
materials, similar to metal hydride compres-
sors. The difference is the operating
temperature for adsorption (generally driven
at temperatures as low as 77 K, i.e. the
temperature of liquid nitrogen) and type of
adsorbent used.
The main advantages of this type of non-
conventional compressors is low heat
of adsorption, and relatively high adsorption
capacity, with hydrogen density comparable
to liquid hydrogen (70 g/L) can be reached at
T=77 K. However, these non-conventional
compressors are still in their very early stage
of development, and a number of technical
challenges still need to be addressed for
upscaling (for instance, chemical stability
and ageing of the adsorbent).

Figure 11. Fueling station for hydrogen. Courtesy of Shell.

24 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 25

The critical aspects, particularly discharge INJECTION TO TRANSPORT

pressure, disqualify the screw compressor PIPELINES (FEED FROM
and centrifugal compressor types. As the ELECTROLYSERS)
hydrogen purity of key importance, a The necessity of compression downstream of
diaphragm, ionic liquid piston, hydraulic electrolysers depends on the type of
piston or a non-mechanical compressor type electrolyser installed. For alkaline stacks,
are well fit for the purpose. Looking at other current (conceptual) designs assume that
aspects such as the required capacity or the these operate at atmospheric pressure,
maturity of the system technology, the resulting in the need for compression. For
diaphragm compressor, the hydraulic piston PEM stacks, it is often assumed that they
compressor and the ionic liquid piston operate at a pressurised mode up to 30 bar,
compressor type are currently the most which reduces the need for compression.
logical, and are therefore the most observed Research to even higher production pressu-
types. res has been reported (Hancke, et al., 2022).
Hydrogen production at 200 bar appears an
Hydrogen is delivered to fueling stations economically viable option. However, the
in different forms, which has a significant techniques are considered to be in develop-
impact on the final compressor type. ment phase, and the overall compromise
Often hydrogen is delivered in tube trailer (cost, scalability, footprint) may not favor this Figure 12. Holland Hydrogen 1, 200 MW electrolyser with compression to backbone pressure of 55 bar. Courtesy of
form, where the compressor will deal with option for future, large-scale application. Shell.

varying inlet pressures as the gas volume is Production rates can vary significantly for
gradually reduced in the supply tubes. electrolysers, particularly in case they are
Liquid hydrogen delivery has a higher energy off-grid, connected only to wind farms or Compressors that feed the hydrogen into a UNDERGROUND
density of H2 per delivery load, but when solar plants. Electrolysers connected to the transportation network will need to compress HYDROGEN STORAGE
expanded to gas state it has its own (onshore) grid, or connected to electrical the hydrogen to a minimum of 30 bar. In natural gas storage, mode of operation in
limitations on supply pressure and tempera- storage facilities, can deliver a more Temperature and purity are considered salt caverns is to have set-points 4-6 times
ture to the final compression unit. constant flow of hydrogen, thereby deman- important but not critical, and could be per day. In case of hydrogen storage, the
ding less capacity control and less starts treated post compression. As stated above, production rates may be intermittent and
and stops. Depending on the electrolyser the capacity control and number of starts demand rates (and thereby required storage
type and connected equipment, the gas may and stops depends heavily on the intermit- needs) are not yet well defined.
contain significant moisture content that tency of the hydrogen production. For In case storage flexibility in salt caverns
requires separation. offshore hydrogen production, the footprint require the same flexibility as for natural
and dynamic loads induced by the compres- gas storage, then the number of starts and
sor may also be important selection criteria. stops, as well as capacity control are
considered critical aspects for compressor
For most onshore large scale Alkaline selection. Expected capacities are in
electrolyser systems, reciprocating compres- range of several 0.2 to 2 million Nm3/h per
sors are currently selected for compression, facility (assuming similar volumetric perfor-
particularly for their maturity as well as mance as natural gas). However, depending
flexibly in capacity control. on the function of hydrogen storage in the
system, the frequency of loading and
unloading of the cavern can differ signifi-
cantly from a traditional natural gas storage
26 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 27

facility, requiring other performance of the The required discharge pressure disqualifies END USE (HIGH Finally, the fuel gas composition may have an
compressor as well. Typical expected some of the compressor types such as TEMPERATURE HEAT) impact on the stability of the combustion.
compressor discharge pressures are between the screw compressors. As long as the In the petrochemical industry, fuel gases for Since existing burners already use a
200 and 250 bar, to exceed the storage maturity of alternatives is low, reciprocating combustion are most often a mixture of fluctuating mix of components, the gas purity
pressure and additional pressure losses in compressors are considered the most logical hydrocarbons and hydrogen (e.g. refinery off is not considered the most critical require-
the well. The discharge hydrogen purity is not candidate for underground hydrogen storage, gas). The percentage of hydrogen is variable, ment (probably lubricated compressors are
relevant for hydrogen storage compressors, considering the required capacity, the but can amount up to 80%. Burners, a feasible option for this application).
as hydrogen will pick up impurities while intermittent operation, required capacity designed to operate also at 100% hydrogen
stored in caverns (and reservoirs), which control, in combination with the low relevance are already available and will be a likely END USE (POWER
require cleaning post withdrawal. of the discharge purity of the hydrogen. candidate to provide high-temperature heat STATION)
in process installation, based on pure For boosting the fuel into gas turbines, a
hydrogen supply. For the traditional fuel moderate pressure is required, not exceeding
gases, combustion pressures are typically the typical backbone pressure. In case local
low (~1 barg). On existing refineries, the fuel hydrogen production at low pressure is used,
gas is typically supplied at a pressure of 2-4 additional compression may be needed
barg. For pure hydrogen, the low volumetric (examples are reported of hydrogen produc-
heating value, will demand for higher volume tion using electrolysers at atmospheric
flow rates, to achieve the same heating conditions and 8 bar).
capacity. This, combined with the higher The purity of the gas is not a key aspect, so
combustion speed for hydrogen, may demand lubricated compressor solutions are valid. In
an increased supply pressure. Still, the existing gas turbine applications (natural gas
expected pressure increase will be relatively or gas/hydrogen mixture), both reciprocating
limited (probably < 10 bar). An increased and screw compressors are used. For the
pressure may require an updated design of transition to pure hydrogen as combustion
the inlet piping (pressure class, inner fuel, screw compressors remain an attractive
diameter). candidate, while reciprocating compressors
If a network supply of medium pressure for provide a valid alternative with a higher
future hydrogen is available, no additional efficiency.
compression is required. If such a network
supply is not available, then additional
compression solutions may be required,
depending on the hydrogen discharge
pressure of the electrolyser. Typically, the
requirement of considerable capacity of
Figure 13. Underground storage facility for hydrogen in caverns. Courtesy of Gasunie/HyStock. hydrogen at moderate pressures (with
potentially fluctuating composition) favors
the application of reciprocating compressors
or screw compressors.
28 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 29

a key critical aspect. For compression of

large capacity of synthetic gas, often
centrifugal compressors are used, but
reciprocating compressors are equally valid
candidates.

Conversion to liquid hydrogen (LH2), for

example for transportation over sea, will
become increasingly necessary in a global
hydrogen economy. Production of liquid
hydrogen for global transport requires
pre-compression of pure, oil-free, hydrogen
to modest 30-50 bar pressure levels.
Reciprocating compression using non-lubrica-
ted cylinders is the likely compression
technique for this application.

Figure 14. Typical gas turbine rotor

END USE (FEEDSTOCK) purity is not a key critical aspect. For the
For boosting the fuel into feedstock proces- synthesis process, depending on the
ses, typically a moderate pressure is required capacity, reciprocating compres-
required, not exceeding the typical backbone sors, screw compressors or centrifugal
pressure. Similar to the use of hydrogen in compressors may be valid options.
gas turbines, compression may be required
in case hydrogen is produced locally at low Production of liquid green methanol
discharge pressures. The purity of the (e-methanol) requires CO and CO2 (captured
gas may be a key aspect, so lubricated from waste or alternative combustion
compressor solutions are not always valid. processes) and hydrogen. The volumetric
The required purity of the hydrogen will be a energy density of methanol is approximately
key criterion for the selection of the compres- three times the energy density of hydrogen
sor type. gas compressed to 700 bar. The methanol is
also stable in liquid form and therefore easy
The use of hydrogen for ammonia (NH3) to transport, such that it can be used as
synthesis is a promising application, mainly a fuel for heavy transport, for example for
in ship engine fueling. The requirements for ships. For the synthesis process, a gas
compression for this synthesis process is mixture at elevated pressure (50-100 bar at
limited to lower pressures and hydrogen 250 °C) is required. Hydrogen purity is not
30 HYDROGEN COMPRESSION BOOSTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 31

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
− Hydrogen is considered crucial to the decarbonization strategies globally, and is now − Amano, Y., 2010. High-pressure 100 barg Oil-flooded Screw Compressor. Kobelco
considered strategically important for future energy security. Technology Review.
− Efficient and reliable compression is required throughout the hydrogen energy chain. − Barton, M. S. L. S. J. &. T. A., 2021. Under Pressure : The Challenges of Hydrogen
− For many parts of the hydrogen chain, proven compression techniques are available, for the Compression. Hydrocarbon Engineering, August.
capacities and operating conditions required. Still, some compression technologies, − Bellosta von Colbe, J. et al., 2019. Application of hydrides in hydrogen storage and compres-
currently used for natural gas, cannot simply be applied to hydrogen compression. In those sion: Achievements, outlook and perspectives. International Journal on Hydrogen Energy,
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− Current compressor performances will have to be stretched to comply with the foreseen − Brun, K. &. S. S., 2021. Compression options for the hydrogen economy.
demands. This applies for example in a trend to larger capacity, higher pressure and Gas Compression Magazine, May.
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− New, promising compression technologies are emerging and developing. These will be − European Commission, 2020. A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe, Brussels:
playing a role in the future hydrogen system, alongside the more traditional compressors. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/hydrogen_strategy.pdf.
− Looking at the challenges ahead of us, the following recommendations are put forward: − Gallick, P. P. G. &. W. B. F., 2006. What’s Correct for my Application —
− Stay ahead of market demands for hydrogen production, transport and usage. A Centrifugal or Reciprocating Compressor?. s.l., Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth
Innovations will be required as the market demands will stretch the traditional compres- Turbomachinery Symposium.
sor performance boundaries, in terms of e.g. pressure, temperature, running speed and − Gigler, J. & Weeda, M., 2018. Routekaart Waterstof, s.l.: TKI Nieuw Gas.
intermittency. − Hancke, R., Holm, T. & Ulleberg, Ø., 2022. The case for high-pressure PEM water
− In parallel, maintain the high safety and reliability standards that this industry is used electrolysis. Energy Conversion and Management, 261(0196-8904).
to. Research and development on the use of materials is needed to enable future − Hanlon, P. C., 2001. Compressor Handbook. s.l.:s.n.
operating conditions beyond traditional operating limits. In particular, the potential − Hyet, 2020. Hyet Hydrogen HCS100. [Online]
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− Future hybrid compression solutions shall be explored. This could be combination of existing production with electrolysis powered by renewables. Energy Conversion and
various conventional compression techniques, such as boosting with a screw compres- Management, Volume 228.
sor and the higher pressure stage with a reciprocating compressor, or a reciprocating − Koga, T., 2007. High Pressure Fuel Gas Boosting Compressors. Power Engineering.
compressor boosting a high-pressure diaphragm compressor. Also hybrid solutions with − Lototskyy, M. V., Yartys, V. A., Pollet, B. G. & Bowman, a. R. C., 2014. Metal hydride
non-mechanical compression may be economically viable, for instance by using metal hydrogen compressors: A review. International Journal Hydrogen Energy, 39(11), pp.
hydride/electrochemical compressor as pre-compressor stage, upstream of a reciproca- 5818-5851.
ting compressor. − Lysholm, A., 1941. Rotary Compressor. s.l. Patent No. US2243874A.
− Consider the compressor as a part of a larger system, and identify how integration − Sdanghi, G., M. G., Celzard, A. & Fierro, V., 2020. Towards non-mechanical hybrid hydrogen
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continue to demonstrate the robustness and versatility of the available COMPRESSORS REPLACED RECIPROCATING AND CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS. s.l.,
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− Wennemar, J., 2009. Dry Screw Compressor Performance and Application Range. s.l.,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-EIGHTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM.
Colofon
Written by:
TNO – Leonard van Lier, Can Tümer,
Michele Tedesco, Lennert Buijs

Approved by the steering committee of the EFRC

Standardization Working Group:
Cook Compression – Paul Modern
Neuman & Esser – Tim Norden
Hoerbiger – Ralf Krich
SIAD – Luigi Manenti
Ariel Corporation – Ben Williams

Compressor type figures created by:

TNO

22-12745 november 2022