AIRTRAFFIC CONTROL AND

PLANNING
AE 2035

EXTRACTED AND ADAPTED BY,

R.ALLOCIOUS BRITTO
Assistant Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Nehru Institute of Technology
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NO
1 BASIC CONCEPTS 1 – 23
1.1 Objectives of the ATS 1
1.2 Parts of ATC services 1
1.3 Scope and provision of ATS 2
1.4 VFR & IFR operations 3
1.5 Classification of ATS airspaces 7
1.6 Various kind of separations 8
1.7 Establishment, Designation & Identification of units providing 11
ATS
1.8 Division of responsibility of control 11
1.9 Aircraft operating procedures – Altimeter setting procedures 15

2 AIRTRAFFIC SERVICES 24 – 60
2.1 Area control service 24
2.2 Assignment of cruising levels, minimum flight altitude, ATS 25
routes & significant points
2.3 RNAV & RNP 26
2.4 Vertical separation application 30
2.5 Horizontal separation 32
2.6 Lateral separation 32
2.7 Longitudinal separation 34
2.8 Longitudinal separation minima based on time 35
2.9 Longitudinal separation minima based on distance using DME 39
2.10 Longitudinal separation minima with Mach NO technique 46
based on time
2.11 Longitudinal separation minima based on distance using 47
RNAV
2.12 Air traffic control clearances 52
2.13 Flight plans 55
2.14 Position reports 58
3 FLIGHT INFORMATION, ALERTING SERVICES, COORDINATION, 61 – 74
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES AND RULES OF THE AIR
3.1 Radar services 61
3.2 Basic radar terminology 63
3.3 Identification procedure using primary/secondary radar 64
3.4 Performance checks 65
3.5 Use of radar in the approach control service 66
3.6 Assurance control & coordination of traffic under radar & 66
non-radar control
3.7 Flight information & advisory service 67
3.8 Alerting service 70
3.9 Emergency procedures 71
3.10 Rules of the air 73

4 AERODROME DATA, PHYSICAL CHARECTERISTICS & 75 – 82

OBSTACLE RESTRICTION
4.1 Aerodrome data 75
4.2 Aerodrome reference code 76
4.3 Aerodrome reference point 77
4.4 Aerodrome elevation 77
4.5 Aerodrome reference temperature 78
4.6 Instrument runway/ Instrument approach runway 78
4.7 Length of primary & secondary runway 79
4.8 Width of runways 80
4.9 Minimum distance between parallel runways 80
4.10 Obstacles restriction 81

5 VISUAL AIDS FOR NAVIGATION, VISUAL AIDS FOR DENOTING 83 - 106

OBSTACLES, EMERGENCY & OTHER SERVICES
5.1 Visual aids for navigation – Wind direction indicator 83
5.2 Landing direction indicator 84
5.3 Location and characteristics of signal area 85
5.4 Markings, general requirements 88
5.5 Various markings 88
5.6 Lights, general requirements 91
5.7 Aerodrome beacon 93
5.8 Identification beacon 95
5.9 Simple approach lighting system and various lighting systems 95
5.10 VASI & PAPI 99
5.11 Object to be marked and lighter 103
5.12 Emergency and other services 105

YOU HAVE TO KNOW (Related to syllabus)

Aerodrome chart 107
Runways 111
Airport layout 115
Airport lights layout 116
Altimeter setting tables 117
Basic definitions 118

REFERENCES 140
 UNIT- I

BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE AIR i) Air traffic control service

TRAFFIC SERVICES

The objectives of the air traffic

services shall be to:

a) Prevent collisions between aircraft;

b) Prevent collisions between aircraft on the

Manoeuvring area and obstructions on that

area;
The air traffic control service, to
c) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of accomplish following objectives:
air traffic;
a) Prevent collisions between aircraft;
d) Provide advice and information useful
b) Prevent collisions between aircraft on the
for the safe and efficient conduct of flights;
manoeuvring area and obstructions on that
e) Notify appropriate organizations area;
regarding aircraft in need of search and
c) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of
rescue aid, and assist such organizations as
air traffic;
required.

The provision of air traffic control service

1.2 PARTS OF ATC SERVICE
for controlled flights, except for those parts
1.2.1 Divisions of the air traffic services of such flights which are under the
jurisdiction of Approach Control or
The air traffic services comprise of three Aerodrome Control to accomplish
services identified as follows: following objectives:

a) Prevent collisions between aircraft;

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b) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of 1.3 SCOPE & PROVISION OF AIR
air traffic; TRAFFIC SERVICES

ii) Approach control service 1.3.1 Scope

The provision of air traffic control Flight information service shall

service for those parts of controlled flights include the provision of pertinent:
associated with arrival or departure, in
a) SIGMET and AIRMET information;
order to accomplish following objectives:

b) Information concerning pre-eruption

a) Prevent collisions between aircraft;
volcanic activity, volcanic eruptions and
b) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of volcanic ash clouds;
air traffic;
c) Information concerning the release into
iii) Aerodrome control service: the atmosphere of radioactive materials or
toxic chemicals;
The provision of air traffic control
service for aerodrome traffic, except for d) Information on changes in the
those parts of flights which are under the serviceability of navigation aids;
jurisdiction. Approach Control to
e) Information on changes in condition of
accomplish objectives:
aerodromes and associated facilities,
a) Prevent collisions between aircraft; including information on the state of the
aerodrome movement areas when they are
b) Prevent collisions between aircraft on the
affected by snow, ice or significant depth of
manoeuvring area and obstructions on that
water;
area;
f) Information on unmanned free balloons;
c) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of
and of any other information likely to affect
air traffic;
safety.

1.3.2 Provision of air traffic control

service

The parts of air traffic control shall

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be provided by the various units as follows:

a) Area control service: the aircraft is going. Specifically, the
weather must be better than basic VFR
1) By an area control centre; or
weather minimums, as specified in the rules
of the relevant aviation authority. The pilot
2) By the unit providing approach control
must be able to operate the aircraft with
service in a control zone or in a control area
visual reference to the ground, and by
of limited extent which is designated
visually avoiding obstructions and other
primarily for the provision of approach
aircraft. If the weather is below VFR
control service and where no area control
minimums, pilots are required to use
centre is established.
instrument flight rules, and operation of the
b) Approach control service: aircraft will primarily be through
referencing the instruments rather than
1) By an aerodrome control tower or area
visual reference.
control centre when it is necessary or
desirable to combine under the Requirements
responsibility of one unit the functions of
VFR require a pilot to be able to see
the approach control service with those of
outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's
the aerodrome control service or the area
attitude, navigate, and avoid obstacles and
control service;
other aircraft. Governing agencies establish
2) By an approach control unit when it is specific requirements for VFR flight,
necessary or desirable to establish a including minimum visibility, and distance
separate unit. from clouds, to ensure that aircraft
operating under VFR are visible from
c) Aerodrome control service: by an
enough distance to ensure safety.
aerodrome control tower.
Under Visual meteorological
1.4 VFR & IFR OPERATIONS conditions the minimum visual range,
distance from cloud, and heights to be
1.4.1 VFR Operations:
maintained above ground vary by
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set jurisdiction, and may also vary according to
of regulations under which a pilot operates the airspace in which the aircraft is
an aircraft in weather conditions generally operating. The VFR pilot is required to "see
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clear enough to allow the pilot to see where and avoid" obstacles and other aircraft.
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Pilots flying under VFR assume

responsibility for their separation from all aircraft. Additionally, an IFR flight plan
other aircraft and are generally not assigned must usually be filed in advance.
routes or altitudes by air traffic control.
For efficiency of operations, some
Depending on the category of ATC operations will routinely provide
airspace in which the flight is being "pop-up" IFR clearances for aircraft
conducted, VFR aircraft may be required to operating VFR, but that are arriving at an
have a transponder to help Air Traffic airport that does not meet VMC
Control identify the aircraft on radar in requirements. For example, in the United
order that ATC can provide separation States, California's Oakland (KOAK),
guidance to IFR aircraft. Monterey (KMRY) and Santa Ana (KSNA)
airports routinely grant temporary IFR
In the United States, a pilot
clearance when a low coastal overcast
operating VFR outside of class B airspace
forces instrument approaches, while the rest
can request "VFR flight following" from
of the state is still under visual flight rules.
ATC. This service is provided by ATC if
workload permits it, but is an advisory In the United States and Canada,
service only. The responsibility for VFR pilots also have an option for
maintaining separation with other aircraft requesting Special VFR when
and proper navigation still remains with the meteorological conditions at an airport are
pilot. In the United Kingdom, a pilot can below normal VMC minimums, but above
request for "Deconfliction Service", which Special VFR requirements. Special VFR is
is similar to flight following. only intended to enable take-offs and
Meteorological conditions that meet the landings from airports that are near to VMC
minimum requirements for VFR flight are conditions, and may only be performed
termed visual meteorological conditions during daytime hours if a pilot does not
(VMC). If they are not met, the conditions possess an instrument rating.
are considered instrument meteorological
VFR flight is not allowed in
conditions (IMC), and a flight may only
airspace known as class A, regardless of the
operate under IFR. IFR operations have
meteorological conditions. In the United
specific training requirements and
States, class A airspace begins at 18,000
certification required of the pilot, and
feet MSL, and extends to an altitude of
increased equipment requirements for the
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60,000 feet MSL.

Page
Pilot certifications 1.4.2 IFR Operations:

In the United States and Canada, Instrument flight rules (IFR) is

any certified pilot who meets specific one of two sets of regulations governing all
recency of experience criteria may operate aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations;
an airworthy aircraft under VFR. the other is visual flight rules (VFR).
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)
Controlled visual flight rules
defines IFR as: “Rules and regulations
established by the FAA to govern flight
CVFR flight is used in locations
under conditions in which flight by outside
where aviation authorities have determined
visual reference is not safe. IFR flight
that VFR flight should be allowed, but that
depends upon flying by reference to
ATC separation and minimal guidance are
instruments in the flight deck, and
necessary. In this respect, CVFR is similar
navigation is accomplished by reference to
to Instrument flight rules (IFR) in that ATC
electronic signals.
will give pilots headings and altitudes at
which to fly, and will provide separation
It is also a term used by pilots and
and conflict resolution. However, pilots and
controllers to indicate the type of flight plan
aircraft do not need to be IFR rated to fly in
an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR
CVFR areas, which is highly advantageous.
flight plan
An example of airspace where CVFR is
common would be Canadian Class B Weather reports and forecasts
airspace.
(a) Whenever a person operating an
The CVFR concept is used in aircraft under this part is required to use a
Canada and certain European countries, but weather report or forecast, that person shall
not in the U.S., where the Private Pilot use that of the U.S. National Weather
certificate itself authorizes the pilot to Service, a source approved by the U.S.
accept clearances under VFR. In Israel and National Weather Service, or a source
the Palestinian territory, for example, VFR approved by the Administrator. However,
does not exist. All visual flights must be for operations under VFR, the pilot in
performed under CVFR rules. command may, if such a report is not
available, use weather information based on
that pilot's own observations or on those of
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other persons competent to supply IFR: Destination airport weather
appropriate observations. minimums

(b) For the purposes of paragraph (a) of this No person may take off an aircraft
section, weather observations made and under IFR or begin an IFR or over-the-top
furnished to pilots to conduct IFR operation unless the latest weather reports
operations at an airport must be taken at the or forecasts, or any combination of them,
airport where those IFR operations are indicate that weather conditions at the
conducted, unless the estimated time of arrival at the next airport
of intended landing will be at or above
Administrator issues operations
authorized IFR landing minimums.
specifications allowing the use of weather
observations taken at a location not at the IFR: Alternate airport weather
airport where the IFR operations are minimums
conducted. The Administrator issues such
No person may designate an
operations specifications when, after
alternate airport unless the weather reports
investigation by the U.S. National Weather
or forecasts, or any combination of them,
Service and the certificate-holding district
indicate that the weather conditions will be
office, it is found that the standards of
at or above authorized alternate airport
safety for that operation would allow the
landing minimums for that airport at the
deviation from this paragraph for a
estimated time of arrival.
particular operation for which an air carrier
operating certificate or operating certificate
Airport requirements
has been issued.
(a) No certificate holder may use any
IFR: Take-off limitations
airport unless it is adequate for the proposed
operation, considering such items as size,
No person may take-off an aircraft
surface, obstructions, and lighting.
under IFR from an airport where weather
conditions are at or above take-off
(b) No pilot of an aircraft carrying
minimums but are below authorized IFR
passengers at night may take-off from, or
landing minimums unless there is an
land on, an airport unless—
alternate airport within 1 hour's flying time
(at normal cruising speed, in still air) of the (1) That pilot has determined the wind
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airport of departure. direction from an illuminated wind

direction indicator or local ground aerodrome traffic zones have been
communications or, in the case of take-off, classified and designated as class D
that pilot's personal observations; and airspace.

(2) The limits of the area to be used for Class E:

landing or take-off are clearly shown—
IFR and VFR flights are permitted;
(i) For airplanes, by boundary or runway IFR flights are provided with Air Traffic
marker lights; Control service and are separated from
other IFR flights. IFR flights receive traffic
(ii) For helicopters, by boundary or runway
information in respect of VFR flights; VFR
marker lights or reflective material.
flights receive traffic information in respect
of all other flights, as far as is practical.
(c) For the purpose of paragraph (b) of this
Class E is not be used for control zones.
section, if the area to be used for take-off or
Airspaces in designated ATS routes outside
landing is marked by flare pots or lanterns,
terminal areas, control areas and control
their use must be approved by the
zones, where air traffic control service is
Administrator.
provided, have been classified and
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ATS AIR designated as class E airspace.
SPACES
Class F:
ATS airspaces in India are classified
IFR and VFR flights are permitted.
and designated in accordance with the
All IFR flights receive an air traffic
following.
advisory service and all flights receive
Class D: flight information service, if requested.
Airspaces in designated ATS route
IFR and VFR flights are permitted
segments outside terminal areas, control
and all flights are provided with Air Traffic areas and control zones, where air traffic
Control service, IFR flights are separated
advisory service is provided, have been
from other IFR flights and receive traffic
classified and designated as class F
information in respect of VFR flights. VFR
airspace.
flights receive traffic information in respect
of all other flights. Airspaces in terminal
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areas, control areas, control zones and

Class G: Which aircraft need separating?

IFR and VFR flights are permitted It is a common misconception that

and receive flight information service if air traffic controllers keep all aircraft
requested. Airspaces other than those in separated. Whether aircraft actually need
Class D, E and F have been classified and separating depends upon the class of
designated as class G airspace. airspace in which the aircraft are flying, and
the flight rules under which the pilot is
1.6 VARIOUS KINDS OF
operating the aircraft. As stated by the U.S.
SEPARATIONS
FAA, The pilot has the ultimate
responsibility for ensuring appropriate
In air traffic control, separation is
separations and positioning of the aircraft in
the name for the concept of keeping an
the terminal area to avoid the wake
aircraft outside a minimum distance from
turbulence created by a preceding aircraft.
another aircraft to reduce the risk of those
aircraft colliding, as well as prevent
There are three sets of flight rules
accidents due to wake turbulence. Air
under which an aircraft can be flown:
traffic controllers apply rules, known as
separation minima to do this. Pairs of • Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
aircraft to which these rules have been
• Special Visual Flight Rules (SVFR)
successfully applied are said to be
separated: the risk of these aircraft colliding
• Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
is therefore remote. If separation is lost
between two aircraft, they are said to be in Public transport flights are almost
a conflict. exclusively operated under IFR, as this set
of rules allows flight in regions of low
When an aircraft passes behind or
visibility (e.g. cloud). On the other hand a
follows another aircraft, wake turbulence
large amount of private flying in light
minima are applied due to the effect of the
aircraft is done under VFR since this
wingtip vortices of the preceding aircraft on
requires a lower level of flying skill on the
the following aircraft. These minima vary
part of the pilot, and meteorological
depending on the relative size of the two
conditions in which a pilot can see and
aircraft. This is particularly acute on final
avoid other aircraft. As its name suggests,
approach with a smaller aircraft following
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SVFR is a special infrequently-used set of

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larger aircraft.
rules. For the purposes of separation, In areas where RVSM capabilities
controllers consider SVFR to be the same exist, 1,000ft vertical separation may be
as IFR. utilized up to FL410, and 2,000 between
FL410-FL600. 5,000 ft vertical separation
Airspace exists in seven classes, A
must be applied to all aircraft above FL600,
to G, in decreasing order of air traffic
RVSM or not. "MARSA" separation can be
control regulation. Classes A to E are
applied by military aircraft, which
controlled airspace and classes F and G are
overrides all of these rules. Under MARSA
uncontrolled airspace. At one end of the
conditions (Military Assumes
scale in classes A and B airspace, all aircraft
Responsibility for Separating Aircraft), air
must be separated from each other. At the
traffic controllers protect only a block of
other end of the scale in class G airspace
airspace around multiple military aircraft.
there is no requirement for any aircraft to be
They are treated as one, and given only one
separated from each other. In the
data tag on the controller's scope.
intermediate classes some aircraft are
separated from each other depending on the 1.6.2 Horizontal separation
flight rules under which the aircraft are
If any two aircraft are separated by
operating. For example in class D airspace,
less than the vertical separation minimum,
IFR aircraft are separated from other IFR
then some form of horizontal separation
aircraft, but not from VFR aircraft, nor are
must exist.
VFR aircraft separated from each other.

1.6.3 Procedural separation

1.6.1 Vertical separation

Procedural separation is separation

Between the surface and an altitude
based upon the position of the aircraft,
of 29,000 feet (8,800 m), no aircraft should
based upon reports made by the pilots over
come closer vertically than 300 metres or
the radio. It therefore does not necessarily
1,000 feet (in those countries that express
require the use of radar to provide air traffic
altitude in feet), unless some form of
control using procedural separation
horizontal separation is provided. Above
minima. In procedural control, any period
29,000 feet (8,800 m) no aircraft shall come
during which two aircraft are not vertically
closer than 600 m (or 2,000 feet), except in
separated is said to be "level change". In
airspace where Reduced Vertical
some cases, procedural separation minima
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Separation Minima (RVSM) can be

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are provided for use with radar assistance,

applied.
however it is important not to get this mixed Longitudinal separation can be
up with radar separation as in the former based upon time or distance as measure by
case the radar need not necessarily be DME. The golden rule is the 10 minute rule:
certified for use for radar separation no two aircraft following the same route
purposes, the separation is still procedural. must come within 15 minutes flying time of
each other. In areas with good navaid cover
1.6.4 Lateral separation
this reduces to 10 minutes; if the preceding
aircraft is faster than the following one then
Lateral separation minima are
this can be reduced further depending of the
usually based upon the position of the
difference in speed.
aircraft as derived visually, from dead
reckoning or internal navigation sources, or
Aircraft whose tracks bisect at more
from radio navigation aids ('beacons').
than 45 degrees are said to be crossing, in
this case longitudinal separation cannot be
In the case of beacons, to be
applied as it will not be very long before
separated, the aircraft must be a certain
lateral separation will exist again.
distance from the beacon (measured by
time or by DME) and their tracks to or from
1.6.6 Radar separation
the beacon must diverge by a minimum
angle. Radar separation is applied by a
controller observing that the radar returns
Other lateral separation may be
from the two aircraft are a certain minimum
defined by the geography of pre-determined
horizontal distance away from each other,
routes, for example the North Atlantic
as observed on a suitably calibrated radar
Track system.
system. The actual distance used varies: 5
nmi (9 km) is common in en route airspace,
1.6.5 Longitudinal separation
3 NM is common in terminal airspace at
If two aircraft are not laterally lower levels.
separated, and are following tracks within
On occasion 10 NM may be used,
45 degrees of each other (or the reciprocal),
especially at long range or in regions of less
then they are said to be following the same
reliable radar cover.
route and some form of longitudinal
separation must exist.
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By US FAA Rules, when an aircraft is:

Page
1. Less than 40 miles from the [radar] the standard separation to whatever is
antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles adequate to prevent a collision.
from obstructions or other aircraft.
1.7 ESTABLISHMENT,
2. 40 miles or more from the [radar] DESIGNATION AND
antenna, horizontal separation is 5 miles IDENTIFICATION OF UNITS
from obstructions or other aircraft. PROVIDING ATS

3. Terminal Area For single sensor ASR-9 The air traffic services shall be
with Mode S, when less than 60 miles from provided by units established and
the antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles designated as follows:
from other aircraft.
Flight information centers shall be
1.6.7 Reduced separation established to provide flight information
service and alerting service within flight
In certain special cases, controllers
information regions, unless the
may reduce separation below the usually
responsibility of providing such services
required minima.
within a flight information region is
assigned to an air traffic control unit having
In the vicinity of an aerodrome
adequate facilities for the discharge of such
Aerodrome or "Tower" controllers responsibility.
work in tall towers with large windows
Air traffic control units shall be
allowing them, in good weather, to see the established to provide air traffic control
aircraft flying in the vicinity of the service, flight information service and
aerodrome, unless the aircraft is not in sight alerting service within control areas,
from the tower (e.g. a helicopter departing control zones and at controlled aerodromes.
from a ramp area). Also, aircraft in the
1.8 DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITY
vicinity of an aerodrome tend to be flying at
OF CONTROL
lower speeds. Therefore, if the aerodrome
controller can see both aircraft, and both
Between Air Traffic Control Units
aircraft report that they can see each other,
or a following aircraft reports that it can see Between a units providing
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the preceding one, controllers may reduce aerodrome control service and a unit
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providing approach control service. Except

for flights which are provided aerodrome ii) Prior to the aircraft entering instrument
control service only, the control of arriving meteorological conditions, whichever is the
and departing controlled flights shall be earlier
divided between units providing aerodrome
b) When instrument meteorological
control service and units providing
conditions prevail at the aerodrome.
approach control service as follows:

i) Immediately before the aircraft enters the

Arriving aircraft: The responsibility for
runway in- use for take-off, or
the control of an aircraft approaching to
land shall be transferred from the unit
ii) Immediately after the aircraft is airborne,
providing approach control service to the
if local procedures render such action
unit providing aerodrome control service
preferable.
when the aircraft:
Between a unit providing approach
a) Is in the vicinity of the aerodrome, and
control service and a unit providing area
control service
i) It is considered that approach and landing
will be completed in visual reference to the
When area control service and
ground, or
approach control service are not provided
by the same air traffic control unit,
ii) It has reached uninterrupted visual
responsibility for controlled flights shall
meteorological conditions, or
rest with the unit providing area control
b) Has landed, whichever is the earlier. service except that a unit providing
approach control service shall be
Departing aircraft: The responsibility for
responsible for the control of:
control of a departing aircraft shall be
transferred from the unit providing a) Arriving aircraft that have been released
aerodrome control service to the unit to it by the area control centre;
providing approach control service:
b) Departing aircraft until such aircraft are
a) When visual meteorological conditions released to the area control centre.
prevail in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
Under approach sequence
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i) Prior to the time the aircraft leaves the conditions the unit providing area control
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vicinity of the aerodrome, or service shall normally be responsible for

clearing aircraft to the holding point, and extraordinary circumstances shall only be
for including holding instructions and accepted by an air traffic control unit when
expected approach time in such clearances. a specific request in some recorded form

A unit providing approach control has been obtained from the authority having
service shall assume control of arriving jurisdiction over the aircraft concerned and
aircraft, provided such aircraft have been the lower minima then to be observed shall
released to it, upon arrival of the aircraft at apply only between those aircraft.
the point agreed for transfer of control, and
Some recorded form of instruction
shall maintain control during approach to
fully covering this reduction of separation
the aerodrome. The control of more than
minima must be issued by the air traffic
one approach sequence may be effected by
control unit concerned.
a unit providing approach control service,
provided the division of control between
Temporary airspace reservation,
the unit providing area control service and
either stationary or mobile, may be
the unit providing approach control service
established for the use of large formation
is defined in instructions approved by the
flights or other military air operations.
appropriate ATS authority and is basically
Arrangements for the reservation of such
consistent with the foregoing procedures.
airspace shall be accomplished by
coordination between the user and the
Responsibility in regard to military
appropriate ATS authority.
traffic

The co-ordination shall be effected

It is recognized that some military
in accordance with the provisions of Annex
aeronautical operations necessitate non-
11 and completed early enough to permit
compliance with certain air traffic
timely promulgation of information in
procedures. In order to ensure the safety of
accordance with the provisions.
flight operations the appropriate military
authorities shall be asked, whenever
Responsibility in regard to unmanned
practicable, to notify the proper air traffic
free balloons
control unit prior to undertaking such
manoeuvres. On receipt of notification of the
intended flight of a medium or heavy
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A reduction of separation minima

unmanned free balloon, the air traffic
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required by military necessity or other

services unit shall arrange for the disseminated to all concerned. The
information to be disseminated to all information shall include:
concerned.
a) The balloon flight identification or
The information shall include: project code name;

a) The balloon flight identification or b) Balloon classification and description;

project code name;
c) SSR Code or NDB frequency as
b) Balloon classification and description; applicable;

c) SSR Code or NDB frequency as d) The launch site;

applicable;
e) The time of launch (es);
d) The launch site;
f) The estimated time at which 18 000 m (60
e) The estimated time of the 000 ft) pressure-altitude will be passed, or
commencement of the launch or the the estimated time at which the cruising
planned period of the launches; level will be reached if at or below 18 000
m (60 000 ft), and the estimated location;
f) The expected direction of ascent;
g) The estimated date and time of
g) The cruising level(s) (pressure-altitude);
termination of the flight; and
and
h) The planned location of ground contact,
h) The estimated elapsed time to pass 18
when applicable.
000 m
When there is reasonable expectation that a
(60 000 ft) pressure-altitude, or to reach
heavy or medium unmanned free balloon
cruising level if at or below 18 000 m (60
will cross international borders, the
000 ft), together with the estimated
appropriate ATS unit shall arrange for the
location.
prelaunch and the launch notifications to be
sent to the ATS unit(s) in the State(s)
On receipt of notification that a
concerned by NOTAM Class 1. If agreed
medium or heavy unmanned free balloon
between the States concerned, the launch
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has been launched, the air traffic services

notification may be transmitted orally by
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unit shall arrange for the information to be

direct ATS speech circuit between the area in terms of flight levels, which are surfaces
control centres/flight information centres of constant atmospheric pressure based on
involved. Air traffic services units shall an altimeter setting of 1013.2hpa
maintain radar surveillance of medium and
c. The change in reference from altitude to
heavy unmanned free balloons to the extent
flight levels, and vice versa, is made:
possible and, if necessary and on the
request of the pilot of an aircraft, provide
1. At the transition altitude, when
radar separation between the aircraft and
climbing; and
such balloons which are radar identified or
their exact position is known. 2. At the transition level when
descending.
1.9 AIRCRAFT OPERATING
PROCEDURES –ALTIMETER d. The transition level may be nearly
SETTING PROCEDURES coincident with the transition altitude to
maximize the number of flight levels
1. Introduction to Altimeter Setting
available. Alternatively, the transition level
Procedures
may be located 300m or (1000ft) above the
transition altitude to permit the transition
These procedures describe the method
altitude and the transition level to be used
for providing adequate vertical separation
concurrently in cruising flight, with vertical
between aircraft and for providing adequate
separation ensured. The airspace between
terrain clearance during all phases of a the transition level and the transition
flight. This method is based on the altitude is called the transition layer.
following basic principles:
e. Where no transition altitude has been
a. States may specify a fixed altitude known established for the area, aircraft in the en-
as the transition altitude. In flight, when an route phase shall be flown at a flight at a
aircraft is at or below the transition altitude, flight level
its vertical position is expressed in terms of
f. The adequacy of terrain clearance during
altitude, which is determined from an
any phase of a flight may be maintained in
altimeter set to sea level pressure (QNH)
any of several ways, depending upon the
b. In flight above the transition altitude, the facilities available in a particular area. The
15

vertical position of an aircraft is expressed

Page
recommended methods in the order of 2. Basic Altimeter setting requirements
preference are:
2.1.1 System of flight levels
1. The use of current QNH reports
2.1.1.1 Fight level zero shall be
from an adequate network of QNH
located at the atmosphere pressure level of
reporting stations;
1013.2 hPa. Consecutive flight levels shall
2. The use of such QNH reports as be separated by pressure interval
are available, combined with other responding to at least 500ft (152.4m) in the
meteorological information such as forecast standard atmosphere.
lowest mean sea level pressure for the route
2.1.2 Transition altitude
or portions thereof; and

2.1.2.1 A transition altitude

3. Where relevant current
normally be specified for each aerodrome
information is not available, the use of
by the state in which the aerodrome is
values of the lowest altitudes or flight
located.
levels, derived from climatological data.

2.1.2.2 Where two or more closely

g. During the approach to land, terrain
spaced aerodromes are located so that
clearance many be determine by using:-

1) QNH altimeter setting (giving

altitude): or

2) Under specified circumstances a QFE

setting (giving height above QFE
datum)

This procedure applied to all

IFR flights and to other flight which are
operating at specific cruising levels in coordinated procedures are required, a
accordance with annex 2 –rules of the air or common transition altitude shall be
the procedure for air navigation service – established. This common transition
air traffic management (PANS-ATM, Doc altitude shall be the highest that would be
16

4444) or the regional supplementary required is the aerodromes were considered

Page

procedures (Doc 7030) separately.2.1.2.3 The height above the

aerodrome of the transition altitude shall be a. Climb;
as low as possible but normally not less
b. En-route flight; and
than 900m (3000 ft).

c. Approach and landing

2.1.2.4 The calculate height of the
transition altitude shall be rounded up to the
2.1.4.2 Passing through the
next full 300meter (1000ft).
transition layer

2.1.2.5 Transition altitudes shall be

While passing through the transition layer,
published in Aeronautical information
vertical position shall be expressed in terms
publication and show on the appropriate
of:
charts.
a. Flight levels when climbing ; and
2.1.3 Transition level
b. Altitude when descending.

2.1.3.1 States shall make provision

2.2 Take-off and climb
for the determination of the transition level
to be used at any given time at each of their A QNH altimeter setting shall be made
aerodromes. available to aircraft in taxi clearance prior
to take-off.
2.1.3.2 Where 2 or more closely
spaced aerodromes are located so that 2.3 Enroute
coordinated procedures and a common
transition altitude are required a common 2.3.1 Terrain clearance

transition level shall also be used at those

2.3.1.1 QNH altimeter setting
aerodromes.
reports should be provided from sufficient
location to permit determination of terrain
2.1.4 References to vertical position
clearance with an acceptable degree of
2.1.4.1 The vertical position of accuracy
aircraft operating at or below the transition
2.3.1.2 For areas where adequate
altitude shall be expressed in terms of
QNH altimeter setting reports cannot be
altitude. Vertical position at or above the
provided, the appropriate authorities shall
transition level shall be expressed in terms
17

provide the information required to

of flight levels terminology applies during:
Page

determine the lowest flight level which will

ensure adequate terrain clearance. This above the transition altitude is not indicated
information shall be made available in the or anticipated.
most usable form.
2.5 Missed approach

The relevant parts of 2.2, “Take-Off

and climb”, 2.3,”Enroute”, 2.4,”Approach
and landing” shall apply in the event of a
missed approach.

3. Procedures for Operators and Pilots

3.1 Flight planning

2.4 APPROACH AND LANDING
3.1.1 The levels at which a flight is
2.4.1 QNH altimeter setting shall be
to be conducted shall be specified in a flight
made available to aircraft in approach
plan:
clearances and in clearances to enter the
traffic circuit. a. as flight level if the flight is to be
conducted at or above the transition level
2.4.2 A QFE altimeter setting,
(or lowest usable flight level, if applicable);
clearly identified as such, should be made
and
available in approach and landing
clearances. This should be available on b. as altitudes if the flight is to be
request or on a regular basis, in accordance conducted at or below the transition
with local arrangements. altitude.

2.4.3 References to vertical 3.2 Pre-flight operational test

positioning after approach clearance
The following test should be carried
After approach clearance has been out in an aircraft by flight crew members
issued and the descent to land is begun, the before flight. Flight crews should be
vertical positioning of an aircraft above the advised of the purpose of the test and the
transition level may be by reference to manner in which it should be carried out.
altitudes (QNH) provided that level flight They should also be given specific
18
Page
instructions on the action to be taken based in relation to the QFE reference
on the test results. point, within a tolerance of:
1. ±20m or 60 ft for altimeters with
QNH Setting
a test range of 0 to 9000m(0 to
30000ft); and
a. With the aircraft at a known
2. ±25m or 80 ft for altimeters with
elevation on the aerodrome, set the
a test range of 0 to 15000m (0 to
altimeter pressure scale to the
50000 ft).
current QNH setting.

b. Vibrate the instrument by tapping 3.3 Take-off and climb

unless mechanical vibration is
3.3.1 Before taking off, one
provided. A serviceable altimeter
altimeter shall be set on the latest QNH
indicates the elevation of the point
altimeter setting for the aerodrome.
selected, plus the height of the
altimeter above this point, within a
3.3.2 During climb to, and while at
tolerance of:
the transition altitude, references to the
1. ±20m or 60 ft for altimeters with
vertical position of the aircraft in air-ground
a test range of 0 to 9000m (0 to
communications shall be expressed in terms
30000 ft); and
of altitudes.
2. ±25m or 80 ft altimeters with a
test range of 0 to15000m (0 to 3.3.3 On climbing through the
50000 ft). transition altitude, the reference for the
vertical position of the aircraft shall be
QFE Setting
changed from altitudes (QNH) to flight
levels (1013.2hpa), and thereafter the
a. With the aircraft at a known
vertical position shall be expressed in terms
elevation on the aerodrome, set the
of flight levels.
altimeter pressure scale to the
current QFE setting.
3.4 Enroute
b. Vibrate the instrument by tapping
unless mechanical vibration is 3.4.1 Vertical Separation
provided. A serviceable altimeter
3.4.1.1 During enroute flight at or
indicates the height of the altimeter
19

below the transition altitude, an aircraft

Page

shall be flown at altitudes. References to the

vertical position of the aircraft in air-ground aerodrome datum which was used in
communications shall be expressed in terms establishing obstacle clearance height
of altitudes. (OCH). All subsequent references to
vertical position shall be made in terms of
3.4.1.2 During enroute flight at or
height.
above transition levels or the lowest usable
flight level, whichever is applicable, an 4. ALTIMETER CORRECTIONS
aircraft shall be flown at flight levels.
Note:
References to the vertical position of the
aircraft in air-ground-communications shall
This chapter deals with altimeter
be expressed in terms of flight levels.
corrections for pressure, temperature and,
where appropriate, wind and terrain effects.
3.5 Approach and landing
The pilot is responsible for these
3.5.1 Before beginning the initial corrections except when under radar
approach to an aerodrome, the number of vectoring. In that case, the radar controller
the transition level shall be obtained. issues clearances such that the prescribed
obstacle clearance will exist at all times,
3.5.2 Before descending below the
taking the cold temperature correction into
transition level, the latest QNH altimeter
account.
setting for the aerodrome shall be obtained.
4.1.1 Pilot’s responsibility
3.5.3 As the aircraft descends
through the transition level, the reference The pilot-in-command is
for the vertical position of the aircraft shall responsible for the safety of the operation
be changed from flight levels (1013.2hpa) and the aeroplane and of all persons on
to altitudes (QNH). From this point on, the board during flight time (Annex 6, 4.5.1).
vertical position of the aircraft shall be The operator is responsible for obstacle
expressed in terms of altitudes. clearance, except when an IFR flight is
being vectored by radar.
3.5.4 When an aircraft which has
been given a clearance as number one to 4.1.2 Operator’s responsibility
land is completing its approach using QFE,
The operator is responsible for
the vertical position of the aircraft shall be
20

establishing minimum flight altitudes,

expressed in terms of the height above the
Page

which may not be less than those

established by states that are flown over controlled airspace, the determination of
(Annex 6, 4.2.6). The operator is the lowest usable flight level is the
responsible for specifying a method for responsibility of the pilot-in-command.
determining these minimum altitudes Current or forecast QNH and temperature
(Annex 6, 4.2.6). Annex 6 recommends that values should be taken into account.
the method should be approved by the state
4.1.5.2 It is possible that altimeter
of the operator and also recommends the
correction below controlled airspace may
factors to be taken into account.
accumulate to the point where the aircraft’s
4.1.3 State’s responsibility position may impinge on a flight level or
assigned altitude in controlled airspace.
Annex 15, Appendix 1 (contents of
Aeronautical information publication), 4.2 Pressure correction
indicates that states should publish in
4.2.1 Flight levels
section GEN 3.3.5, “The criteria used to
determine minimum flight altitudes”. If
When flying at levels with the
nothing is published, it should be assumed
altimeter set to 1013.2hpa, the minimum
that no correction have been applied by the
safe altitude must be corrected for
states.
deviations in pressure is lower than the
standard atmosphere (1013hpa). An
4.1.4 Air traffic control (ATC)
appropriate correction is 10m (30 ft) per
If an aircraft is cleared by. ATC to hpa below 1013hpa. Alternatively, the
an altitude which the pilot-in-command correction can be obtained from standard
finds unacceptable due to low temperature, correction graphs tables supplied by the
then the pilot-in-command should request a operator.
higher altitude. If nothing is published, it
4.2.2 QNH/QFE
should be assumed that no corrections have
been applied by the state.
When using the QNH or QFE
altimeter setting (giving altitude or height
4.1.5 Flights outside controlled airspace
above QFE datum respectively), a pressure
4.1.5.1 For IFR flights outside correction is not required.
controlled airspace, including flights
21

operating below the lower limit of

Page
4.3 Temperature correction

4.3.1 Requirement for temperature

correction Where

The calculated minimum safe ∆h p Airplane=aircraft height above

altitudes/heights must be adjusted when the aerodrome (pressure)
ambient temperature on the surface is much
lower than that predicted by the standard ∆h G Airplane=aircraft height above

atmosphere. In such conditions, an aerodrome (geo potential)

approximate correction is 4 percent height

∆t std=temperature deviation from the
increase for every 10° c below standard
international standard Atmosphere
temperature as measured at the altimeter
(ISA) temperature
setting source. This is safe for all altimeter
setting source altitudes for temperature L0=standard temperature lapse rate with
above-15° c. pressure altitude in the first layer
(set level to tropo pause) of the ISA
4.3.2 Tabulated corrections
t0=standard temperature at sea level
For colder temperature, a more
accurate correction should be obtained from 4.3.4 Small Corrections
Tables -1-4-1 a) and 1-4-1 b). These tables
are calculated for a sea level aerodrome. For practical operational use, it is

They are therefore conservative. When appropriate to apply a temperature

applied at higher aerodromes. correction when the value of the correction

exceeds 20 per cent of the associated
4.3.3 Accurate correction minimum obstacle clearance (MOC).

For occasions when a more accurate 4.4 Mountainous areas-enroute

temperature correction is required, this may
be obtained from Equation 24 of the The MOC over mountainous areas

Engineering sciences Data unit (ESDU) is normally applied during the design of

publication, performance, volume 2, Item routes and is stated in state aeronautical

Number 7702. This assumes an off- information publications. However, where

22

standard atmosphere. no information is available, the margins in

Page
 Tables 3-1-4-2 and 3-1-4- the Bernoulli Effect. This occurs
3 may be used when: particularly when the wind direction is
across mountain crests or ridges. It is not
a. The selected cruising altitude or
possible to make an exact calculation, but
flight level or one engine
theoretical studies (CFD Norway, Report
inoperative stabilizing altitude is at
109.1989) have indicated altimeter errors as
or close to the calculated minimum
shown in Tables III -1-4-4 and III-
safe altitude; and
1-4-5. Although States may provide
b. The flight is within 19KM (10 NM)
guidance, it is up to the pilot-in-command
of terrain having a maximum
to evaluate whether the combination of
elevation exceeding 900 m (3000
terrain, wind strength and direction are such
ft).
as to make a correction for wind necessary.

4.5 MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN-

4.5.2 Corrections for wind speed should be
TERMINAL AREAS
applied in addition to the standard
corrections for pressure and temperature,
4.5.1 The combination of strong
and ATC should be advised.
winds and mountainous terrain can cause
local change in atmospheric pressure due to

23
Page
 UNIT- II

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

2.1 AREA CONTROL SERVICE throughout Thailand within a 30 nautical mile

radius from each airport and at altitudes 11,000
Air traffic control service for controlled
feet and below. Beyond these limits, the
flights in control areas. It is provided by an area
responsibility is transferred to the Area Control
control service or by the unit providing approach
Services which covers the whole of Thai airspace
control service in a controlled zone. The service
or Bangkok
may also be in a control area of limited extent that
has been designated primarily to provide approach Flight Information Region as well as the
control service where no area control center is airspace over part of the South China Sea west of
established. Cambodia at an altitude of 13,500 feet up to FL
460 (46,000 feet). However, for Bangkok
Aerothai provides Air Traffic Control
International Airport, the coverage area is
Services in accordance with international
extended to 50 nautical miles radius and an
standards and regulations as well as providing
altitude of 16,000 feet and below.
Flight Information Services and Alerting Services
to ensure safe, convenient and expeditious air This is due to the high traffic volume and
travel. The role also includes coordinating search the need to be able to transfer air traffic directly to
and rescue operations. nearby airports, such as U-Tapao and
Kampangsaen, without having to pass through
The services are divided into the following
Area Control Center. AEROTHAI provides Air
three sectors:
Traffic Services to both civilian and military
flights using Radar System and Automatic
1. Aerodrome Control Service

Dependent Surveillance System, or ADS.

2. Approach Control Service
Both systems can provide aircraft information
3. Area Control Service such as call sign, position, heading and altitude as
well as other information necessary for effective
Aerodrome and Approach Control
Air Traffic Control Operations.
Services are provided at all commercial airports
 The Company's aeronautical infrastructure 2.2.1 Minimum cruising level
comprises a network of VHF radio systems for
Except when specifically authorized by the
communicating with commercial aircraft and UHF
appropriate authority, cruising levels below the
radio systems for military aircraft. The base station
minimum flight altitudes established by the State
is at the Head Office in Bangkok with relay
shall not be assigned.
stations located around the country enabling
continuous communication with all aircraft at an
Area control centres shall, when
altitude of 5,500 feet and above. Furthermore,
circumstances warrant it, determine the lowest
there are communication networks that link all the
usable flight level or levels for the whole or parts
Air Traffic Control facilities within the country to
of the control area for which they are responsible,
the Military Air Defence Unit and the adjacent
and use it when assigning flight levels and pass it
Flight Information Region, i.e. Singapore, Kuala
to pilots on request.
Lumpur, Yangon, Vientiane, Ho Chi Minh and
Phnom Penh. 2.2.2 Assignment of cruising levels

There are also Navigation Aid facilities Except when traffic conditions and co-
located at all commercial airports nationwide to ordination procedures permit authorization of
provide vital navigational aid for pilots. The cruise climb, an area control centre shall normally
Facilities consist of three main elements: first the authorize only one cruising level for an aircraft
Non Directional Beacon (NDB) and Doppler Very beyond its control area, i.e. that cruising level at
High Frequency Omni Directional Range (DVOR) which the aircraft will enter the next control area
indicate the direction to airports for aircraft, whether contiguous or not. Aircraft will be advised
second the Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) to request en route any subsequent cruising level
indicates the distance between aircraft and airport, changes desired.
and third the Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Aircraft authorized to employ cruise climb
indicates the optimum glide slope, which helps
techniques shall be cleared to operate between two
land the aircraft at the centreline of the runway.
levels or above a level. If it is necessary to adjust
2.2 ASSIGNMENT OF CRUISING LEVELS the cruising level of an aircraft operating along an
MINIMUM FLIGHT ALTITUDE ATS established ATS route extending partly within and
ROUTES AND SIGNIFICANT POINTS partly outside controlled airspace and where the
respective series of cruising levels are not
identical, such adjustment shall, whenever An aircraft may be assigned a level
possible, be effected within controlled airspace previously occupied by another aircraft after the
and, if suitably located, over a radio navigation latter has reported vacating it. If, however, severe
aid. turbulence is known to exist, or the aircraft
concerned is effecting a cruise climb, such
When an aircraft has been cleared into a
assignment shall be withheld until the aircraft
centre’s control area at a cruising level which is
vacating the level has reported at another level
below the established minimum cruising level for
separated by the required minimum.
a subsequent portion of the route, action should be
initiated by that area control centre to issue a 2.3 RNAV and RNP
revised clearance to the aircraft even though the
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method of
pilot has not requested the necessary cruising level
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) navigation that
change.
allows an aircraft to choose any course within a
When necessary, an aircraft may be network of navigation beacons, rather than
cleared to change cruising level at a specified time, navigating directly to and from the beacons. This
place or rate. In so far as practicable, cruising can conserve flight distance, reduce congestion,
levels of aircraft flying to the same destination and allow flights into airports without beacons.
shall be assigned in a manner that will be correct Area navigation used to be called Random
for an approach sequence at destination. An Navigation and therefore the acronym is RNAV.
aircraft at a cruising
level shall normally
have priority over other
aircraft desiring that
cruising level. When
two or more aircraft are
at the same cruising
level, the preceding
aircraft shall normally
have priority.
 RNAV can be defined as a method of similar. The key difference between them is the
navigation that permits aircraft operation on any requirement for on-board performance monitoring
desired course within the coverage of station- and alerting. A navigation specification that
referenced navigation signals or within the limits includes a requirement for on-board navigation
of a self-contained system capability, or a performance monitoring and alerting is referred to
combination of these. as an RNP specification. One not having such a
requirement is referred to as an RNAV
2.3.1 Functional requirements
specification.

RNAV specifications include

RNP also refers to the level of performance
requirements for certain navigation functions.
required for a specific procedure or a specific
These functional requirements include:
block of airspace. An RNP of 10 means that a
navigation system must be able to calculate its
1. Continuous indication of aircraft position
position to within a circle with a radius of 10
relative to track to be displayed to the pilot flying
nautical miles. An RNP of 0.3 means the aircraft
on a navigation display situated in his primary
navigation system must be able to calculate its
field of view;
position to within a circle with a radius of 3 tenths
2. Display of distance and bearing to the active of a nautical mile.
(To) waypoint;
A related term is ANP which stands for
3. Display of ground speed or time to the active "actual navigation performance". ANP refers to
(To) waypoint; the current performance of a navigation system
while "RNP" refers to the accuracy required for a
4. Navigation data storage function; and
given block of airspace or a specific instrument
procedure.
5. Appropriate failure indication of the RNAV
system including its sensors.
Some oceanic airspace has an RNP of 4 or
10. The level of RNP an aircraft is capable of
Required Navigation Performance
determines the separation required between
(RNP) is a type of performance-based navigation
aircraft. RNP approaches with RNP values
(PBN) that allows an aircraft to fly a specific path
currently down to 0.1 allow aircraft to follow
between two 3-dimensionally defined points in
precise 3 dimensional curved flight paths through
space. RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally
congested airspace, around noise sensitive areas, • Aircraft failures: Failure of the aircraft
or through difficult terrain. equipment is considered within airworthiness
regulations. Failures are categorised by the
2.3.2 Performance monitoring and alerting
severity of the aircraft level effect, and the system
requirements
must be designed to reduce the likelihood of the
failure or mitigate its effects. Both malfunction
The performance monitoring and alerting
(equipment operating but not providing
requirements for RNP 4, Basic-RNP 1 and RNP
appropriate output) and loss of function
APCH have common terminology and application.
(equipment ceases to function) are addressed.
Each of these specifications includes requirements
Dual system requirements are determined based
for the following characteristics:
on operational continuity (e.g. oceanic and remote
• Accuracy: The accuracy requirement defines the operations). The requirements on aircraft failure
95% Total System Error (TSE) for those characteristics are not unique to RNP navigation
dimensions where an accuracy requirement is specifications.
specified. The accuracy requirement is
• Signal-in-space failures: Signal-inspace
harmonised with the RNAV navigation
characteristics of navigation signals are the
specifications and is always equal to the accuracy
responsibility of the ANSP. The net effect of RNP
value. A unique aspect of the RNP navigation
navigation specifications is to provide bounding of
specifications is that the accuracy is one of the
the TSE distribution. Since path definition error is
performance characteristics that is monitored.
assumed to be negligible, the monitoring
• Performance monitoring: The aircraft, or requirement is reduced to the other two
aircraft and pilot combination, is required to components of TSE, i.e. flight technical error
monitor the TSE, and to provide an alert if the (FTE) and navigation system error (NSE). It is
accuracy requirement is not met or if the assumed that FTE is an ergodic stochastic process
probability that the TSE exceeds two times the within a given flight control mode. As a result, the
accuracy value is larger than 10−5. To the extent FTE distribution is constant over time within a
operational procedures are used to satisfy this given flight control mode. However, in contrast,
requirement, the crew procedure, equipment the NSE distribution varies over time due to a
characteristics, and installation are evaluated for number of changing characteristics, most notably:
their effectiveness and equivalence.
• Selected navigation sensors: the navigation • The requirement that the TSE remains equal to
sensors which are being used to estimate position, or better than the required accuracy for 95% of the
such as Global Navigation Satellite System flight time; and
(GNSS) or DME/DME;
• The probability that the TSE of each aircraft
• The relative geometry of the aircraft position to exceeds the specified TSE limit (equal to two
the supporting navigation aids: all radio navaids times the accuracy value) without annunciation is
have this basic variability, although the specific less than 10 −5. Typically, the 10−5 TSE
characteristics change. GNSS performance is requirement provides a greater restriction on
affected by the relative geometry of the satellites performance. For example, with any system that
compared to the aircraft DME/DME navigation has TSE with a normal distribution of cross-track
solutions are affected by the inclusion angle error, the 10−5 monitoring requirement constrains
between the two DMEs at the aircraft (90° being the standard deviation to be 2 x (accuracy
optimal) and the distance to the DMEs, since the value)/4.45 = accuracy value/2.23, while the 95%
aircraft DME transponder can have increasing requirement would have allowed the standard
range errors with increasing distance; deviation to be as large as the accuracy value/1.96.
It is important to understand that while these
• Inertial reference units: errors increase over time
characteristics define minimum requirements that
since last updated.
must be met, they do not define the actual TSE
distribution. The actual TSE distribution may be
2.3.3 Application of performance monitoring
expected to be typically better than the
and alerting to aircraft
requirement, but there must be evidence on the
Although the TSE can change significantly actual performance if a lower TSE value is to be
over time for a number of reasons, including those used.
above, the RNP navigation specifications provide
In applying the performance monitoring
assurance that the TSE distribution remains
requirement to aircraft, there can be significant
suitable to the operation. This results from two
variability in how individual errors are managed:
requirements associated with the TSE distribution,
namely:
• Some systems monitor the actual cross track and
along-track errors individually, whereas others
monitor the radial NSE to simplify the monitoring
and eliminate dependency on the aircraft track, alert the TSE is less than twice the accuracy value:
e.g. based on typical elliptical 2 D error the TSE can be larger.
distributions.
An example is for those aircraft that
• Some systems include the FTE in the monitor by account for the FTE based on a fixed error
taking the current value of FTE as a bias on the distribution: for such systems, if the FTE grows
TSE distribution. large, no alert is issued by the system even when
the TSE is many times larger than the accuracy
• For basic GNSS systems, the accuracy and 10−5
value. For this reason, the operational procedures
requirements are met as a by-product of the ABAS
to monitor the FTE are important.
requirements that have been defined in equipment
standards and the FTE distribution for 2.4 VERTICAL SEPARATION
standardised course deviation indicator (CDI) APPLICATION
displays.
Vertical separation is obtained by requiring
It is important that performance aircraft using prescribed altimeter setting
monitoring is not regarded as error monitoring. A procedures to operate at different levels expressed
performance monitoring alert will be issued when in terms of flight levels or altitudes in accordance
the system cannot guarantee, with sufficient with the provisions in Part II, 12.1.
integrity, that the position meets the accuracy
2.4.1 Vertical separation minimum
requirement. When such an alert is issued, the
probable reason is the loss of capability to validate
The vertical separation minimum (VSM) shall be:
the position data (insufficient satellites being a
potential reason). For such a situation, the most a) within designated airspace, subject to
likely position of the aircraft at that time is exactly regional air navigation agreement: a
the same position indicated on the pilot display. nominal 300 m (1 000 ft) below FL 410 or a
Assuming the desired track has been flown higher level where so prescribed for use
correctly, the FTE would be within the required under specified conditions, and a nominal
limits and therefore the likelihood of the TSE 600 m
exceeding twice the accuracy value just prior to
(2 000 ft) at or above this level; andb) within
the alert is approximately 10−5. However, it
other airspace: a nominal 300 m (1 000 ft)
cannot be assumed that simply because there is no
 below FL 290 and a nominal 600 m (2 000 established ATS route extending partly
ft) at or above this level. within and partly outside controlled
airspace and where the respective series of
2.4.2 Minimum cruising level
cruising levels are not identical, such
adjustment shall, whenever possible, be
 Except when specifically authorized by the
effected within controlled airspace and, if
appropriate authority, cruising levels
suitably located, over a radio navigation
below the minimum flight altitudes
aid.
established by the State shall not be
 When an aircraft has been cleared into a
assigned.
centre’s control area at a cruising level
 Area control centres shall, when
which is below the established minimum
circumstances warrant it, determine the
cruising level for a subsequent portion of
lowest usable flight level or levels for the
the route, action should be initiated by that
whole or parts of the control area for which
area control centre to issue a revised
they are responsible, and use it when
clearance to the aircraft even though the
assigning flight levels and pass it to pilots
pilot has not requested the necessary
on request.
cruising level change.

2.4.3 Assignment of cruising levels  When necessary, an aircraft may be

cleared to change cruising level at a
 Except when traffic conditions and co- specified time, place or rate.
ordination procedures permit authorization  In so far as practicable, cruising levels of
of cruise climb, an area control centre shall
aircraft flying to the same destination shall
normally authorize only one cruising level be assigned in a manner that will be correct
for an aircraft beyond its control area, i.e.
for an approach sequence at destination.
that cruising level at which the aircraft will
 An aircraft at a cruising level shall
enter the next control area whether
normally have priority over other aircraft
contiguous or not. Aircraft will be advised
desiring that cruising level. When two or
to request en route any subsequent cruising
more aircraft are at the same cruising level,
level changes desired.
the preceding aircraft shall normally have
 If it is necessary to adjust the cruising level
priority.
of an aircraft operating along an
  An aircraft may be assigned a level 2.5 HORIZONTAL SEPARATION
previously occupied by another aircraft
Note 1. — Nothing in the provisions detailed in
after the latter has reported vacating it. If,
Sections 7 and 8 hereunder precludes a State from
however, severe turbulence is known to
establishing:
exist, such assignment shall be withheld
until the aircraft vacating the level has a) other minima for use in circumstances not
reported at another level separated by the prescribed; or
required minimum. b) additional conditions to those prescribed for
 The cruising levels, or, in the case of cruise the use of a given minimum;
climb, the range of levels, to be assigned to
controlled flights shall be selected from Provided that the level of safety inherent in the
provisions detailed in Sections 7 and 8 hereunder
those allocated to IFR flights in:
is at all times assured.
a) the tables of cruising levels in Appendix 3
of Annex 2 ; or 2.6 LATERAL SEPARATION

b) a modified table of cruising levels, when so 2.6.1 Lateral separation application

prescribed in accordance with Appendix 3

 Lateral separation shall be applied so that
of Annex 2 for flights above flight level
the distance between those portions of the
410; except that the correlation of levels to
intended routes for which the aircraft are to
track as prescribed therein shall not apply
be laterally separated is never less than an
whenever otherwise indicated in air traffic
established distance to account for
control clearances or specified by the
navigational inaccuracies plus a specified
appropriate ATS authority in Aeronautical
buffer. This buffer shall be determined by
Information Publications.
the appropriate authority and included in
2.4.4 Vertical separation during the lateral separation minima as an integral
ascent or descent part thereof.

 Lateral separation of aircraft at the same

Pilots in direct communication with each
level is obtained by requiring operation on
other may, with their concurrence, be cleared to
different routes or in different geographical
maintain a specified vertical separation between
locations as determined by visual
their aircraft during ascent or descent.
 observation, by use of navigation aids or by (15 NM) or more from the facility (see
use of area navigation equipment. Figure III-2);
b) NDB: at least 30 degrees and at a
2.6.2 Lateral separation criteria and
distance of 28 km
minima
(15 NM) or more from the facility (see
Figure III-3);
 Means by which lateral separation may be
c) dead reckoning (DR): tracks diverging
achieved include the following:
by at least 45 degrees and at a distance
Geographical separation, i.e. separation
of 28 km (15 NM) or more from the
positively indicated by position reports
point of intersection of the tracks, this
over different geographical locations as
point being determined either visually
determined visually or by reference to a
or by reference to a navigation aid (see
navigation aid (see Figure III-1).
Figure III-4).

When aircraft are operating on tracks which are

separated by considerably more than the foregoing
minimum figures, States may reduce the distance
at which lateral separation is achieved.

 Track separation between aircraft

transitioning into airspace over the high
seas. By requiring aircraft to fly on
Figure III-1 (see 7.2.1.1)
specified tracks which are separated by at

 Track separation between aircraft using the least 15 degrees and at a distance of 28 km

same navigation aid or method. By (15 NM) or more from the same VOR,

requiring aircraft to fly on specified tracks provided that:

which are separated by a minimum amount

a) the aircraft tracks continue to diverge by at
appropriate to the navigation aid or method
least 15 degrees until the appropriate lateral
employed as follows:
separation minimum is established in

a) VOR: at least 15 degrees and at a airspace over the high seas; and

distance of 28 km
 b) it is possible to ensure, by means approved Mach number technique, when so
by the appropriate ATS authority, that the prescribed on the basis of regional air
aircraft have the navigation capability navigation agreement.
necessary to ensure accurate track guidance.  Longitudinal separation shall be
established by requiring aircraft to depart
 Track separation between aircraft using
at a specified time, to lose time to arrive
different navigation aids or methods. Track
over a geographical location at a specified
separation between aircraft using different
time, or to hold over a geographical
navigation aids and area navigation (
location until a specified time.
RNAV ) equipment may be achieved by
 Longitudinal separation between
requiring aircraft to fly on specified tracks
supersonic aircraft during the transonic
which are determined by taking account of
acceleration and supersonic phases of
the navigational accuracy of the navigation
flight should normally be established by
aid and RNAV equipment used by each
appropriate timing of the start of transonic
aircraft and where the protection areas thus
acceleration rather than by the imposition
established for each track do not overlap.
of speed restrictions in supersonic flight.
The navigational accuracy for the various
 For the purpose of application of
navigation aids and RNAV equipment
longitudinal separation, the terms same
shall be established by the appropriate
track, reciprocal tracks and crossing tracks
ATS authority.
shall have the following meanings:
2.7 LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
a) Same track (see Figure III-5 below):
2.7.1 Longitudinal separation application
same direction tracks and intersecting tracks

 Longitudinal separation shall be applied so or portions thereof, the angular difference of

that the spacing between the estimated which is less than 45 degrees or more than

positions of the aircraft being separated is 315 degrees, and whose protection areas

never less than a prescribed minimum. overlap.

Longitudinal separation between aircraft

b) Reciprocal tracks (see Figure III-6 below):
following the same or diverging tracks
may be maintained by application of the
 opposite tracks and intersecting tracks or a) 15 minutes (see Figure III-8); or
portions thereof, the angular difference of b) 10 minutes, if navigation aids permit
which is more than 135 degrees but less than frequent determination of position and
225 degrees, and whose protection areas speed (see Figure III-9); or
overlap. c) 5 minutes in the following cases, provided
that in each case the preceding aircraft is
c) Crossing tracks (see Figure III-7 below):
maintaining a true airspeed of 37 km/h (20
kt) or more faster than the succeeding
intersecting tracks or portions thereof other
aircraft (see Figure III-10):
than those specified in a) and b) above.
i) between aircraft that have departed from
2.8 LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION the same aerodrome;
MINIMA BASED ON TIME ii) between en-route aircraft that have
reported over
2.8.1 Aircraft at the same cruising level
the same exact reporting point;
 Aircraft flying on the same track:

Figure III-2
Figure III-3

Figure III-4
Figure III-5

Figure III-6
 Figure III-7

b) 10 minutes if navigation aids permit

frequent deter-
iii) between departing and en-route aircraft
after the en-route aircraft has reported mination of position and speed (see Figure
over a fix that is so located in relation to III-13).
the departure point as to ensure that five-
2.8.3 Aircraft climbing or descending
minute separation can be established at
the point the departing aircraft will join
 Traffic on the same track. When an aircraft
the air route; or
will pass through the level of another
d) 3 minutes in the cases listed under c)
aircraft on the same track, the following
provided that in each case the preceding
minimum longitudinal separation shall be
aircraft is maintaining a true airspeed of 74
provided:
km/h (40 kt) or more faster than the
succeeding aircraft (see Figure III-11). a) 15 minutes while vertical separation does
not exist
2.8.2 Aircraft flying on crossing tracks:

( see Figures III-14A and III-14B); or

a) 15 minutes (see Figure III-12); or
 b) 10 minutes while vertical separation does determined that the aircraft have passed each
not exist, provided that such separation is other, this minimum need not apply.
authorized only where navigation aids
2.9 LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
permit frequent determination of position
MINIMA BASED ON DISTANCE
and speed (see Figures III-15A and III-
USING DME
15B); or
c) 5 minutes while vertical separation does not
2.9.1 Separation shall be established by
exist, provided that the level change is
maintaining not less than specified distance(s)
commenced within 10 minutes of the time
between aircraft positions as reported by reference
the second aircraft has reported over an
to DME in conjunction with other appropriate
exact reporting point (see Figures III-16A
navigation aids. Direct controller-pilot
and III-16B).
communication shall be maintained while such
separation is used.
2.8.4 Traffic on crossing tracks:

2.9.2 Aircraft at the same cruising level

a) 15 minutes while vertical separation does
not exist
Aircraft on the same track:

(see Figures III-17A and III-17B); or

a) 37 km (20 NM), provided :
i) each aircraft utilizes “on-track” DME
b) 10 minutes while vertical separation does
stations; and
not exist if navigation aids permit frequent
ii) separation is checked by obtaining
determination of position and speed (see
simultaneous DME readings from the
Figures III-18A and III-18B).
aircraft at frequent intervals to ensure
2.8.5 Traffic on reciprocal tracks. that the minimum will not be infringed
(see Figure III-20);
Where lateral separation is not provided,
b) 19 km (10 NM) provided :
vertical separation shall be provided for at least ten
i) the leading aircraft maintains a true
minutes prior to and after the time the aircraft are
airspeed of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more
estimated to pass, or are estimated to have passed
faster than the succeeding aircraft;
(see Figure III-19). Provided that it has been
ii) each aircraft utilizes “on-track” DME
stations; and
iii) separation is checked by obtaining necessary to ensure that the minimum is
simultaneous DME readings from the established and will not be infringed (
aircraft at such intervals as are see Figure III-21).

Figure III-8 Figure III-9

Figure III-10 Figure III-11

Figure III-12 Figure III-13

Figure III-14A

Figure III-14B

Figure III-15A
Figure III-15B

Figure III-16A
42
Page
Figure III-16B

Figure III-17A

Figure III-17B
43
Page
Figure III-18A

Figure III-18B
44
Page
Figure III-19

Figure III-20

Figure III-21
45
Page
  Aircraft on crossing tracks. The 2.10 LONGITUDINAL
longitudinal separation prescribed in SEPARATION MINIMA
8.3.1.1.1 shall also apply provided WITH MACH NUMBER
that each aircraft reports distance TECHNIQUE BASED ON
from the station located at the TIME
crossing point of the tracks and that
Turbojet aircraft shall adhere to the
the relative angle between the tracks
Mach number approved by ATC and shall
is less than 90 degrees (see Figures
request ATC approval before making any
III-22A and III-22B).
changes thereto. If it is essential to make an
2.9.3 Aircraft climbing or descending on the immediate temporary change in the Mach

same track: 19 km (10 NM) while vertical number (e.g. due to turbulence), ATC shall be
separation does not exist, provided: notified as soon as possible that such a
change has been made.
a) each aircraft utilizes “on-track” DME
stations;  If it is not feasible, due to aircraft
b) one aircraft maintains a level while performance, to maintain the last
vertical separation does not exist; and assigned Mach number during en-
c) separation is established by obtaining route climbs and descents, pilots of
simultaneous DME readings from the aircraft concerned shall advise ATC
aircraft (see Figures III-23A and III- at the time of the climb/descent
23B). request.
 Provided that:
2.9.4 Aircraft on reciprocal tracks. Aircraft
utilizing on-track DME may be cleared to a) the aircraft concerned have reported
climb or descend to or through the levels over the same reporting point and
occupied by other aircraft utilizing on-track follow the same track or continuously
DME, provided that it has been positively diverging tracks until some other form
established that the aircraft have passed each of separation is provided; or
other and are at least 10 NM apart, or such b) if the aircraft have not reported over
46

other value as prescribed by the appropriate the same reporting point and it is
Page

ATS authority. possible to ensure, by radar or other

 means, that the appropriate time  When the 10-minute longitudinal
interval will exist at the common point separation minimum with Mach
from which they either follow the same number technique is applied, the
track or continuously diverging tracks; preceding aircraft shall maintain a
Mach number equal to or greater than
when Mach number technique is applied,
that maintained by the following
minimum longitudinal separation between
aircraft.
turbojet aircraft on the same track, whether in
level, climbing or descending flight shall be: 2.11 LONGITUDINAL
SEPARATION MINIMA BASED
i) 10 minutes; or ii) between 9 and 5
ON DISTANCE USING RNAV
minutes inclusive, provided:

 Separation shall be established by

the preceding aircraft is maintaining a Mach
maintaining not less than the specified
number greater than the following aircraft in
distance between aircraft positions as
accordance with the following table:
reported by reference to RNAV
— 9 minutes, if the preceding aircraft is equipment. Direct controller pilot
Mach 0.02 faster than the following aircraft; communication should be
maintained, while such separation is
— 8 minutes, if the preceding aircraft is used. Where high frequency or
general purpose extended range very
Mach 0.03 faster than the following aircraft;
high frequency air-ground
— 7 minutes, if the preceding aircraft is communication channels are used for
area control service and are worked
Mach 0.04 faster than the following aircraft; by air-ground communicators,
suitable arrangements shall be made
— 6 minutes, if the preceding aircraft is
to permit direct pilot-controller
Mach 0.05 faster than the following aircraft; communications, or monitoring by
the controller of all air ground
— 5 minutes, if the preceding aircraft is communications.
47
Page

Mach 0.06 faster than the following aircraft.

 To assist pilots to readily provide the shall be notified as soon as possible

required RNAV distance information, that such a change has been made.

such position reports should,  If it is not feasible, due to aircraft

wherever possible, be referenced to a performance, to maintain the last
common way-point ahead of both assigned Mach number during en-
aircraft. route climbs and descents, pilots of
 RNAV distance-based separation aircraft concerned shall advise ATC

may be applied between RNAV- at the time of the climb/descent

equipped aircraft when operating on request.

designated RNAV routes or on ATS  RNAV distance-based separation

routes defined by VOR. minima shall not be applied after ATC

 A 150 km (80 NM) RNAV distance- has received pilot advice indicating

based separation minimum may be navigation equipment deterioration or

used on same-direction tracks in lieu failure.

of a 10-minute longitudinal
2.11.1 Aircraft at the same cruising level
separation minimum. When applying
this separation minimum between
 Aircraft on the same track. (See
aircraft on same direction track, the
Figure III-24.) A 150 km (80 NM)
Mach number technique (MNT) shall
RNAV distance-based separation
be applied, and the preceding aircraft
minimum may be used provided:
shall maintain a Mach number equal
to or greater than that maintained by a) each aircraft reports its distance to or
the following aircraft. from the same
 Turbo-jet aircraft shall adhere to the
“on-track” way-point; and
Mach number approved by ATC and
shall request ATC approval before b) separation is checked by obtaining
making any changes thereto. If it is simultaneous RNAV distance readings
essential to make an immediate from the aircraft at frequent intervals to
temporary change in the Mach ensure that the minimum will not be
48

number (e.g. due to turbulence), ATC infringed.

Page
  Aircraft climbing or descending on 2.11.2 Aircraft on reciprocal tracks
the same track
Aircraft utilizing RNAV may be

A 150 km (80 NM) RNAV distance- cleared to climb or descend to or through the
based separation minimum may be used levels occupied by other aircraft utilizing

while vertical separation does not exist, RNAV provided that it has been positively
provided: established by simultaneous RNAV distance
readings to or from the same “on-track” way-
a) each aircraft reports its distance to or point that the aircraft have passed each other
from the same by at least 150 km (80 NM)

“on-track” way-point;

b) one aircraft maintains a level while

vertical separation does not exist; and
c) separation is established by obtaining
simultaneous RNAV distance readings
from the aircraft (see Figures III-25A
and III-25B).

Note.— To facilitate application of the

procedure where a considerable change of
level is involved, a descending aircraft may
be cleared to some convenient level above the
lower aircraft, or a climbing aircraft to some
convenient level below the higher aircraft, to
permit a further check on the separation that Figure III-22A
will obtain while vertical separation does not
exist.
49
Page
Figure III-22B

Figure III-23A
50
Page
Figure III-23B

Figure III-24

Figure III-25A
51
Page
 Figure III-25B

2.12 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL will be subject to air traffic control by an

CLEARANCES area control centre after the control area of
origin, shall be advised to contact the area
2.12.1 Issuance of air traffic control
control centre in whose area controlled
clearances
flight will be commenced for clearance.

Departing aircraft
Aircraft on flight plans specifying
that the first portion of the flight will be
Area control centres shall forward a
subject to air traffic control, and that the
clearance to approach control offices or
subsequent portion will be uncontrolled
aerodrome control towers with the least
shall normally be cleared to the point at
possible delay after receipt of request made
which the controlled flight terminates. An
by these units, or prior to such request if
area control centre may request an adjacent
practicable.
area control centre to clear aircraft to a
En-route aircraft specified point during a specified period.
After the initial clearance has been issued to
Air traffic control clearances must
an aircraft at the point of departure, it will
be issued early enough to ensure that they
be the responsibility of the appropriate area
are transmitted to the aircraft in sufficient
control centre to issue an amended
time for it to comply with them. Aircraft on
clearance whenever necessary and to issue
flight plans specifying that the initial
traffic information if required.
52

portion of the flight will be uncontrolled,

Page

and that the subsequent portion of the flight

 During the transonic and supersonic aerodrome, except as provided for in
phases of a flight, amendments to the 10.2.9.2.
clearance should be kept to a minimum and
10.2.9.2 By prior arrangement
must take due account of the operational
between air traffic control units and the
limitations of the aircraft in these flight
operators, aircraft operating on an
phases. When so requested by the pilot, an
established schedule may be cleared
aircraft shall be cleared for cruise climb
through intermediate stops provided, if the
whenever traffic conditions and
proposed route of flight is through more
coordination procedures permit. Such
than one control area, scheduled aircraft
clearance shall be for cruise climb either
may be cleared through intermediate stops
above a specified level or between specified
within other control areas only after co-
levels. When so requested by the pilot, an
ordination between the area control centres
aircraft should, in so far as practicable, be
concerned.
authorized to absorb a specified period of
notified terminal delay by cruising at a
2.12.2 Contents of air traffic control
reduced speed for the latter portion of its
clearances
flight. The specified period may be the
whole or part of the notified terminal delay. Clearances shall contain positive
and concise data and shall, as far as
Where an aircraft files, at the
practicable, be phrased in a standard
departure aerodrome, flight plans for the
manner.
various stages of flight through
intermediate stops, the initial clearance 2.12.3 Description of air traffic control
limit will be the first destination aerodrome clearances
and new clearances must be issued for
subsequent portions of the flight. Clearance limit

A clearance limit shall be described

The flight plan for the second stage,
by specifying the name of the appropriate
and that for each subsequent stage, of a
reporting point, or aerodrome, or controlled
flight through intermediate stops will
airspace boundary. When prior co-
become active for ATS and SAR purposes
ordination has been effected with units
only when the appropriate ATS unit has
under whose control the aircraft will
53

received notification that the aircraft has

subsequently come, or if there is reasonable
departed from the relevant departure
Page
assurance that it can be effected a (designation) arrival” may be used when
reasonable time prior to their assumption of standard departure or arrival routes have
control, the clearance limit shall be the been established by the appropriate ATS
destination aerodrome or, if not practicable, authority and published in Aeronautical
an appropriate intermediate point, and Information Publications. The phrase
coordination shall be expedited so that a “cleared via flight planned route” shall not
clearance to the destination aerodrome may be used when granting a reclearance.
be issued as soon as possible.
2.12.4 Clearances to fly maintaining own
If an aircraft has been cleared to an separation while in visual meteorological
intermediate point in an adjacent control conditions
area, the appropriate area control centre will
When so requested by an aircraft
then be responsible for issuing, as soon as
and provided it is agreed by the pilot of the
practicable, an amended clearance to the
other aircraft and so authorized by the
destination aerodrome.
appropriate ATS authority, an area control
When the destination aerodrome is centre may clear a controlled flight
outside a control area, the area control operating in airspace Classes D and E in
centre responsible for the last control area visual meteorological conditions during the
through which an aircraft will pass shall hours of daylight to fly subject to
issue appropriate clearance for flight to the maintaining own separation to one other
limit of that control area. aircraft and remaining in visual
meteorological conditions. When a
Route of flight
controlled flight is so cleared, the following
shall apply:
The route of flight shall be detailed
in each clearance when deemed necessary.
a) The clearance shall be for a specified
The phrase “cleared via flight planned
portion of the flight at or below 3 050 m (10
route” may be used to describe any route or
000 ft), during climb or descent and subject
portion thereof, provided the route or
to further restrictions as and when
portion thereof is identical to that filed in
prescribed on the basis of regional air
the flight plan and sufficient routing details
navigation agreements;
are given to definitely establish the aircraft
54

on its route. The phrases “cleared via b) If there is a possibility that flight under
Page

(designation) departure” or “cleared via visual meteorological conditions may

become impracticable, an IFR flight shall 2.12.5 Clearance of a requested change in
be provided with alternative instructions to flight plan
be complied with in the event that flight in
When issuing a clearance covering
VMC cannot be maintained for the term of
a requested change in flight plan (route or
the clearance;
cruising level) the exact nature of the
c) The pilot of an IFR flight, on observing change shall be included in the clearance. If
that conditions are deteriorating and a level change is involved and more than
considering that operation in VMC will one level is contained in the flight plan, all
become impossible, shall inform ATC such levels shall be included in the
before entering IMC and shall proceed in clearance. When traffic conditions will not
accordance with the alternative instructions permit clearance of a requested change in a
given. flight plan, the words “unable to clear” shall
be used. When warranted by circumstances,
Essential traffic information
an alternative flight plan should be offered.
When the alternative flight plan is offered,
Essential traffic is that controlled
the complete clearance, as amended, or that
traffic to which the provision of separation
part of the clearance containing the
by ATC is applicable, but which, in relation
alternative shall be included.
to a particular controlled flight, is not
essential traffic information shall be given
2.13 FLIGHT PLANS
to controlled flights concerned whenever
they constitute essential traffic to each 2.13.1 Submission of a flight plan
other. Essential traffic information shall
Information relative to an intended
include:
flight or portion of a flight, to be provided
a) Direction of flight of aircraft concerned; to air traffic services units, shall be in the
form of a flight plan. A flight plan shall be
b) Type of aircraft concerned;
submitted prior to operating:

c) Cruising level of aircraft concerned and

a) Any flight or portion thereof to be
estimated time over the reporting point
provided with air traffic control service;
nearest to where the level will be crossed.
b) Any IFR flight within advisory airspace;
55
Page
c) Any flight within or into designated a) The intended point of entry into a control
areas, or along designated routes, when so area or advisory area; or
required by the appropriate ATS authority
b) The point of crossing an airway or
to facilitate the provision of flight
advisory route.
information, alerting and search and rescue
services;

d) Any flight within or into designated

2.13.2 Contents of a flight plan
areas, or along designated routes, when so
required by the appropriate ATS authority A flight plan shall comprise
to facilitate coordination with appropriate information regarding such of the following
military units or with air traffic services items as are considered relevant by the
units in adjacent States in order to avoid the appropriate ATS authority:
possible need for interception for the
— Aircraft identification
purpose of identification;

— Flight rules and type of flight

e) Any flight across International borders.

— Number and type(s) of aircraft and wake

A flight plan shall be submitted,
turbulence category
before departure, to an air traffic services
reporting office or, during flight,
— Equipment
transmitted to the appropriate air traffic
services unit or air ground control radio — Departure aerodrome
station, unless arrangements have been
made for submission of repetitive flight — Estimated off-block time

plans Unless otherwise prescribed by the

— Cruising speed(s)
appropriate ATS authority, a flight plan for
a flight to be provided with air traffic — Cruising level(s)
control service or air traffic advisory
service shall be submitted at least sixty — Route to be followed

minutes before departure, or, if submitted

— Destination aerodrome and total
during flight, at a time which will ensure its
estimated elapsed time
receipt by the appropriate air traffic
56

services unit at least ten minutes before the — Alternate aerodrome(s)

Page

aircraft is estimated to reach:

— Fuel endurance 2.13.5 Closing a flight plan

— Total number of persons on board Unless otherwise prescribed by the

appropriate ATS authority, a report of
— Emergency and survival equipment
arrival shall be made in person, by
radiotelephony or via data link at the
— Other information.
earliest possible moment after landing, to
2.13.3 Completion of a flight plan the appropriate air traffic services unit at the
arrival aerodrome, by any flight for which a
Whatever the purpose for which it is
flight plan has been submitted covering the
submitted, a flight plan shall contain
entire flight or the remaining portion of a
information, as applicable, on relevant
flight to the destination aerodrome.
items up to and including “Alternate
aerodrome(s)” regarding the whole route or When a flight plan has been
the portion thereof for which the flight plan submitted only in respect of a portion of a
is submitted. flight, other than the remaining portion of a
flight to destination, it shall, when required,
It shall, in addition, contain
be closed by an appropriate report to the
information, as applicable, on all other
relevant air traffic services unit. When no
items when so prescribed by the appropriate
air traffic services unit exists at the arrival
ATS authority or when otherwise deemed
aerodrome, the arrival report, shall be made
necessary by the person submitting the
as soon as practicable after landing and by
flight plan.
the quickest means available to the nearest
air traffic services unit/ Flight Information
2.13.4 Changes to a flight plan
Centre.
Subject to the provisions, all
When communication facilities at
changes to a flight plan submitted for an
the arrival aerodrome are known to be
IFR flight, or a VFR flight operated as a
inadequate and alternate arrangements for
controlled flight, shall be reported as soon
the handling of arrival reports on the ground
as practicable to the appropriate air traffic
are not available, the following action shall
services unit. For other VFR flights,
be taken. Immediately prior to landing the
significant changes to a flight plan shall be
aircraft shall, if practicable, transmit to the
57

reported as soon as practicable to the

appropriate air traffic services unit, a
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appropriate air traffic services unit.

message comparable to an arrival report,
where such a report is required. Normally, possible after the first half hour of flight and
this transmission shall be made to the at hourly intervals thereafter, except as
aeronautical station serving the air traffic provided in additional reports at shorter
services unit in charge of the flight intervals of time may be requested by the
information region in which the aircraft is appropriate air traffic services unit when so
operated. Arrival reports made by aircraft required for air traffic services purposes.
shall contain the following elements of
Under conditions specified by the
information:
appropriate ATS authority, flights may be
a) Aircraft identification; exempted from the requirement to make
position reports at each designated
b) Departure aerodrome;
compulsory reporting point or interval. In
applying this paragraph, account should be
c) Destination aerodrome (only in the case
taken of the meteorological requirement for
of a diversionary landing);
the making and reporting of routine aircraft
d) Arrival aerodrome; observations.

e) Time of arrival. The position reports required shall

be made to the air traffic services unit
2.14 POSITION REPORTS serving the airspace in which the aircraft is
operated. In addition, when so prescribed
2.14.1 Transmission of position reports
by the appropriate ATS authority in
On routes defined by designated aeronautical information publications or
significant points, position reports shall be requested by the appropriate air traffic
made when over, or as soon as possible services unit, the last position report before
after passing, each designated compulsory passing from one flight information region
reporting point, except as provided. or control area to an adjacent flight
information region or control area shall be
Additional reports over other points made to the air traffic services unit serving
may be requested by the appropriate air the airspace about to be entered.
traffic services unit when so required for air
traffic services purposes. On routes not If a position report is not received at
defined by designated significant points, the expected time, subsequent control shall
58

position reports shall be made as soon as not be based on the assumption that the
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estimated time is accurate. Immediate

action shall be taken to obtain the report if aircraft and acknowledged through an ADS
it is likely to have any bearing on the agreement.
control of other aircraft.
2.14.4 Contents of ADS reports
2.14.2 Contents of position reports
ADS reports shall be composed of
The position reports required shall data blocks selected from the following:
contain the following elements of
a) Basic ADS
information, except that elements (4), (5)
and (6) may be omitted from position
 Latitude
reports transmitted by radiotelephony,
 Longitude
when so prescribed on the basis of regional
air navigation agreements:  Altitude

 Time
1) Aircraft identification
 Figure of merit

2) Position
b) Ground vector

3) Time
 Track
4) Flight level or altitude  Ground speed
 Rate of climb or descent
5) Next position and time over

c) Air vector
6) Ensuing significant point.

2.14.3 Transmission of ADS reports  Heading

 Mach or IAS
The position reports shall be made
 Rate of climb or descent
automatically to the air traffic services unit
serving the airspace in which the aircraft is d) Projected profile
operating. The requirements for the
transmission and contents of ADS reports  Next way-point
shall be established by the controlling ATC  Estimated altitude at next way-point
unit on the basis of current operational  Estimated time at next way-point
59

conditions, and communicated to the

 (Next + 1) way-point
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  Estimated altitude at (next + 1)  Distance from current point to
waypoint change point
 Estimated time at (next + 1) way-  Track from current point to change
point point
 Altitude at change point
e) Meteorological information
 Predicted time to change point

 Wind speed
g) Extended projected profile (in response
 Wind direction
to an interrogation from the ground system)
 Temperature
 Turbulence (if available)  Next way-point

 Humidity (if available)  Estimated altitude at next way-point

 Estimated time at next way-point

f) Short-term intent
 (Next + 1) way-point

 Latitude at projected intent point  Estimated altitude at (next + 1)

waypoint
 Longitude at projected intent point
 Estimated time at (next + 1) way-
 Altitude at projected intent point
point
 Time of projection
 (Next + 2) way-point
If an altitude, track or speed change  Estimated altitude at (next + 2)
is predicted to occur between the aircraft’s waypoint
current position and the projected intent  Estimated time at (next + 2) way-
point, additional information would be point
provided in an intermediate intent block as
 [repeated for up to (next + 128)
follows:
waypoints]
60
Page
 UNIT – III

FLIGHT INFORMATION ALERTING SERVICES, COORDINATION,

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES AND RULES OF THE AIR

3.1 RADAR SERVICES Radar systems should provide for

the display of safety-related alerts and
3.1.1 Radar systems capabilities
warnings, including conflict alert,
minimum safe altitude warning, conflict
Radar systems used in the provision
prediction and unintentionally duplicated
of air traffic services shall have a very high
SSR codes.
level of reliability, availability and
integrity. The possibility of system failures
States should, to the extent possible,
or significant system degradations which
facilitate the sharing of radar information in
may cause complete or partial interruptions
order to extend and improve radar coverage
of service shall be very remote. Back-up
in adjacent control areas. States should, on
facilities shall be provided. Multi-radar
the basis of regional air navigation
systems, i.e. systems utilizing more than
agreements, provide for the automated
one radar sensor, should have the capability
exchange of co-ordination data relevant to
to receive, process and display, in an
aircraft being provided with radar services,
integrated manner, data from all the
and establish automated co-ordination
connected sensors.
procedures.

Radar systems should be capable of

Primary surveillance radar (PSR)
integration with other automated systems
and secondary Surveillance radar (SSR)
used in the provision of ATS, and should
may be used either alone or in combination
provide for an appropriate level of
in the provision of air traffic services,
automation with the objectives of
including in the provision of separation
improving the accuracy and timeliness of
between aircraft, provided:
data displayed to the controller and
reducing controller workload and the need a) Reliable coverage exists in the area; and
for verbal co-ordination between adjacent
b) The probability of detection, the
control positions and ATC units.
accuracy and the integrity of the radar
61

system(s) are satisfactory.

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PSR systems should be used in codes. The use of radar in air traffic services
circumstances where SSR alone would not shall be limited to specified areas of radar
meet the air traffic services requirements. coverage and shall be subject to such other
limitations as have been specified by the
SSR systems, especially those with
appropriate ATS authority. Adequate
monopulse technique or Mode S capability,
information on the operating methods used
may be used alone, including in the
shall be published in aeronautical
provision of separation between aircraft,
information publications, as well as
provided:
operating practices and/or equipment
limitations having direct effects on the
a) The carriage of SSR transponders is
operation of the air traffic services.
mandatory within the area; and

Where PSR and SSR are required to

b) Aircraft identification is established and
be used in combination, SSR alone may be
maintained by use of assigned discrete SSR
used in the event of PSR failure to provide

62
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separation between identified transponder advanced high speed signal and data
equipped aircraft, provided the accuracy of processing techniques. Some laws of nature
the SSR position indications has been have a greater importance here. Radar
verified by monitor equipment or other measurement of range, or distance, is made
means. possible because of the properties of
radiated electromagnetic energy.
3.2 BASIC RADAR TERMINOLOGY
1. Reflection of electromagnetic waves
Radar is an acronym for Radio
Detection and Ranging. The term "radio" The electromagnetic waves are
refers to the use of electromagnetic waves reflected if they meet an electrically leading
with wavelengths in the so-called radio surface. If these reflected waves are
wave portion of the spectrum, which covers received again at the place of their origin,
a wide range from 104 km to 1 cm. Radar then that means an obstacle is in the
systems typically use wavelengths on the propagation direction.
order of 10 cm, corresponding to
2. Electromagnetic energy travels through
frequencies of about 3 GHz. The detection
air at a constant speed, at approximately
and ranging part of the acronym is
the speed of light,
accomplished by timing the delay between
transmission of a pulse of radio energy and
 300,000 kilometres per second or
its subsequent return.
 186,000 statute miles per second or
3.2.1 Principle of Operation  162,000 nautical miles per second.

The basic principle of operation of This constant speed allows the

primary radar is simple to understand. determination of the distance between the
However, the theory can be quite complex. reflecting objects (airplanes, ships or cars)
An understanding of the theory is essential and the radar site by measuring the running
in order to be able to specify and operate time of the transmitted pulses.
primary radar systems correctly. The
implementation and operation of primary 3. This energy normally travels through

radars systems involve a wide range of space in a straight line, and will vary only

disciplines such as building works, heavy slightly because of atmospheric and

63

mechanical and electrical engineering, high weather conditions. By using of special

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power microwave engineering, and radar antennas this energy can be focused
into a desired direction. Thus the direction a) Recognition of the aircraft identification
(in azimuth and elevation of the reflecting in a radar label;
objects can be measured.
b) Recognition of an assigned discrete code,
These principles can basically be the setting of which has been verified, in a
implemented in a radar system, and allow radar label;
the determination of the distance, the
c) Direct recognition of the aircraft
direction and the height of the reflecting
identification of a Mode S-equipped aircraft
object.
in a radar label;
3.3 IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES
d) By transfer of radar identification
USING PRIMARY / SECONDARY
RADAR
e) Observation of compliance with an
instruction to set a specific code;
3.3.1 General radar procedures

f) Observation of compliance with an

Identification of aircraft
instruction to squawk IDENT;
Establishment of radar
When a discrete code has been
identification: Before providing radar
assigned to an aircraft, a check shall be
service to an aircraft, radar identification
made at the earliest opportunity to ensure
shall be established and the pilot informed.
that the code set by the pilot is identical to
Thereafter, radar identification shall be
that assigned for the flight. Only after this
maintained until termination of the radar
check has been made shall the discrete code
service. If radar identification is
be used as a basis for identification.
subsequently lost, the pilot shall be
informed accordingly and, when
PSR identification procedures
applicable, appropriate instructions issued.
Radar identification shall be established by Where SSR is not used or available,
at least one of the following methods. radar identification shall be established by
at least one of the following methods:
SSR identification procedures
a) By correlating a particular radar position
Where SSR is used, aircraft may be
indication with an aircraft reporting it
64

identified by one or more of the following

position over, or as bearing and distance
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procedures:
from, a point displayed on the radar map, i) Verify that the movements of not more
and by ascertaining that the track of the than one radar position indication
particular radar position is consistent with correspond with those of the aircraft; and
the aircraft path or reported heading;
ii) Ensure that the manoeuvre(s) will not
b) By correlating an observed radar position carry the aircraft outside the coverage of the
indication with an aircraft which is known radar display; Use may be made of
to have just departed, provided that the direction-finding bearings to assist in radar
identification is established within 2 km (1 identification of an aircraft. This method,
NM) from the end of the runway used. however, shall not be used as the sole
Particular care should be taken to avoid means of establishing radar identification,
confusion with aircraft holding over or unless so prescribed by the appropriate
overflying the aerodrome, or with aircraft ATS authority for particular cases under
departing from or making a missed specified conditions.
approach over adjacent runways;
When two or more radar position
c) By transfer of radar identification (see indications are observed in close proximity,
6.3); or are observed to be making similar
movements at the same time, or when doubt
d) By ascertaining the aircraft heading, if
exists as to the identity of a radar position
circumstances require, and following a
indication for any other reason, changes of
period of track observation:
heading should be prescribed or repeated as
many times as necessary, or additional
— instructing the pilot to execute one or
methods of identification should be
more changes of heading of 30 degrees or
employed, until all risk of error in
more and correlating the movements of one
identification is eliminated.
particular radar position indication with the
aircraft’s acknowledged execution of the
3.4 PERFORMANCE CHECKS
instructions given; or
The radar controller shall adjust the
— correlating the movements of a
radar display(s) and carry out adequate
particular radar position indication with
checks on the accuracy thereof, in
manoeuvres currently executed by an
accordance with the technical instructions
65

aircraft having so reported. When using

prescribed by the appropriate authority for
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these methods, the radar controller shall:

the radar equipment concerned.
 The radar controller shall be reduce delays, and provide for direct
satisfied that the available functional routings and more optimum flight profiles,
capabilities of the radar system as well as as well as to enhance safety;
the information presented on the radar
b) Provide radar vectoring to departing
display(s) is adequate for the functions to be
aircraft for the purpose of facilitating an
performed.
expeditious and efficient departure flow
The radar controller shall report, in and expediting climb to cruising level;
accordance with local procedures, any fault
c) Provide radar vectoring to aircraft for the
in the equipment, or any incident requiring
purpose of resolving potential conflicts;
investigation, or any circumstances which
make it difficult or impractical to provide
d) Provide radar vectoring to arriving
radar services.
aircraft for the purpose of establishing an
expeditious and efficient approach
3.5 USE OF RADAR IN THE
sequence;
APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE

e) Provide radar vectoring to assist pilots in

General provisions
their navigation, e.g. to or from a radio
Radar systems used in the provision navigation aid, away from or around areas
of approach control service shall be of adverse weather, etc.
appropriate to the functions and level of
f) Provide separation and maintain normal
service to be provided. Radar systems used
traffic flow when an aircraft experiences
to monitor parallel ILS approaches shall
communication failure within the area of
meet the requirements for such operations
the radar coverage;
3.5.1 Use of radar in the air traffic
g) Maintain radar monitoring of air traffic;
control (Area) service Functions:

h) When applicable, maintain a watch on

The information presented on a
the progress of air traffic, in order to
radar display may be used to perform the
provide a non-radar controller with:
following functions in the provision of air
traffic control service:
i) Improved position information regarding
66

aircraft under control;

a) Provide radar services as necessary in
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order to improve airspace utilization,

ii) Supplementary information regarding neither air traffic control service nor air
other traffic; and traffic advisory service shall be:

iii) Information regarding any significant a) Recorded by the air traffic services unit
deviations, by aircraft, from the terms of serving the flight information region within
their respective air traffic control which the aircraft is flying in such a manner
clearances, including their cleared routes as that it is available for reference and in case
well as levels when appropriate. it is requested for search and rescue action;

3.6 ASSURANCE CONTROL & CO- b) Transmitted by the air traffic services
ORDINATION OF TRAFFIC UNDER unit receiving the information to other air
RADAR AND NON-RADAR traffic services units.
CONTROL
Transfer of responsibility for the
Appropriate arrangements shall be made in provision of flight information service
any air traffic control unit using radar to
The responsibility for the provision
ensure the co-ordination of traffic under
of flight information service to a flight
radar control with traffic under non-radar
normally passes from the appropriate ATS
control, and to ensure the provision of
unit in a flight information region to the
adequate separation between the radar-
appropriate ATS unit in the adjacent flight
controlled aircraft and all other controlled
information region at the time of crossing
aircraft. To this end, close liaison shall be
the common flight information region
maintained at all times between radar
boundary. However, when co-ordination is
controllers and non-radar controllers.
required in accordance with Part VIII, 2.1,
3.7 FLIGHT INFORMATION AND but communication facilities are
ADVISORY SERVICE inadequate, the former ATS unit shall, as
far as practicable, continue to provide flight
3.7.1 Flight information service
information service to the flight until it has
established two-way communication with
Recording and transmission of
the appropriate ATS unit in the flight
information on the progress of flights
information region it is entering.
Information on the actual progress
67

of flights, including those of heavy or

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medium unmanned free balloons, under

3.7.2 Transmission of information disseminated to aircraft by one or more of
the means on the basis of regional air
Means of transmission
navigation agreements.

Except as provided in 1.3.2.1,

The special air-report, SIGMET and
information shall be disseminated to
AIRMET information to be passed to
aircraft by one or more of the following
aircraft on ground initiative should cover a
means as determined by the appropriate
portion of the route up to one hour’s flying
ATS authority:
time ahead of the aircraft except when
another period has been determined on the
a) The preferred method of directed
basis of regional air navigation agreements.
transmission on the initiative of the
appropriate ATS unit to an aircraft,
Transmission of information
ensuring that receipt is acknowledged; or
concerning volcanic activity Information
concerning pre-eruption volcanic activity,
b) A general call, unacknowledged
volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash clouds
transmission to all aircraft concerned; or
shall be disseminated to aircraft by one or
c) Broadcast; or more of the means specified on the basis of
regional air navigation agreements.
d) Data link.
Transmission of information concerning
radioactive materials and toxic chemical
The use of general calls shall be
“clouds” Information on the release into the
limited to cases where it is necessary to
atmosphere of radioactive materials or toxic
disseminate essential information to several
chemicals which could affect airspace
aircraft without delay, e.g. the sudden
within the area of responsibility of the ATS
occurrence of hazards, a change of the
unit shall be transmitted to aircraft by one
runway-in-use, or the failure of a key
or more.
approach and landing aid.

Transmission of selected special

Transmission of special air-reports,
reports and amended aerodrome forecasts
SIGMET and AIRMET information
Selected special reports and amended
Appropriate SIGMET and AIRMET
aerodrome forecasts shall be transmitted on
information, as well as special air-reports
request and supplemented by:
68

which have not been used for the

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preparation of a SIGMET, shall be

a) Directed transmission from the The following information shall be
appropriate air traffic services unit of available at appropriate area control centres
selected special reports and amended or flight information centres for aerodromes
aerodrome forecasts for the departure, determined on the basis of regional air
destination and its alternate aerodromes, as navigation agreements and shall be
listed in the flight plan; or transmitted on request to supersonic aircraft
prior to commencement of deceleration/
b) A general call on appropriate frequencies
descent from supersonic cruise:
for the unacknowledged transmission to
affected aircraft of selected special reports a) Current meteorological reports and
and amended aerodrome forecasts; or forecasts, except that where
communications difficulties are
c) Continuous or frequent broadcast of
encountered under conditions of poor
current aerodrome reports and forecasts in
propagation, the elements transmitted may
areas determined on the basis of regional air
be limited to:
navigation agreements where traffic
congestion dictates. The passing of i) Mean surface wind, direction and speed
amended aerodrome forecasts to aircraft on
(Including gusts);
the initiative of the appropriate air traffic
services unit should be limited to that
ii) Visibility or runway visual range;
portion of the flight where the aircraft is
within a specified time from the aerodrome iii) Amount and height of base of low
of destination, such time being established clouds;
on the basis of regional air navigation
iv) Other significant information;
agreements.

v) If appropriate, information regarding

Transmission of information on
expected changes;
heavy or medium unmanned free balloons
appropriate information on heavy or
b) Operationally significant information on
medium unmanned free balloons shall be
the status of facilities relating to the runway
disseminated to aircraft by one or
in use, including the precision approach
Transmission of information to supersonic
category in the event that the lowest
aircraft
69

approach category promulgated for the

Page

runway is not available;

c) Sufficient information on the runway flying, otherwise to another aeronautical
surface conditions to permit assessment of telecommunication station to be
the runway braking action. retransmitted as required to the air traffic
services unit in charge of the flight
3.8 ALERTING SERVICE
information region).

3.8.1 Aircraft
It may be advisable, in case of a
SAR operation of a substantial duration, to
When so required by the appropriate
promulgate by NOTAM the lateral and
ATS authority to facilitate the provision of
vertical limits of the area of SAR action,
alerting and search and rescue services, an
and to warn aircraft not engaged in actual
aircraft, prior to and when operating, within
SAR operations and not controlled by air
or into designated areas or along designated
traffic control to avoid such areas unless
routes, shall comply with the provisions
otherwise authorized by the appropriate
concerning the submission, completion,
ATS unit.
changing and closing of a flight plan.

3.8.2 Air traffic services units

In addition to the above, aircraft
equipped with suitable two-way radio
When no report from an aircraft has
communications shall report during the
been received within a reasonable period of
period twenty to forty minutes following
time (which may be a specified interval
the time of last contact, whatever the
prescribed on the basis of regional air
purpose of such contact, merely to indicate
navigation agreements) after a scheduled or
that the flight is progressing according to
expected reporting time, the ATS unit shall,
plan, such report to comprise identification
within the stipulated period of thirty
of the aircraft and the words “Operations
minutes, endeavour to obtain such report in
normal” or the signal QRU.
order to be in a position to apply the
provisions relevant to the “Uncertainty
The “Operations normal” message
Phase” should circumstances warrant such
shall be transmitted air-ground to an
application. When alerting service is
appropriate air traffic services unit (e.g.
required in respect of a flight operated
normally to the aeronautical
through more than one flight information
telecommunication station serving the air
region or control area, and when the
70

traffic services unit in charge of the flight

position of the aircraft is in doubt,
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information region in which the aircraft is

responsibility for coordinating such service
shall rest with the ATS unit of the flight verifying it as necessary, transmit it to the
information region or control area: rescue co-ordination centre;

1) Within which the aircraft was flying at — announce the termination of the state of
the time of last air-ground radio contact; emergency as circumstances dictate.

2) That the aircraft was about to enter when 3.9 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
last air ground contact was established at or
3.9.1 General
close to the boundary of two flight
information regions or control areas;
The various circumstances
surrounding each emergency situation
3) Within which the aircraft’s intermediate
preclude the establishment of exact detailed
stop or final destination point is located:
procedures to be followed. The procedures
a) If the aircraft was not equipped with outlined herein are intended as a general
suitable two way radio communication guide to air traffic services personnel.
equipment; or
Air traffic control units shall
b) Was not under obligation to transmit maintain full and complete co-ordination,
position reports. and personnel shall use their best judgment
in handling emergency situations.
The unit responsible for alerting
service, shall 3.9.2 Priority

— notify units providing alerting service in An aircraft known or believed to be

other affected flight information regions or in a state of emergency, including being
control areas of the emergency phase or subjected to unlawful interference, shall be
phases, in addition to notifying the rescue given priority over other aircraft.
co-ordination centre associated with it;
3.9.3 Unlawful interference
— request those units to assist in the search
Air traffic services personnel shall
for any useful information pertaining to the
be prepared to recognize any indication of
aircraft presumed to be in an emergency.
the occurrence of unlawful interference
— collect the information gathered during with an aircraft. Whenever unlawful
71

each phase of the emergency and, after interference with an aircraft is suspected,
Page
and where automatic distinct display of may be concerned with the progress of the
SSR Mode A Code 7500 and Code 7700 is flight;
not provided, the radar controller shall
d) Notify:
attempt to verify his suspicion by setting the
SSR decoder to Mode A Code 7500 and
i) The operator or his designated
thereafter to Code 7700. Whenever
representative;
unlawful interference with an aircraft is
known or suspected, ATS units shall ii) The appropriate rescue co-ordination
promptly attend to requests by or to centre in accordance with appropriate
anticipated needs of the aircraft, including alerting procedures;
requests for relevant information relating to
iii) The designated security authority;
air navigation facilities, procedures and
services along the route of flight and at any
e) Relay appropriate messages, relating to
aerodrome of intended landing, and shall
the circumstances associated with the
take such action as is necessary to expedite
unlawful interference, between the aircraft
the conduct of all phases of the flight.
and designated authorities.

ATS units shall also:

3.9.4 Emergency descent

a) Transmit, and continue to transmit,

Upon receipt of advice that an
information pertinent to the safe conduct of
aircraft is making an emergency descent
the flight, without expecting a reply from
through other traffic, all possible action
the aircraft;
shall be taken immediately to safeguard all
aircraft concerned. When deemed
b) Monitor and plot the progress of the
necessary, air traffic control units shall
flight with the means available, and co-
immediately broadcast by means of the
ordinate transfer of control with adjacent
appropriate radio aids, or if not possible,
ATS units without requiring transmissions
request the appropriate communications
or other responses from the aircraft, unless
stations immediately to broadcast an
communication with the aircraft remains
emergency message.
normal;

c) Inform and continue to keep informed,

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appropriate ATS units, including those in

Page

adjacent flight information regions, which

3.9.5 Action by the pilot-in-command the aircraft is going. Specifically, the
weather must be better than basic VFR
It is expected that aircraft receiving
weather minimums, as specified in the rules
such a broadcast will clear the specified
of the relevant aviation authority. The pilot
areas and stand by on the appropriate radio
must be able to operate the aircraft with
frequency for further clearances from the
visual reference to the ground, and by
air traffic control unit.
visually avoiding obstructions and other
aircraft.
Subsequent action by the air traffic
control unit
If the weather is below VFR
minimums, pilots are required to use
Immediately after such an
instrument flight rules, and operation of the
emergency broadcast has been made the
aircraft will primarily be through
area control centre, the approach control
referencing the instruments rather than
office, or the aerodrome control tower
visual reference.
concerned shall forward further clearances
to all aircraft involved as to additional
Requirements
procedures to be followed during and
subsequent to the emergency descent. VFR require a pilot to be able to see
outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's
3.10 RULES OF THE AIR
attitude, navigate, and avoid obstacles and
other aircraft. Governing agencies establish
The operation of an aircraft either in
specific requirements for VFR flight,
flight or on the movement area of an
including minimum visibility, and distance
aerodrome shall be in compliance with the
from clouds, to ensure that aircraft
general rules and, in addition, when in
operating under VFR are visible from
flight, either with:
enough distance to ensure safety. Under
a) The visual flight rules, or Visual meteorological conditions the
minimum visual range, distance from
b) The instrument flight rules.
cloud, and heights to be maintained above
ground vary by jurisdiction, and may also
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set
vary according to the airspace in which the
of regulations under which a pilot operates
aircraft is operating.
73

an aircraft in weather conditions generally

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clear enough to allow the pilot to see where

 The VFR pilot is required to "see under conditions in which flight by outside
and avoid" obstacles and other aircraft. visual reference is not safe. IFR flight
Pilots flying under VFR assume depends upon flying by reference to
responsibility for their separation from all instruments in the flight deck, and
other aircraft and are generally not assigned navigation is accomplished by reference to
routes or altitudes by air traffic control. electronic signals.” It is also a term used by
pilots and controllers to indicate the type of
Depending on the category of
flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an
airspace in which the flight is being
IFR or VFR flight plan.
conducted, VFR aircraft may be required to
have a transponder to help Air Traffic
Control identify the aircraft on radar in
order that ATC can provide separation
guidance to IFR aircraft.

Instrument flight rules (IFR) is

one of two sets of regulations governing all
aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations;
the other is visual flight rules (VFR).
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)
defines IFR as: “Rules and regulations
established by the FAA to govern flight

74
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 UNIT - IV

AERODROME DATA, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND OBSTACLE

RESTRICTION

j) Location of navigation aids;

4.1 AERODROME DATA k) Location of isolation bay; and

Aerodrome information to be provided l) Location of helipads; where provided.

for a certified aerodrome
Aerodrome administration:
Aerodrome chart:
This will include:
An aerodrome chart will contain the
a) Name, address, telephone and facsimile
following information:
numbers of the aerodrome operator;
a) Layout of runways, taxiways and
b) Aerodrome usage;
apron(s);

c) Aerodrome charges.
b) Type of the runway surfaces;

Aerodrome location:
c) Designations and length of runways;

This information will include:

d) Designations of the taxiways, where
applicable;
a) Name of aerodrome;

e) Location of illuminated and non-

b) Latitude and longitude, based on the
illuminated wind direction indicators;
aerodrome reference point;

f) Location of the aerodrome reference

c) Magnetic variation;
point;
d) Aerodrome elevation.
g) Location of terminal buildings;
Movement area. The following
h) Location of control tower;
information will be included:
75

i) Location of fire station;

Page

a) Aerodrome reference code number;

b) Runway bearings- in degrees magnetic f) Any other marking and lighting systems.
and true;
Navigation aids
c) Runway length and surface type;
Details of all navigational aids
d) Runway pavement strength rating/ load serving the aerodromes will be provided.
bearing strength;
Rescue and fire -fighting services
e) Runway and runway strip width;
The category of aerodrome-based rescue
f) Runway slopes; and fire-fighting services will be provided.

g) Runway declared distances; Ground services

h) Elevation of the midpoint of runway This information will include:

threshold, for instrument runways;
a) Availability of fuel (ATF);
i) Runway turning area;
b) Automatic terminal information service
j) Taxiway designation, width, surface type; where provided;

k) Apron surface type and aircraft stands. c) Ground to air communication facilities

Visual aids (aeronautical marking and d) Any other services available to pilots.
lighting system)
4.2 AERODROME REFERENCE
This information will include: CODE

a) Marking and lighting systems for Airports Authority of India has

runways; adopted the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) methodology for
b) Approach lighting system;
using a code system, known as the
Aerodrome Reference Code, to specify the
c) Visual approach slope indicator system;
standards for individual aerodrome
d) Aerodrome beacon; facilities which are suitable for use by
aeroplanes within a range of performances
76

e) Marking and lighting systems for

Page

taxiways; and
and sizes. The Code is composed of two obstructions within 4 NM that may
elements: constitute hazards are measured from the
ARP. The same as aerodrome reference
Element 1 is a number related to the
point.
aeroplane reference field length; and
element 2 is a letter related to the aeroplane 4.4 AERODROME ELEVATION
wing span and outer main gear wheel span.
The elevation of the highest point of
A particular specifications related to the
the landing area (ICAO). Aerodrome
more appropriate of the two elements of the
elevation is measured to an accuracy of 1 ft
Code or to an appropriate combination of
(or 1/2 m). The aerodrome elevation is
the two Code elements. The Code letter or
prominently displayed at the air traffic
number within an element selected for
control tower. Also called above airfield
design purposes is related to the critical
elevation and airport elevation.
aeroplane characteristics for which the
facility is provided. There could be more
Aerodrome and runway elevations
than one critical aeroplane, as the critical
aeroplane for a particular facility, such as a The aerodrome elevation and geoid
runway, may not be the critical aeroplane undulation at the aerodrome elevation
for another facility, such as the taxiway. position shall be measured to the accuracy
of one-half metre or foot and reported to the
4.3 AERODROME REFERENCE
aeronautical information services authority.
POINT
For an aerodrome used by international
An airport (or aerodrome)
civil aviation for non-precision approaches,
reference point (ARP) is the notional
the elevation and geoid undulation of each
centre point of an airport, located at the
threshold, the elevation of the runway end
geometric centre of all the usable runways.
and any significant high and low
intermediate points along the runway shall
A point on the airport designated as the
be measured to the accuracy of one-half
official airport location. It is generally
metre or foot and reported to the
indicated in six digit coordinates. The ARP
aeronautical information services authority.
is located as near as is practical to the
geometric center of the landing area, taking
77

into account possible future development.

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Magnetic bearings and distances of

4.5 AERODROME REFERENCE (microwave landing system) and visual aids
TEMPERATURE intended for operations with a decision
height not lower than 200 ft (60 m) and a
An aerodrome reference
runway visual range of the order of 800 m
temperature shall be determined for an
(2600 ft). (When RVR is not available, 0.5
aerodrome in degrees Celsius. The
statute miles ground visibility is
aerodrome reference temperature shall be
substituted.) Rotorcraft visibility limits
the monthly mean of the daily maximum
may be half those published for airplanes.
temperatures for the hottest month of
the year.

4.6 INSTRUMENT RUNWAY/

INSTRUMENT APPROACH
RUNWAY
iii. Precision approach runway category II.
An instrument runway served by an ILS
A runway equipped with visual and
and/or an MLS and visual aids intended for
electronic navigational aids for which a
operation with a decision height lower than
precision or a non-precision approach with
200 ft (60 m) but not lower than 100 ft (30
straight-in landing minimums has been
m) and a runway visual range not less than
approved.
400 m (1200 ft). Rotorcraft visibility limits
There may be more than one may be lower than those published for
instrument runway on an airfield. The airplanes.
various types of instrument runways are
iv. Precision approach runway category III.
the:
An instrument runway served by an ILS to
i. Non-precision approach runway. An and along the surface of the runway and
instrument runway served by visual aids intended for operations down to an RVR
and a non-visual aid providing at least (runway visual range) of the order of 200 m
directional guidance adequate for a straight- (600 ft) (no decision height is applicable),
in approach. using visual aids during the final phase of
landing; or intended for operations down to
ii. Precision approach runway category I. an RVR of the order of 50 m (150 ft) (no
An instrument runway served by an ILS
78

decision height is applicable), using visual

(instrument landing system) and/or an MLS aids for taxiing; or intended for operations
Page
without reliance on visual reference for adequate for those aeroplanes which require
landing or taxiing. The visual aids need not to use that secondary runway in addition to
necessarily be matched to the scale of the the other runway or runways in order to
non-visual aids provided. The criterion for obtain a usability factor of at least 95 per
the selection of visual aids is the condition cent.
under which operations are intended to be
Runways with stop ways or
conducted.
clearways where a runway is associated
4.7 LENGTH OF PRIMARY & with a stop way or clearway, an actual
SECONDARY RUNWAY runway length less than that resulting from
application of 3.1.6 or 3.1.7, as appropriate,
Primary runway
may be considered satisfactory, but in such
a case any combination of runway, stop
The actual runway length to be
way and clearway provided shall permit
provided for a primary runway shall be
compliance with the operational
adequate to meet the operational
requirements for take-off and landing of the
requirements of the aeroplanes for which
aeroplanes the runway is intended to serve.
the runway is intended and shall be not less
than the longest length determined by
Length
applying the corrections for local
conditions to the operations and A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800
performance characteristics of the relevant m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft
aeroplanes. weights below approximately 200,000 lb
(90,000 kg). Larger aircraft including
Secondary runway
widebodies will usually require at least
8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level and
The length of a secondary runway
somewhat more at higher altitude airports.
shall be determined similarly to primary
runways except that it needs only to be
International wide body flights,
which carry substantial amounts of fuel and
are therefore heavier, may also have
landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m)
or more and take-off requirements of
79

13,000 ft (4,000 m). At sea level, 10,000 ft

Page

(3,000 m) can be considered an adequate

length to land virtually any aircraft. For Past standards called for the RSA to
example, at O'Hare International, when extend only 60m (200 feet) from the ends of
landing simultaneously on 22R and 28 or the runway. Currently the international
parallel 27L, it is routine for arrivals from standard ICAO requires a 90m (300 feet)
the Far East which would normally be RESA starting from the end of the runway
vectored for 22R (7,500 ft (2,286 m)) or strip (which itself is 60m from the end of
27L (7,967 ft (2,428 m)) to request 28 the runway), and recommends but not
(13,001 ft (3,963 m)). It is always requires a 240m RESA beyond that. In the
accommodated, although occasionally with U.S., the recommended RSA may extend to
a delay. Another example is that the Luleå
500 feet in width, and 1,000 feet beyond
Airport in Sweden was extended to 10,990
each runway end (according to U.S. Federal
ft (3,350 m) to allow any fully loaded
Aviation Administration recommendations;
freight aircraft to take off. An aircraft will
1000 feet is equivalent to the international
need a longer runway at a higher altitude
ICAO-RESA of 240m plus 60m strip). The
due to decreased density of air at higher
standard dimensions have increased over
altitudes, which reduces lift and engine
time to accommodate larger and faster
power, requiring higher take-off and
aircraft, and to improve safety.
landing speed. An aircraft will also require
a longer runway in hotter or more humid
4.8 WIDTH OF RUNWAYS
conditions (see density altitude). Most
commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's The width of a runway is dependent
tables showing the adjustments required for on the normal prevalent visibility,
a given temperature. manoeuvrability, and stability of aircraft
during landing.
Runway safety area
4.9 MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN
A runway safety area (RSA) or
PARALLEL RUNWAYS
runway end safety area (RESA) is
defined as "the surface surrounding the Minimum distance between parallel
runway prepared or suitable for reducing runways
the risk of damage to airplanes in the event
Where parallel non-instrument
of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion
runways are intended for simultaneous use,
80

from the runway."

Page
the minimum distance between their centre 2) Shall be increased by 30 m for each 150
lines shall be: m that the arrival runway is staggered away
from the arriving aircraft;
C 210 m where the higher code number is 3
or 4; b) For independent parallel approaches,
combinations of minimum distances and
C 150 m where the higher code number is
associated conditions other than those
2; and
specified in the ICAO PANS-RAC (Doc
4444) may be applied when it is determined
C 120 m where the higher code number is
that such combinations would not adversely
1.
affect the safety of aircraft operations.
Where parallel instrument runways
4.10 OBSTACLES RESTRICTION
are intended for simultaneous use subject to
conditions specified in the ICAO PANS-
Restrictions/prohibition of new
RAC (Doc 4444) and the PANS-OPS (Doc
constructions, the height of which does not
8168), Volume I, the minimum distance
constitute obstruction but which is
between their centres lines shall be:
nevertheless considered hazardous to the
safety of aircraft operations:
C 1035 m for independent parallel
approaches;
New construction/installation
which will adversely affect the performance
C 915 m for dependent parallel approaches;
of radio/radar/navigational aids which will
C 760 m for independent parallel adversely affect the published instrument
departures; approach to land procedures or which will
necessitate a probable change in the
C 760 m for segregated parallel operations; published procedures, shall be
except that:
restricted/prohibited as deemed fit.

a) For segregated parallel operations the

Overhead HT/LT lines or
specified minimum distance: telephone/telegraph lines will not be
permitted in the approach/takeoff climb
1) May be decreased by 30 m for each 150
areas within 3000 m of the Inner edge of
m that the arrival runway is staggered
81

these areas. Construction of butcheries,

toward the arriving aircraft, to a minimum
Page

tanneries and refuse dumps will not be

of 300 m; and
permitted within a radius of 10 kms from Central Government/Airports Authority of
the Runway ends/ARP. India.

NOTE: Incinerators could be permitted For mobile obstructions, the

clear of approach/take-off climb areas. following additional heights will be
considered:
Factory chimneys proposed to be
constructed within a radius of 8 km of Rail Track: 7.62 m
runway ends/ARP will not be permitted
Road: 5.0 m
unless the owners give a written
undertaking that oil- fired or electric
Operational criteria
furnaces or any other fuel which will not
cause smoke- hazard will only be used. The heights of structures will be
restricted with reference to the Obstacle
A 3 m deduction will be made from
Clearance Altitudes as published in Notices
the permissible elevation of the proposed
to Airmen and amended from time to time.
structure falling in approach/take-off climb
surfaces and transition surfaces in the close The vertical clearance between the structure
proximity of approach funnels. This and the aircraft making an instrument
provision is kept for super structures of any approach to land shall be up to 150 m.
kind, such as, Wireless/TV antennas,
Note: To have the effective control over the
cooling towers, lift machine rooms,
construction activities of the Government
overhead water tanks, etc.
or private agencies within the areas
For the buildings/structures to be specified for obstacle limitation surfaces,
constructed in the vicinity of an aerodrome, all in-charges of aerodromes are enjoined to
the owner will have to give an undertaking exercise continuous vigilance over such
in the prescribed Performa to the effect that activities. They are to take immediate
he is aware of the fact that no complaints of action to bring any violation of the laid
claims against the noise, vibration, nuisance down criteria to the notice of Local
or other damage to Administrative Authorities for stoppage of
buildings/property/individuals, caused by such construction activities and also keep
the regular aircraft operations from/to the
82

Headquarters informed in this regard.

aerodrome, shall be entertained by the
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 UNIT - V

VISUAL AIDS FOR NAVIGATION, VISUAL AIDS FOR DENOTING OBSTACLES

EMERGENCY AND OTHER SERVICES

5.1 VISUAL AIDS FOR NAVIGATION of the runway at a point approximately 60

WIND DIRECTION INDICATOR m outwards from the runway edge and
approximately 150 m inwards from the
Application Standard - An aerodrome
approach end.
shall be equipped with at least one wind
direction indicator. Recommendation - Aerodromes with
runways 1200 m or less in length should
have a wind direction indicator centrally
located on the aerodrome except that at
aerodromes with only one runway the wind
direction indicator should be centrally
located along the runway and
approximately 60 m from the edge.

Characteristics

Standard - The height of wind direction

indicators shall not exceed a height of 7.5 m
when located in the runway strip.
Location Standard - A wind direction
Recommendation - The wind direction
indicator shall be located so as to be visible
indicator should be in the form of a
from aircraft in flight or on the movement
truncated cone made of fabric and should
area and in such a way as to be free from
have a length of not less than 3.6 m and a
the effects of air disturbances caused by
diameter, at the larger end, of not less than
nearby objects.
0.9 m. It should be constructed so that it
Recommendation - Aerodromes with gives a clear indication of the direction of
83

runways greater than 1200 m should have a the surface wind and a general indication of
Page

wind direction indicator located at each end the wind speed. The colour or colours
should be so selected as to make the wind Traffic Patterns
direction indicator clearly visible and
At those airports without an
understandable from a height of at least 300
operating control tower, a segmented circle
m, having regard to background.
visual indicator system [Figure], if
Where practicable, a single colour, installed, is designed to provide traffic
preferably white or orange, should be used. pattern information.
Where a combination of two colours is
Usually located in a position
required to give adequate conspicuity
affording maximum visibility to pilots in
against changing backgrounds, they should
the air and on the ground and providing a
preferably be orange and white, red and
centralized location for other elements of
white, or black and white, and should be
the system, the segmented circle consists of
arranged in five alternate bands, the first
the following components: wind direction
and last bands being the darker colour.
indicators, landing direction indicators,
Standard - Provision shall be made landing strip indicators, and traffic pattern
for illuminating at least one wind indicator indicators.
at an aerodrome intended for use at night.
A tetrahedron is installed to indicate
5.2 LANDING DIRECTION the direction of landings and take-offs when
INDICATOR conditions at the airport warrant its use. It
may be located at the centre of a segmented
A device to indicate visually the
circle and may be lighted for night
direction currently designated for landing
operations. The small end of the tetrahedron
and take-off (ICAO). Wind cones,
points in the direction of landing. Pilots are
windsocks, landing T, and tetrahedron are
cautioned against using a tetrahedron for
some of the devices used as landing
any purpose other than as an indicator of
direction indicators.
landing direction. At airports with control
towers, the tetrahedron should only be
referenced when the control tower is not in
operation. Tower instructions supersede
tetrahedron indications.
84
Page
Landing strip indicators are installed in 5.3 LOCATION AND
pairs as shown in Figure and are used to CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNAL
show the alignment of landing strips. AREA

Traffic pattern indicators are The Aerodrome Signal Area

arranged in pairs in conjunction with
The operator of a certified
landing strip indicators and used to indicate
aerodrome (a term that has replaced
the direction of turns when there is a
'licensed aerodrome') that does not have a
variation from the normal left traffic
continuous air traffic service provided by
pattern. (If there is no segmented circle
ATC during the day must provide a signal
installed at the airport, traffic pattern
area consisting of a black circle of 9 m
indicators may be installed on or near the
diameter with either a 1 m white border or
end of the runway.)
6 white edge markers. The signal area
At most airports and military air replaced the earlier signal square. The
bases, traffic pattern altitudes for propeller- signals that must be displayed are a white
driven aircraft generally extend from 600 cross if the aerodrome is unserviceable, a
feet to as high as 1,500 feet above ground white dumb-bell if aircraft are only to use
level (AGL). Pilots can obtain the traffic sealed movement areas, and a white double-
pattern altitude for an airport from the cross when glider operations are being
A/FD. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for conducted. In the case of Narromine, a
military turbojet aircraft sometimes extend major gliding centre, the double cross
up to 2,500 feet AGL. Therefore, pilots of symbol is permanently displayed.
en route aircraft should be constantly on the
The other two symbols are,
alert for other aircraft in traffic patterns and
somewhat unusually, mounted on frames
avoid these areas whenever possible. When
such that they can be rotated to display
operating at an airport, traffic pattern
either a white or black face upward - both
altitudes should be maintained unless
set to black in the photo above. Behind the
otherwise required by the applicable
signal area is the aerodrome's primary
distance from cloud criteria. Pilots can find
illuminated wind indicator.
traffic pattern information and restrictions
such as noise abatement in the A/FD.
85
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Signal Square surface inside the square was smooth and
level, surfaced in bitumen, ashes, sealed
The Signal Square was neither fish
gravel, turf or even bare earth. It was
nor fowl. It was installed and maintained at
usually blackened with sump oil or black
aerodromes by Airports staff, and operated
ashes to provide a contrasting background
by the resident grounds man or airport
to the symbols that conveyed the
fireman on the instruction of the air traffic
information.
controller or flight service officer.
They were four basic signals; the
The Signal Square, or signal area,
red square signal, the dumb bell signals, the
contained symbols to indicate visually to
landing T, and the right hand circuit
over-flying aircraft conditions on the
indicator. All of these objects were made of
aerodrome. It had pre- War origins, and was
timber and painted black on the reverse
intended for aircraft that carried no radio
side. They were made of a series of hinged
communications equipment (which
sections so that they could be folded up
included most light aircraft well into the
when not in use, and would not be visible
1960s). As soon as ICAO was created in
from the air as the reverse side was
1947, Annexe 14 contained (and still does)
showing, and appeared black. The function
instructions on the size and construction of
of these elements was as follows.
the Signal Square. Annex 2 describes its use
by aircraft. Red Signal Square

Ground signals are still used at A red square with no diagonals

aerodromes to this day – the landing T and indicated that the aerodrome rules were
the gliding-in operation symbol being the temporarily suspended, and that special
most common ones, but the general use of arrangements were in operation. If this
the signal square had fallen into disuse by square had one yellow diagonal cross-bar,
the late 1950s when VHF air-ground it indicated that the bad state of the landing
communications had been largely ground or a temporary obstruction required
introduced. caution by the pilot when landing. If the
Red Square had two yellow diagonal cross-
The square was marked out on the
bars, this meant a total prohibition of
ground in the vicinity of the control tower
landing for a prolonged period.
86

and the wind- sock. It had sides 40 feet

Page

long, with a white-painted border. The Dumb Bell Signals:

 These were only displayed only on off the runways, but that heavy aircraft
aerodromes with sealed runways. A white must use runways only.
dumb bell indicated that the airfield surface
Landing ’T’:
was unserviceable except for the runways
and that take-offs and landings were to be
This was probably the best known
made on the runways only, and that all
of the signals, and was used at all-over
landing fields. It was mounted
on a pivot for ease of turning,
and supported on castor wheels
or skids. It was lined up with the
wind direction, and an aircraft
landed along the shaft of the "T"
towards the cross arm. While
not commonly used, a white disc
at the centre of the cross piece of
the "T" indicated that take-offs
and landings were being made in
more than one direction, and
that pilots must be ‘on the alert’.
Of course, the air traffic
controller or Aeradio operator
on-duty had to vigilant, and
taxying must be on paved surfaces only. A
change the direction of the T whenever the
white dumb bell with black bars
wind direction changed.
superimposed across the centres of each
circular portion of the dumb bell meant that White Cross:
landings and take-offs must be on runways
This symbol indicated that
only, but grass surfaces may be used for
parachute dropping was in progress, and
taxying, subject to standard serviceability
that aircraft were not to take-off or land.
markings.

A red "L" on the dumb bell

87

indicated that light aircraft may land or taxi

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Double White Cross: all lights are working and not obscure by
vegetation, dirt snow etc.
This symbol, a vertical arm with
two parallel cross arms, is still in use at c. Check all taxi way hold position
some aerodromes and indicates that glider markings and runway designation signs are
flying is in progress. in good condition, clearly visible and the
sign lights are working.
Right Hand Circuit Arrow:
d. Check signs to ensure they are frangibly
If right hand circuits were to be used
mounted.
by aircraft instead of the normal convention
of left-hand circuits a large red arrow, e. Check that the signs are not missing and
bending right, was employed. It was they have correct legend and orientation
superimposed on two adjacent sides of the with no broken panels.
Signal Area, in close proximity to the
5.5 VARIOUS MARKINGS
horizontal red square panel.

There were some other symbols  Designation Centerline

used only at military airfields, for obvious  Threshold

reasons. A white hollow square indicated  Rwy End
bombing practice with dummy bombs and
 Aiming Point
diving practice were being carried out, with
 Touchdown Zone
a white square as the bombing target.
 Side Strip
5.4 MARKINGS, GENERAL  Turnpad
REQUIREMENTS  Holding Position

Markings and Signs:  Mandatory

 Information Marking
a. Check markings for correct colour
coding, peeling, blistering, chipping and General
fading.
a. Airport pavement markings and signs
b. Check signs to ensure they are of the provide information that is useful to a pilot
88

correct colour coding, easy to read and that during takeoff, landing, and taxiing.
Page
b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs Marking Colors
from one airport to another enhances safety
Markings for runways are white.
and improves efficiency. Pilots are
Markings defining the landing area on a
encouraged to work with the operators of
heliport are also white except for hospital
the airports they use to achieve the marking
heliports which use a red "H" on a white
and sign standards described in this section.
cross. Markings for taxiways, areas not
c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, intended for use by aircraft (closed and
incorrect, or confusing markings or signs on hazardous areas), and holding positions
an airport should make the operator of the (even if they are on a runway) are yellow.
airport aware of the problem. These
Runway Markings
situations may also be reported under the
Aviation Safety Reporting Program. Pilots
General
may also report these situations to the FAA
regional airports division. There are three types of markings
for runways: visual, non-precision
d. The markings and signs described in this
instrument, and precision instrument.
section of the AIM reflect the current FAA
recommended standards. Runway Designators

Airport Pavement Markings Runway numbers and letters are

determined from the approach direction.
General
The runway number is the whole number
nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of
For the purpose of this presentation
the centerline of the runway, measured
the Airport Pavement Markings have been
clockwise from the magnetic north. The
grouped into four areas:
letters, differentiate between left (L), right
1. Runway Markings. (R), or center (C), parallel runways, as
applicable:
2. Taxiway Markings.
1. For two parallel runways "L" "R."
3. Holding Position Markings.
2. For three parallel runways "L" "C" "R."
4. Other Markings.
89
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Runway Centerline Marking Runway Side Stripe Marking

The runway centerline identifies the Runway side stripes delineate the
center of the runway and provides edges of the runway. They provide a visual
alignment guidance during takeoff and contrast between runway and the abutting
landings. The centreline consists of a line of terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. continuous white stripes located, on each
side of the runway.
Runway Aiming Point Marking
Runway Shoulder Markings
The aiming point marking serves as
a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. Runway shoulder stripes may be
These two rectangular markings consist of used to supplement runway side stripes to
a broad white stripe located on each side of identify pavement areas contiguous to the
the runway centerline and approximately runway sides that are not intended for use
1,000 feet from the landing threshold, as by aircraft. Runway Shoulder stripes are
shown in FIG 1, Precision Instrument Yellow.
Runway Markings.
Runway Threshold Markings
Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
Runway threshold markings come
The touchdown zone markings in two configurations. They either consist
identify the touchdown zone for landing of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform
operations and are coded to provide dimensions disposed symmetrically about
distance information in 500 feet (150m) the runway centerline or the number of
increments. These markings consist of stripes is related to the runway. A threshold
groups of one, two, and three rectangular marking helps identify the beginning of the
bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about runway that is available for landing. In
the runway centerline, as shown in FIG1, some instances the landing threshold may
Precision Instrument Runway Markings. be relocated or displaced.
For runways having touchdown zone
1. Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes
markings on both ends, those pairs of
construction, maintenance, or other
markings which extend to within 900 feet
activities require the threshold to be
90

(270m) of the midpoint between the

relocated towards the rollout end of the
Page

thresholds are eliminated.

runway. When a threshold is relocated, it White arrows are located along the
closes not only a set portion of the approach centerline in the area between the beginning
end of a runway, but also shortens the of the runway and displaced threshold.
length of the opposite direction runway. In White arrow heads are located across the
these cases, a NOTAM should be issued by width of the runway just prior to the
the airport operator identifying the portion threshold bar. A demarcation bar delineates
of the runway that is closed, e.g., 10/28 W a runway with a displaced threshold from a
900 CLSD. blast pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes
the runway. A demarcation bar is 3 feet
Because the duration of the
(1m) wide and yellow, since it is not located
relocation can vary from a few hours to
on the runway. These markings are used to
several months, methods identifying the
show pavement areas aligned with the
new threshold may vary. One common
runway that are unusable for landing,
practice is to use a ten feet wide white
takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow.
threshold bar across the width of the
runway. Although the runway lights in the Runway Threshold Bar
area between the old threshold and new
A threshold bar delineates the
threshold will not be illuminated, the
beginning of the runway that is available for
runway markings in this area may or may
landing when the threshold has been
not be obliterated, removed, or covered.
relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10
2. Displaced Threshold. A displaced feet (3m) in width and extends across the
threshold is a threshold located at a point on width of the runway.
the runway other than the designated
5.6 LIGHTS, GENERAL
beginning of the runway. Displacement of a
REQUIREMENTS
threshold reduces the length of runway
available for landings. The portion of
Aeronautical Ground Lights:
runway behind a displaced threshold is
available for takeoffs in either direction or Operation:
landings from the opposite direction. A ten
feet wide white threshold bar is located General

across the width of the runway at the

All aeronautical ground lights shall be
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displaced threshold.
operated:
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a) Continuously during the hours of Approach lighting
darkness or during the time the centre of the
In addition to approach lighting
sun’s disc is more than 6 degrees below the
shall also be operated:
horizon, whichever requires the longer
period of operation, unless otherwise
a) By day when requested by an
provided hereafter or otherwise required for
approaching aircraft;
the control of air traffic;
b) When the associated runway lighting is
b) At any other time when their use, based
operated. The lights of a visual approach
on weather conditions, is considered
slope indicator system shall be operated
desirable for the safety of air traffic.
during the hours of daylight as well as of
darkness and irrespective of the visibility
Lights on and in the vicinity of
conditions when the associated runway is
aerodromes that are not intended for en-
being used.
route navigation purposes may be turned
off, subject to further provisions hereafter,
Runway lighting
if no likelihood of either regular or
emergency operation exists, provided that Runway lighting shall not be
they can be again brought into operation at operated if that runway is not in use for
least one hour before the expected arrival of landing, take-off or taxiing purposes. If
an aircraft. runway lighting is not operated
continuously, lighting following a take-off
At aerodromes equipped with lights
shall be provided as specified below:
of variable intensity a table of intensity
settings, based on conditions of visibility a) At aerodromes where air traffic control
and ambient light, should be provided for service is provided and where lights are
the guidance of air traffic controllers in centrally controlled, the lights of one
effecting adjustment of these lights to suit runway shall remain lighted after take-off
the prevailing conditions. When so as long as is considered necessary for the
requested by an aircraft, further adjustment return of the aircraft due to an emergency
of the intensity may be made whenever occurring during or immediately after take-
possible. off;
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b) At aerodromes without air traffic control

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service or without centrally controlled

lights, the lights of one runway shall remain may be turned off and on simultaneously
lighted until such time as would normally with the runway or channel lights.
be required to reactivate the lights in the Unserviceability lights may not be turned
likelihood of the departing aircraft off while the aerodrome is open.
returning for an emergency landing, and in
Monitoring of visual aids
any case not less than fifteen minutes after
take-off.
Aerodrome controllers shall make
use of automatic monitoring facilities,
Stopway lighting
when provided, to ascertain whether the
Stopway lights shall be operated lighting is in good order and functioning
whenever the associated runway lights are according to selection.
operated.
In the absence of an automatic
Taxiway lighting monitoring system or to supplement such a
system, the aerodrome controller shall
Taxiway lighting shall be turned on
visually observe such lighting as can be
in such order that a continuous indication of
seen from the aerodrome control tower and
the taxi path is presented to taxiing aircraft.
use information from other sources such as
Taxiway lighting or any portion thereof
visual inspections or reports from aircraft to
may be turned off when no longer needed
maintain awareness of the operational
by the taxiing aircraft.
status of the visual aids. On receipt of
information indicating a lighting fault, the
Stop bars
aerodrome controller shall take such action
Stop bars shall be switched on to as is warranted to safeguard any affected
indicate that all traffic shall stop, and aircraft or vehicles, and initiate action to
switched off to indicate that traffic may have the fault rectified.
proceed.
5.7 AERODROME BEACON
Obstacle lighting
An aerodrome beacon or rotating
Obstacle lighting associated with beacon is a beacon installed at an airport or
the approach to or departure from a runway aerodrome to indicate its location to aircraft
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or channel, where the obstacle does not pilots at night. An aerodrome beacon is
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project through the inner horizontal surface, mounted on top of a towering structure,
often a control tower, above other buildings 4. Yellow alone*— Lighted water airport
of the airport. It produces flashes not unlike
5. Green, Yellow, and White —
that of a lighthouse. Airport and heliport
beacons are designed in such a way to make
Lighted heliport
them most effective from one to ten degrees
above the horizon; however, they can be 6. White, White, Green*— Military
seen well above and below this peak spread.
Airport
The beacon may be an omnidirectional
flashing xenon strobe, or it may rotate at a
7. White, Green, Red — Hospital and/or
constant speed which produces the visual
Emergency Services Heliport
effect of flashes at regular intervals. Flashes
may be of just a single color, or of two *Green alone or yellow alone is used only
alternating colors. in connection with a white-and green or
white-and-yellow beacon display,
In the United States, the Federal
respectively.
Aviation Administration (FAA) has
established the following rules for airport Military airport beacons flash
beacons: alternately white and green, but are
differentiated from civil beacons by two
Flashing rates
quick white flashes between the green
flashes.
1. 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking
airports, landmarks, and points on Federal
In Class B, Class C, Class D and
airways
Class E surface areas, operation of the
airport beacon during the hours of daylight
2. 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking
often indicates that the ground visibility is
heliports
less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less
Color combinations than 1,000 feet. Regardless of the weather
conditions, the FAA has no regulation that
1. White and Green— Lighted land airport
requires airports to turn the beacon on
during the day.
2. Green alone* — Lighted land airport

At some locations with operating

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3. White and Yellow— Lighted water

control towers, Air Traffic Control (ATC)
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airport
personnel turn the beacon on or off with 5.9 SIMPLE APPROACH LIGHTING
controls in the tower. At many airports the SYSTEM AND VARIOUS LIGHTING
airport beacon is turned on by a SYSTEMS
photoelectric cell or time clocks, and ATC
Approach lighting system
personnel cannot control them.

An approach lighting system, or

In Canada the regulations are much
ALS, is a lighting system installed on the
simpler. Lighted aerodromes are equipped
approach end of an airport runway and
with white single flash beacons operating at
consisting of a series of lightbars, strobe
a frequency of 20 to 30 flashes per minute.
lights, or a combination of the two that
Heliports with beacons exhibit the morse extends outward from the runway end. ALS
letter H (4 short flashes) at a rate of 3 to 4 usually serves a runway that has an
groups per minute. instrument approach procedure (IAP)
associated with it and allows the pilot to
5.8 IDENTIFICATION BEACON
visually identify the runway environment
and align the aircraft with the runway upon
 An aeronautical radio beacon
arriving at a prescribed point on an
emitting coded signals that allow a
approach.
particular point of reference to be
identified. The first fixed runway lighting
 A light beacon emitting a two-letter possibly appeared in 1930 at Cleveland
identification code in Morse code. Municipal Airport (now known as
A green color is used for civil Cleveland Hopkins International Airport)
aerodromes, yellow for in Cleveland, Ohio. But it was suitable only
waterdromes, and red for military clear night or days. Modern approach
airfields. More often called an lighting systems are highly complex in their
aeronautical light beacon. design and significantly enhance the safety
 Aeronautical ground light that of aircraft operations, particularly in
shows a coded signal to indicate a conditions of reduced visibility.
designated geographical location.
The earliest approach lighting
systems were far removed from the current
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sophisticated generation of ALS's and were

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developed before/during World War II.

They were commonly referred to as the Californian air base, to allow aircraft to
Flare Path, the name being derived from land safely at night and under zero visibility
the fact often flares were burned alongside weather, whether it was rain or heavy fog.
the active runway to provide the pilot with The predecessor of today's modern ALS
an illuminated reference for approach and while crude had the basics: A 3,500 foot
landing where an electrical system had not visual approach of 38 towers, with 17 on
yet been installed. During the war the UK each side and atop each 75 foot high tower
became a huge bomber base, and during a 5000 watt natural gas light.
England's famous fog a night a flare path
After the US Navy's development of
was not enough even with a radar direct
the lighted towers it was not long before the
ground controlled approach system that
natural gas lights, were soon replaced by
became available later in the war. The
more efficient and brighter strobe lights --
British were the most concerned because
ie then called Strobeacon lights. The first
their night bombers were flying bombing
large commercial airport to have installed a
missions every night year round, where the
strobe light ASL visual approach path was
US day bombers operated when there was
New York cities New York International
clear weather over the target.
Airport. Soon other large airports had
The British eventually developed a strobe light ASL systems installed. The
working system towards the end of the war required minimum visibility for instrument
that burned the fog off the area of the approaches is influenced by the presence
runway called FIDO that stood for Fog and type of approach lighting system. In the
Investigation and Dispersal Operation. U.S., a CAT I ILS approach without
FIDO which worked and saved a lot of approach lights will have a minimum
bomber crew lives, but due to its high cost required visibility of ¾ mile, or 4000 foot
(ie $4000 dollars a day) and inability during runway visual range. With a 1400 foot or
heavy rains was not suitable for civilian longer approach light system, the minimum
airline operation. After the war the US potential visibility might be reduced to 1/2
Navy and United Airlines worked together mile (2400 runway visual range), and the
on various methods at the US Navy's presence of touchdown zone and centreline
Landing Aids lights with a suitable approach light system
might further reduce the visibility to 3/8
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Experimental Station located at the Arcata,

mile (1800 feet runway visual range).
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 The runway lighting is controlled by runways including lights that run down the
the air traffic control tower. At uncontrolled centerline of the runway and lights that help
airports, Pilot Controlled Lighting may be indicate the approach (an approach lighting
installed which can be switched on by the system, or ALS). Low-traffic airports may
pilot via radio. In both cases, the brightness use pilot controlled lighting to save
of the lights can be adjusted for day and electricity and staffing costs. Along
night operations. In the event of radio taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's
failure, the control tower can communicate edge, and some airports have embedded
with the aircraft via aviation light signals. green lights that indicate the centerline. A
particular runway may have some or all of
Depth perception is inoperative at
the following.
the distances usually involved in flying
aircraft, and so the position and distance of • Runway End Identification Lights
a runway with respect to an aircraft must be
(REIL) – Unidirectional (facing approach
judged by a pilot using only two-
direction) or omnidirectional pair of
dimensional cues such as perspective, as
synchronized flashing lights installed at the
well as angular size and movement within
runway threshold, one on each side.
the visual field. Approach lighting systems
provide additional cues that bear a known
• Runway end lights – a pair of four lights
relationship to the runway itself and help
on each side of the runway on precision
pilots to judge distance and alignment for
instrument runways, these lights extend
landing.
along the full width of the runway. These
lights show green when viewed by
Various Lighting Systems
approaching aircraft and red when seen
Many airports have lighting that from the runway.
help guide planes using the runways and
• Runway edge lights – white elevated
taxiways at night or in rain or fog. On
lights that run the length of the runway on
runways, green lights indicate the
either side. On precision instrument
beginning of the runway for landing, while
runways, the edge-lighting becomes yellow
red lights indicate the end of the runway.
in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway,
Runway edge lighting consists of white
or last half of the runway, whichever is less.
lights spaced out on both sides of the
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Taxiways are differentiated by being

runway, indicating the edge. Some airports
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bordered by blue lights, or by having green

have more complicated lighting on the
centre lights, depending on the width of the • Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights –
taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi
Installed the same way as taxiway
pattern.
centerline lead-off Lights.
• Runway Centerline Lighting System
• Land and Hold Short Lights – a row of
(RCLS) – lights embedded into the surface white pulsating lights installed across the
of the runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along runway to indicate hold short position on
the runway centerline on some precision some runways which are facilitating land
instrument runways. and hold short operations (LAHSO).

White except the last 3,000 ft (914 • Approach Lighting System (ALS) – a
m), alternate white and red for next 2,000 ft
Lighting system installed on the approach
(610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305 m). end of an airport runway and consists of a
series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a
• Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) –
combination of the two that extends
outward from the runway end.
Rows of white light bars (with three
in each row) at 100 ft (30 m) intervals on
According to Transport Canada's
either side of the centerline over the first
regulations, the runway-edge lighting must
be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km).
3,000 ft (914 m) (or to the midpoint,
Additionally, a new system of advisory
whichever is less) of the runway.
lighting, Runway Status Lights, is currently
• Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights – being tested in the United States. The edge
lights must be arranged such that:
Installed along lead-off markings,
alternate green and yellow lights embedded • The minimum distance between lines is 75
into the runway pavement. It starts with ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft (61 m);
green light about runway centerline to the
• The maximum distance between lights
position of first centerline light beyond
within each line is 200 ft (61 m);
holding position on taxiway.

• The minimum length of parallel lines is

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1,400 ft (427 m);

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• The minimum number of lights in the line guidance information during the approach
is 8. to a runway. These lights may be visible
from up to eight kilometers (five miles)
Control of Lighting System
during the day and up to 32 kilometers (20
miles) or more at night.
Typically the lights are controlled
by a control tower, a Flight Service Station
Types
or another designated authority. Some
airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled Standard VASI
ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled
Basic visual approach slope
Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn
indicators consist of one set of lights set up
on the lights when the relevant authority is
some seven meters (twenty feet) from the
not available. This avoids the need for
start of the runway. Each light is designed
automatic systems or staff to turn the lights
so that the light appears as either white or
on at night or in other low visibility
red, depending on the angle at which the
situations. This also avoids the cost of
lights are viewed. When the pilot is
having the lighting system on for extended
approaching the lights at the proper angle,
periods. Smaller airports may not have
meaning the pilot is on the glide slope, the
lighted runways or runway markings.
first set of lights appears white and the
Particularly at private airfields for second set appears red. When both sets
light planes, there may be nothing more appear white, the pilot is flying too high,
than a windsock beside a landing strip. and when both appear red he or she is flying
too low. This is the most common type of
5.10 VASI & PAPI

Visual approach slope

indicator (VASI)

The visual
approach slope indicator
(VASI) is a system of lights
on the side of an airport
runway threshold that
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provides visual descent

Page
visual approach slope indicator system. non FAA Part 139 airports, heliports or
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) airparks. The signal format is solid white
consist of four sets of lights in a line when established on the proper descent
perpendicular to the runway, usually profile, and solid red when below the
mounted to the left side of the runway. proper descent profile. An active pulsing
These have a similar purpose to basic visual white light is seen when well above or
approach slope indicators, but the pulsing red when well below. This allows
additional lights serve to show the pilot how the pilot to determine his position and rate
far off the glide slope the aircraft is. of deviation or correction within the signal
format and therefore determine the
When the lights show White-White-
corrective action needed to return to the
Red-Red the aircraft is on the correct glide
proper descent profile. Although PVASI is
slope for landing, usually 3.0°. Three red
a single box system, its signal was
lights (white–red–red– red) indicate that the
evaluated by the U.S. Air Force and found
aircraft is slightly below glide slope (2.8°),
to be much more accurate than VASI and
while four red lights (Red- Red-Red-Red)
equivalent to the four box PAPI.
indicate that the aircraft is significantly
below glide slope (<2.5°). Tri-colored VASI

Conversely, three white lights

(white–white– white–red) indicate that
the aircraft is slightly above glide slope
(3.2°), and four white lights (White-
White-White-White) indicated that the
aircraft is significantly above glideslope
This is a single light that appears
(>3.5°). Most large airports utilize this
amber above the glide slope, green on the
system. Although most airports use a PAPI
glide slope and red below it. It is has fallen
based on a 3.0° glide slope, some airports
out of widespread use, partly because pilots
may use a glide slope as great as 5.0° in
who are unfamiliar with them have been
order to have proper obstruction clearance.
known to misinterpret the lights, causing
them to 'correct' in the wrong direction.
Pulsating visual approach slope indicator
These errors are increased due to a major
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Pulsating visual approach slope design shortcoming of the tri-colored

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indicator (PVASI) is a single box found at VASI. While on approach, the color amber
(above slope) can be seen at a very thin guidance information to help a pilot acquire
angle of approach between green (on slope) and maintain the correct approach (in the
and red (below slope). Pilots not familiar vertical plane) to an airport or an
with this shortcoming may see the amber aerodrome. It is generally located beside the
light and think they are above glide slope, runway approximately 300 meters beyond
they would then descend rather than the landing threshold of the runway.
making the proper correction
and ascending back to glide
slope. Despite this shortcoming,
it is (reportedly) in widespread
use in Eastern European
countries, especially Russia and
Ukraine.
Development
Stabilised glide slope indicator (SGSI)
The Precision Approach Path
There is a stabilised version for use Indicator system was first devised in 1974
on moving landing platforms such as by Tony Smith and David Johnson at the
aircraft carriers. The SGSI projects a beam Royal Aircraft Establishment in Bedford,
of light, with coloured sectors, from the aft England. It took them a further two years to
face of the ship. This beam is stabilised to fully develop the technology. Smith and
remove the effects of the ships’ roll and Johnson's work was honoured by a
pitch and provides the pilot with visual commendation from the RAE, a Fellowship
information relating to his approach angle. from the Aeronautical Society, an award
The coloured sector of the beam seen by the from the American Flight Safety
pilot will indicate to him if his approach is Foundation, and a Gold Medal from the
above, below or on the correct glide path. British Guild of Air Pilots. Research
There are various beam configurations Engineers (RE) were also heavily involved
available, to suit different naval in the project, having produced and
requirements. supplied PAPI units for the first trials that
were conducted. The same design is still in
PAPI Lights
use today, and in fact was used by NASA's
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Space Shuttle for its safe landing, for which

A precision approach path indicator
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(PAPI) is a visual aid that provides

Johnson was interviewed by UK local news  Average lifetime 1000 hours at
media and TV. rated current.

Meaning

The ratio of white to red

lights seen is dependent on the
angle of approach to the runway.
Above the designated glideslope a
pilot will observe more white lights
than red, at approaches below the ideal
angle more red lights than white will be 2008 saw the advent of new PAPI devices
seen. For the optimum approach angle the manufactured using solid state LED lamps
ratio of white to red lights will remain equal instead of incandescent lamps. The LEDs
throughout. produce sufficient brightness to satisfy
ICAO light intensity and beamspread
Design
standards, and average lifetime with the

A typical engineering design specification LED based systems is 50,000 hours or

for a PAPI light unit is shown below: more. By using LEDs the power

Optical construction:

 Preadjusted 2-lamp
optical assembly.
 Anodized aluminium
reflectors.

 Red color filters.

 Precision-ground lenses. consumption is lowered considerably. The
LED systems run internally on DC voltage
 Lamps and reflectors replaceable
so the DC voltage requirements, along with
without recalibration.
the LED's inherent low power
 2 x 200 W / 6,6 A prefocused
consumption, now allow for solar-powered
102

halogen lamps, Pk30d base.

PAPIs, completely removing them from the
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power grid.
 The PAPI system is co-opted for use an apron should be marked and, if the
by the final approach runway occupancy vehicle and aerodrome are used at night or
signal (FAROS) system being introduced at in conditions of low visibility, lighted.
several major airports in the United States
Standard - Elevated aeronautical ground
for the purpose of allowing pilots to resolve
lights within the movement area shall be
a runway incursion without requiring a
marked so as to be conspicuous by day.
priori notice of an occupied runway from
the control tower. In FAROS, automated
Objects on Runway Strips
line-of-sight runway sensors detect if a
vehicle has committed a runway incursion Standard - A fixed object located on a
and if so, will flash the PAPI lights to alert runway strip shall be marked and if the
the pilot of an aircraft on final approach that aerodrome is used at night, lighted,
the runway is currently occupied. The pilot excluding visual aids that are by their nature
then becomes responsible for resolving the visually conspicuous
conflict by notifying the air traffic
controller and executing a go-around. Once Other Objects

the tower has ascertained that the runway

Recommendation - A fixed obstacle that
has been cleared, the ground controller
extends above a take-off/approach surface
resets the PAPI so that landing operations
within 3000 m of the inner edge should be
may resume.
marked and, if the runway is used at night,
lighted except that:
5.11 OBJECTS TO BE MARKED AND
LIGHTER
1. Such marking and lighting may be
omitted when the obstacle is shielded by
Objects on Movement Areas
another fixed obstacle;
Standard - Vehicles and other mobile
2. The marking may be omitted when the
objects, excluding aircraft, on the
height of the obstacle above the level of the
manoeuvring area of an aerodrome are
surrounding ground does not exceed 150 m
obstacles and shall be marked and, if the
and it is lighted by medium intensity
vehicle and aerodrome are used at night or
obstacle light by day;
in conditions of low visibility, lighted.
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Recommendation - Vehicles and other

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mobile objects, excluding aircraft, used on

3. The marking may be omitted when the 2. For a circuit extensively obstructed by
obstacle is lighted by high intensity immovable objects or terrain, procedures
obstacle lights by day and; have been established to ensure safe
vertical clearance below prescribed flight
4. The lighting may be omitted where the
paths; or
obstacle is a lighthouse and an aeronautical
study indicates the lighthouse light to be 3. An aeronautical study shows the obstacle
sufficient. not to be of operational significance;

Recommendation - A fixed object, other 1. The marking may be omitted when the
than an obstacle, adjacent to a take- height of the obstacle above the level of the
off/approach surface should be marked and surrounding ground does not exceed 150 m
if the runway is used at night, lighted if such and it is lighted by medium intensity
marking and lighting is considered obstacle light by day;
necessary to ensure its avoidance except
2. The marking may be omitted when the
that the marking may be omitted when:
obstacle is lighted by high-intensity
1. The height of the obstacle above the level obstacle lights by day; and
of the surrounding ground does not exceed
3. The lighting may be omitted where the
150 m and it is lighted by medium intensity
obstacle is a lighthouse and an aeronautical
obstacle light by day; or
study indicates the lighthouse light to be
2. The object is lighted by high-intensity sufficient.
obstacle lights by day.
Standard - A fixed object that extends
Recommendation - A fixed obstacle that above an obstacle protection surface shall
extends above an outer surface should be be marked and, if the runway is used at
marked and if the aerodrome is used at night night, lighted.
lighted except that:
Standard - All elevated objects within the
1. Such marking and lighting may be distance specified in Table3-1, column5
omitted when: from the centre line of a taxiway or an apron
taxiway shall be marked and, if the taxiway
1. The obstacle is shielded by another fixed
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or apron taxiway is used at night, lighted.

obstacle; or
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Standard - All elevated objects within the for coordinating the response of different
distance specified in 3.6.6.1 from the centre aerodrome services and those emergency
line of an aircraft stand taxi lane shall be services in the local area that could be of
marked and, if the aircraft stand taxilane is assistance in an emergency, such as the
used at night, lighted. local Police, Fire, Coast Guard, Military
and Ambulance etc.
5.12 EMERGENCY AND OTHER
SERVICES Examples of the types of emergencies are:

Aircraft Emergencies • Aircraft defects / malfunctions serious

enough possibly to impede safe flight;
When an emergency experienced by
an aircraft occurs in flight and radio • Sabotage of aviation related equipment;
communications still exist, the pilot-in-
• Bomb threats;
command of that aircraft is responsible for
advising the appropriate Air Traffic Control
• Unlawfully seized aircraft;
(ATC) unit and for nominating the desired
state of readiness / emergency response • Dangerous goods incidents;
(See below) of the aerodrome and local
• Building fires; and
emergency services. If communications
between the aircraft and ATC are strained
• Natural disasters.
or non existant, and a problem becomes
known, the ATC unit will assess the An aerodrome emergency plan
situation and bring the aerodrome and local exists at all aerodromes that have regular air
emergency services to the state of readiness transport services by aircraft with 30 or
considered appropriate. more passenger seats.

Aerodrome Emergency Plan Activation of Aerodrome Emergency

The purpose of an aerodrome Services

emergency plan is to prepare emergency
services and aerodrome operators to cope The Air Traffic Service (Air Traffic

with an emergency occurring on or in the Control) unit on the aerodrome has the
105

vicinity of the aerodrome. The plan dictates responsiblity for alerting the emergency
services, following a request from a pilot or
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and advises the procedures to be carried out

when an aircraft is considered to be in such • Aircraft Accident Phase: is defined when
a danger as determined by the Air Traffic an aircraft has had an accident on or in the
Controller on watch requiring any of the vicinity of an aerodrome. When the
following emergency phases: AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT PHASE is
declared, all available emergency services
• Local Standby Phase: is defined when an
will be brought into action in accordance
aircraft is approaching an aerodrome in
with the emergency plan.
such a manner that there would not
normally prevent it from making a safe
landing, but has a defect of some kind.

LOCAL STANDBY PHASE declaration

will bring all aerodrome emergency
services to a state of readiness. Local
emergency services will be notified but
remain at their respective bases on stand-
by.1

• Full Emergency Phase: is defined when

an aircraft is approaching an aerodrome in
such a manner that there is a danger of an
accident occuring. FULL EMERGENCY
PHASE declaration will bring all
aerodrome and local emergency services
(such as police, fire services, ambulance
and medical) together at a common location
on the airfield. Local hospitals will be
alerted to prepare for casualties and the
police will control traffic and roads in such
a way as a clear path from the aerodrome to
the hospital and other emergency services
routes are clear enough to uninhibited
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access.
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AERODROME CHART:

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 GENERAL INFORMATION:

1. Julian date of last update (July 24, 2014).

2. FAA Airport number (AL-285).
3. Airport name and FAA Identifier (Newark Libert Intl. (EWR)).
4. Location, State (Newark, New Jersey).
5. Elevation of the airport in feet MSL (18 ft MSL).
6. Declared Distance Information available within the Terminal Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD).
7. Frequency of given (ATC) unit (left civil, right military). If the controller unit is
followed by a star, this indicates that the unit is not continuously manned. Operational
hours can be found in the (A/FD).

LAYOUT INFORMATION:

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 1. Many Airport Diagrams use different kinds of symbols. Have a look here for a full
overview.
2. Runway length and width in feet (6726 ft x 150 ft).
3. Hot Spots. Hot Spots are locations of potential risk of collision or runway incursion.
4. Threshold Elevation in feet MSL (10 ft MSL).
5. Displaced threshold. A part of the runway where you can taxi on, takeoff from but not
land on.
6. Taxiway indicators. The phonetic alphabet will be used to pronounce taxiways (Kilo,
Juliet,)
7. Magnetic bearing of the runway (22R = 218.8°).
8. (Tower) Elevation MSL (348 ft MSL).
9. Location of the control tower.
10. EMAS or Engineered materials arrestor system.
11. Runway indicator (Runway 11, Runway 22R, Runway 22L

OTHER INFORMATION:

1. Variation of the airport (13° West / - 13°).

2. Highest nearby obstacle in feet MSL (410 ft MSL).
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3. Additional specific airport information.

4. Active use of ASDE-X. A runway-safety tool to detect potential runway conflicts.
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5. PCN or Pavement Classification Number for a particular runway.

6. Runway Bearing Strength (x 1000 lbs)

- S or SW – Single Wheel (DC-3)

- D or DW – Dual Wheel (737)

- DT or DTW – Dual Tandem Wheel (767)

- DDT or DDTW – Double Dual Tandem (747)

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RUNWAYS

Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally

the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in deca-degrees. This heading differs from true
north by the local magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18
is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360° rather
than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90° (east).

A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each direction
separately: e.g., "runway 33" in one direction is "runway 15" when used in the other. The two
numbers usually differ by 18 (= 180°).

Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in
smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at
large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets, to the huge 11,917 m × 274 m
(39,098 ft × 899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – a landing
site for the retired Space Shuttle.

Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms:

TORA

Take-off Run Available – The length of runway declared available and suitable for
the ground run of an airplane taking off.

TODA

Take-off Distance Available – The length of the take-off run available plus the length
of the clearway, if clearway is provided. (The clearway length allowed must lie within
the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to the Federal Aviation
Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus
clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

ASDA
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Accelerate-Stop Distance Available – The length of the take-off run available plus the
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length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.

LDA

Landing Distance Available – The length of runway that is declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.

EMDA

Emergency Distance Available – LDA (or TORA) plus a stop

way.

Sections of a runway:

There are runway markings.

 The runway thresholds are markings across the runway that denote the beginning and end
of the designated space for landing and takeoff under non-emergency conditions.
 The runway safety area is the cleared, smoothed and graded area around the paved
runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft.
 The runway is the surface from threshold to threshold, which typically features threshold
markings, numbers, and centerlines, but not overrun areas at both ends.
 Blast pads, also known as overrun areas or stopways, are often constructed just before the
start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planes during the takeoff roll could
otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway. Overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun
the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on a rejected takeoff or a
takeoff gone wrong. Blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface of the
runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are not allowed to taxi, take off or
land on blast pads, except in an emergency.
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 Displaced thresholds may be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout, but not for
touchdown. A displaced threshold often exists because obstacles just before the runway,
runway strength, or noise restrictions may make the beginning section of runway unsuitable
for landings. It is marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the beginning of the
landing portion of the runway.

Runway markings

There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a
distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to
indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The
runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

 Visual runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass, gravel, ice,
asphalt, or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual runway, they may
have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines. Additionally, they do not provide
an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it.
Also, radio communication may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.
 Non-precision instrument runways are often used at small- to medium-size airports. These
runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with threshold markings, designators,
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centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes
installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)). They provide horizontal position guidance to planes on
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 instrument approach via Non-directional beacon, VHF omnidirectional range, Global
Positioning System, etc.
 Precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-size airports, consist
of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets), threshold, designator,
centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft (305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft
(610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m), and 3,000 ft (914 m) touchdown zone marks. Precision runways
provide both horizontal and vertical guidance for instrument approaches.

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AIRPORT LAYOUT:

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AIRPORT LIGHTS LAYOUT:

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ALTIMETER SETTING TABLES:

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BASIC DEFINITIONS

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