Review

Natural Fibre Composites and Their Applications:

A Review
Paulo Peças 1,* , Hugo Carvalho 1 , Hafiz Salman 1 and Marco Leite 2
1
IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Portugal; hugo.caetano.carvalho@hotmail.com (H.C.); hafiz.salman@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (H.S.)
2
UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, FCT,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; ma.leite@fct.unl.pt
* Correspondence: ppecas@tecnico.ulisboa.pt; Tel.: +351-927-813-342
check ror
Received: 30 September 2018; Accepted: 13 November 2018; Published: 17 November 2018 updates

Abstract: There is significant work published in recent years about natural fibres polymeric
composites. Most of the studies are about the characterization of natural fibres and their comparison
with conventional composites regarding mechanical behaviour and application performance.
There are dozens of types of natural fibres with different properties influencing their use, or not,
in specific industrial applications. The natural origin of these materials causes, in general, a wide
range of variations in properties depending mainly on the harvesting location and conditions, making
it difficult to select the appropriate fibre for a specific application. In this paper, a comprehensive
review about the properties of natural fibres used as composite materials reinforcement is presented,
aiming to map where each type of fibre is positioned in several properties. Recent published work on
emergent types of fibres is also reviewed. A bibliometric study regarding applications of natural fibres
composites is presented. A prospective analysis about the future trends of natural fibres applications
and the required developments to broaden their applications is also presented and discussed.

Keywords: natural fibres; green composites; automotive applications; industrial applications

1. Introduction
In the last few years, there have been a stringent consumer’s awareness towards new
products from renewable sources. Green marketing, new directives on recycling, social influence and
change of cognitive values has led the consumer towards environmentally friendly products.
In particular, composite materials are being developed and redesigned aiming to improve and to
adapt traditional products and introduce new products in a sustainable and responsible way [ 1].
This paper examines and discusses the last published trends in the context of fibres-reinforced bio-
composite materials while providing an insight about natural fibres for bio-composites, with the
focus on properties and their applications. Natural fibres are mainly either plant or animal sourced.
The first is essentially comprised of cellulose, whilst the latter is protein-based. However, in the
composites industry, natural fibres are often referred to as vegetable fibres.
One of the issues of natural fibres is the scattered information and the differences in
mechanical properties reported. Also, the lack of standards for both producers and users of these
materials regarding methods to collect, treat, process and post-process natural fibres adds to the
complexity of selection. These issues are in fact, critical deterrents for generalized use of natural
fibres in different applications. To address this gap, in this paper, a review of different mechanical
properties of natural fibres and their applications is presented.

J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 66; doi:10.3390/jcs2040066 www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 2 of

This paper is structured in four sections as follows: first we give an overview about natural fibres,
focusing on their benefits and functional properties. Then, in Sections 2 and 3, we describe the suitable
applications and future trends. Finally, we discuss and conclude the paper with some final remarks.

2. Natural Fibre-Reinforced Bio-Composites

In general, depending upon the nature of the constituents, bio-based composites can be classified
either as partly eco-friendly or green (Figure 1). Green composite implies that all its constituents
are obtained from renewable resources, potentially reducing the carbon dioxide emissions and
the dependence on petroleum-derived materials. While partly eco-friendly means that one of the
constituents, either fibre or matrix, is not obtained from renewable resources [1].

Green All elements are from renewable resources

Bio-composites
Man-made or Synthetic fiber + Bio-polymer matrix
Partly eco-friendly

Natural fiber + Petroleum-derived non-biodegradable matrix

Figure 1. Classification of bio-composites. Adapted from: [1–3].

The performance of the natural fibre composites depends directly on the fibres counting, length,
shape, arrangement and also the interfacial adhesion with the matrix [4].
Natural fibre reinforcement may be divided in accordance with the length, dimension and
orientation, as demonstrated in Figure 2. This can either be in the form of fibre or particle. The fibre
itself is characterized as continuous or discontinuous (i.e., chopped) depending on its length-to-
diameter (l/d) ratio. Commonly, the fibre-reinforced phase arrangement is classed as woven or
non-woven. A woven fabric is characterized by continuous interlacing of perpendicular yarns, in a
regular pattern. Yarns are structures consisting of several interlocked fibres. The twist angle is
responsible for the cohesion of the fibres and yarn strength up to a certain point, beyond which, the
maximum fibre strength decreases due to the increase in obliquity [5]. Moreover, the increase of
the fibre twist angle is correlated with a decrease of fibre-resin bond strength, lower permeability
and consequently poor mechanical properties [6]. When continuous fibres are used, the fibre
architecture can have more than one-dimension [7]. In the one-dimensional architecture, the twist
angle and the level of alignment of continuous-filament yarns play a significant role in determining
the maximum applied load. For this reason, unidirectional composites tend to be weaker in the
transverse directions [4,5]. Given these attributes, for a known state of stress, these anisotropic
structures can exhibit at least 3 to 4 times better mechanical properties than their isotropic
counterparts [8].
A non-woven arrangement is a flat structure without interwoven strands, consisting of a mat
directionally or randomly oriented and placed together using heat, chemicals, pressure or combination
of these thereof as adhesion promoter, the mat or woven can either be composed of continuous or
chopped unidirectional fibres, randomly chopped fibres or suspended particles [7,9]. In particular, mat
composed with randomly chopped fibres (whiskers) does not have any preferential stress
direction but they are the preferable choice for large-scale production due to the high availability, ease
and cost effectiveness when manufacturing complex parts of isotropic nature [10]. Several reports
show that natural fibres can compete as reinforcement materials for products not fit to receive
loads (non-performance) and semi-structural parts. In fact, automotive industry is gaining
preference
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 3 of

for lightweight products in order to improve fuel efficiency [11], such as non-structural
automotive applications with natural fibres [12].
A fibre-reinforced composite depends as well on the contribution of some additional
characteristics such as: matrix properties, fibre-matrix ratio, filler material, coupling agents and
processing techniques [13]. As a consequence of imperfections in the manufacturing process, multi-
layered fibre-reinforced composites are prone to early failure because of low adhesion between
laminas that is, delamination [14].

Figure 2. Type of natural fibre reinforcements. Adapted from: [7,15].

2.1. Bio-Polymeric Matrix

The mechanical performance of a bio-composite also depends on the properties of polymeric
matrix (thermoplastic or thermoset). The raw material to produce these polymers can either be from
bio-based sources (plant or animal) or synthetic (oil by-product).
In the literature the term bio-polymer has multiple and overlapping meanings, including but not
limited to: bio-based, biodegradable or both [1,3,16,17]. Others expressions, though not incorrect, like
“bio-based polymer” or “renewably-sourced polymer” are also used to refer a polymer that
contains carbon sourced from a renewable plant source or biomass [18,19].
The commonly accepted definition covers that bio-polymer is a polymeric material where a
significant constituent has biological source (C14 isotope) and can be biodegradable or not [20].
Biodegradable means that the polymer bio-degrades through the actions of living organisms or
non-enzymatic hydrolysis [3]. It must be mentioned that not all biodegradable substances are
compostable [20].
For commercial and research purposes, transparent conformity assessments can be carried out to
label correctly a certain polymeric resin using international ISO standards [21], as presented in Table 1.

Table 1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO): bio-based, biodegradable and compostable
standards. Adapted from: [17,22–24].

Label ISO Standard Description

Specifies the general principles and the calculation methods
Bio-based 16620:2015 for determining the amount of bio-based content in
plastic products, using a radiocarbon method
Specifies a method, by measuring the amount of carbon
Biodegradable 14852:2018 dioxide evolved, for the determination of the degree of aerobic
biodegradability of plastic materials
Specifies procedures and requirements for the identification
Compostable 17088:2012 and labelling of plastics and products made from plastics
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 4 of

For instance, the commercially available biodegradable bio-based polymers are essentially either
based on starch or polylactic acid (PLA) or cellulose ester or bacterial polyhydroxyalkonate (PHA)
or protein [19].
Currently, biopolymers represent an extremely small percentage of the global polymer
market, approximately 6% [25]. Further market penetration depends greatly on a wide range of
factors such as feedstock cost, crude oil prices, technology feasibility, favourable government
regulations and policies [26,27].
The polymer material selection implies a prior study of the mechanical properties, chemical
resistance, dimensional stability, manufacturing process, always with a target on future ability to
recycle or biodegrade. End-of-life recycling effectiveness depends on the heterogeneous nature of
its elements.
On one hand, thermosets have a wide range of applications due to their good adhesion, high
thermal and chemical resistance and excellent mechanical properties. On the other hand, unlike
thermosets, thermoplastics can be melted. When heated, the Van der Waals and hydrogen bonds are
temporarily broken allowing molecular manoeuvrability. Thermoset matrices are indeed difficult
to recycle and reuse but some studies have reported that thermosetting polymers might be reused
[27]. Another study refers that a more environmentally friendly product can be achieved through
the inclusion of biodegradable fillers [28].
In general, economic and environmental factors are primarily responsible for driving the recycling
pathways. A number of articles focus on recycling composites through mechanical, chemical, thermal
processes or any combination thereof [29,30].

2.2. Natural Fibres

Natural fibres can be classified based upon their origin into the following groups: animal, mineral
and plant, as shown in Table 2. Plant fibres are the most commonly accepted fibres by the industry
and the most analysed by the research community. This is mainly due to the short growth period,
renewability and wider availability [12]. The vegetable fibres are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin, which can be extracted from bast, leaf, seed, fruit, wood, stalk and grass/reed.

Table 2. Natural Fibre Classification. Adapted from: [31–33].

Bast Flax, Hemp, Jute, Kenaf, Ramie

Leaf Abaca, Banana, Pineapple, Sisal
Seed Cotton, Kapok
Natural Fibre

Cellulose/Lignocellulose Fruit Coir

Wood Hardwood, Softwood (e.g., Eucalyptus)
Stalk Wheat, Maize, Oat, Rice
Grass/Reed Bamboo, Corn
Wool/Hair Cashmere, Goat hair, Horse hair, Lamb
Animal wool Silk Mulberry
Mineral - Asbestos, Ceramic fibres, Metal fibres

In this paper the focus is on the vegetable fibres since all the others either have restricted
application or are indeed forbidden by law. In fact, animal fibres are not commonly used and asbestos
was banned due to risks of exposure and risks associated with human health [34,35].
Moreover, there are some relevant previous studies suggesting that some fibres may have
a potential ability to work as reinforced candidates in near future, for example, roselle (hibiscus
sabdariffa), sugarcane (saccharum cilliare), pine, bagasse, henequen, alfa, among others (for additional
fibre list see references [13,32,36–42]).
The natural fibres are usually referred to have several benefits over synthetic fibres such
as availability, low cost, low density, acceptable modulus-weight ratio, high acoustic damping,
low manufacturing energy consumption, low carbon footprint and biodegradable [2]. Some
authors
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 5 of

state the evidences for clear benefits, for example, natural fibres cost much less and require much less
energy to produce than traditional reinforcing fibres such as glass and carbon [43]. However, natural
fibres have negative aspects due to their low consistency of properties and quality. These fibres have
higher variability of physical and mechanical properties, higher moisture absorption, lower durability,
lower strength and lower processing temperature [13,19,44–46].
The large variety of properties are mainly dependent upon plant species, growth conditions and
method of fibre extraction. Moreover, properties depend on the fibre cell geometry of each type of
cellulose and its degree of polymerization [47]. It should be noted that linear cellulosic macromolecules
are linked by hydrogen bonds and are closely associated with hemicelluloses and lignin which confer
stiffness to fibre. Not only holds fibres together but also the cellulose within the fibre cell wall [48].
Figure 3 exhibits the influence of constituents on the properties of fibre.

Figure 3. Plant constituents influence. The rightward-pointing arrow indicate an increase. Adapted
from: [47].

The bast fibres are the most widely used non-wood lignocellulosic fibres due to their superior
technical characteristics and ease of extraction from raw resources [49], usually by retting and manual
extraction techniques [50]. The manual extraction produces crops with good quality but the
process can be a lengthy and a laborious task [51]. Some authors also name them as stem fibres,
because they are obtained from the pseudo-stem of the plant, that is, those obtained from the outer
cell layers of the stem.
The general natural fibre life cycle phases are extraction, processing, fabrication, use, disposal and
recycle. There are several limiting factors for a large-scale production and use of fibres. These factors
affect several stages of the natural fibre’s life cycle: large variability of soil composition and
morphology, fibres hydrophilic nature, degradation by microorganisms, service life and sunlight. The
physical and chemical properties of natural fibres are linked to plant source, cultivation location,
climate conditions, harvest window, use of Genetic Modified Organisms (GMO), pesticides and
fertilizers [52,53].
Usually, natural fibres require several treatments to overcome some of the mentioned limitations,
namely to improve fibre-matrix interfacial adhesion. Several techniques have been reported,
such as water-repellent chemicals, coupling agents and heat treatments, by modifying the surface
morphological, topological properties, roughness and water absorption index of the fibres [54–56]. As a
result, research and technological effort has been reported fostering the improvement of crops quality
and fibres performance on technical and economical perspective, aiming to provide new solutions and
applications [57].
Despite the referred limitations, fibres are taking a growing interest by researchers.
The bibliometric analysis in Figure 4 shows the number of research articles resident in the Science
Direct database that meet the defined cross-reference search criteria (by search term: “fibre name”
composite and by title or keyword: “fibre name”, including name alternatives for example,
coir/coconut and pineapple/pine), from the year 2016 up to September 2018. For this study fibres
with more than 20 publications in a given year were selected. For most of the fibres, the number of
publications in 9 months of 2018 supersedes the number of publications in the whole year of 2017.
Nevertheless, for the
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 6 of

other ones the number of publications in 2018 is already very near the 2017 number, so it is expected
that the number of publications in 2018 would be higher than that of 2017.

Abaca 4
23
Bamboo 105
99
71
Banana 40
50
29
Coir 65
46 66
Cotton 141
168
118
Eucalyptus
34 40
42
Flax 96
88 88
Hemp Jute 84
57
43
Kenaf 56
60
29
Pineapple 24 31
35
Ramie 125
144
110
Sisal 48
8
40
16 Until
39 September 2018 2017 2016

Figure 4. Number of research articles about natural fibres on composites. Cross-reference search
criteria (by search term: “fibre name” composite and by title or keyword: “fibre name”, including name
alternatives).

Cotton is the natural fibre with a higher number of publications by the research community,
followed by pineapple and bamboo. Fibres like coir, flax, hemp and jute also receive very high
attention from researchers. Contrarily, species like abaca and ramie are the ones with less articles
published, among the selected natural fibres. These numbers may be explained through the main
characteristics of each fibre (Table 3). The factors influencing the significant differences in publication
intensity are as follows: the origin and the amount of plant area available throughout the planet (cotton,
bamboo vs. pineapple, abaca), the readiness to be used as composite reinforcement material (sisal,
hemp vs. ramie, banana) and overall mechanical properties (flax, jute vs. eucalyptus, banana). In recent
years, natural fibres have become increasingly popular among researchers due to their sustainability
and renewability characteristics.

Table 3. Summary of Natural Fibres characteristics. Adapted from [45,58–69].

Fibre Description
Abaca, also known as manila hemp, is a plant closely related to banana. Abaca plant
Abaca/Banana looks similarly but unlike banana its fruit is not for human consumption, being not
viable economically. Unlike banana, abaca plant grows only for fibre cultivation
[45].
Bamboo have been receiving interest because it has a high strength to weight ratio [58],
one of the fastest growing plants, requires less water, no use of pesticides or herbicides
Bamboo and is harvested at its base, leaving the root intact. Also, the fibre surface is round and
smooth and its l/d ratio is high. It is light, stiffer and stronger than glass fibre [59]. A U.S.
Department of Energy report clearly demonstrate that the energy consumption to
produce a bamboo fibre mat represents a small fraction (17%) of the energy needed for
the glass fibre counterpart [60].
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 7 of

Table 3. Cont.

Fibre Description
Coir has great attractiveness because it is more durable than most natural fibres, free of
Coir
chemical treatment, its strong resistance to salt water and availability [61,62].
Cotton fibre has an excellent absorbency [65]. Cotton represents 46% of world
Cotton production of natural and chemical fibres [66].
Eucalyptus fibre is widely available but has low resistance to mould and fire
Eucalyptus
attack. These bark fibres are adequate for insulation purposes [67].
Flax fibre has better specific tensile when compared with glass fibre. In addition, it
Flax has low density, high strength and stiffness [68].
Hemp fibre has excellent mechanical strength and young’s modulus [68]. Good
Hemp
insulation properties [69].
Jute fibre exhibits high aspect ratio (l/d), high strength to weight ratio and
Jute good insulation properties [68].
Kenaf Kenaf fibre has low density and high specific mechanical properties [68].
Pineapple Pineapple fibre has excellent mechanical, physical and thermal properties [63].
Ramie fibre might have better specific strength and specific modulus than glass fibre.
Rami But it is not so popular when compared with the others natural fibres because it requires
e expensive pre-treatments [64].
Sisal is easily cultivated with short renewal times. The fibre has high tenacity and tensile
Sisal
intensity, abrasion resistance, salt water resistance, acid and alkali resistance [68].

There are several studies pointing out the lower cost of natural fibres comparing with synthetic
fibres but the correct comparison must be done in their application in a part and considering its
production and life cycle cost or impact. Different mechanical properties will require different mass
of each fibre, different fibres quality and reliability will cause different wastes and scrap during
production of composites and different needs for part replacing during life time. Nevertheless, several
studies refer that the natural fibres have in general a lower cost than synthetic fibres [ 55,70]. There is a
study in particular that presents a general comparison of natural fibres with carbon and glass fibres
[43]. Following those authors natural fibres cost much less and require very less energy to produce
which leads to cost and energy advantages over traditional reinforcing fibres such as glass and carbon
fibre (Table 4).

Table 4. Energy and cost of different fibres [43].

Fibres Cost (US$/ton) Energy (GJ/ton)

Natural fibre 200–1000 4
Glass fibre 1200–1800 30
Carbon fibre 12,500 130

Table 5 summarizes some of the physical and mechanical properties of the natural fibres. Despite
the fact that there is an attracted attention for eucalyptus forestry, the fibre properties are not in Table
5, because no related information in the publications gathered is found. The properties variation range
is high for most of the fibres because of their natural origin depending on the type of soil, harvesting
conditions, weather and post-treatment [71]. Bamboo shows the lowest density while abaca, pineapple,
hemp and ramie have some of the highest ones among the natural fibres in the Table 5. Jute and coir
have the lowest average diameter and bamboo and ramie are on average the thickest ones. Moreover,
ramie is on average the longest fibre. Contrarily, banana, bamboo and coir are usually short-length
fibres. The tensile strength variation among fibres has low amplitude, being cotton the one with the
lowest average value and pineapple the strongest one in this property. Regarding the Young’s modulus
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 8 of

the amplitude is higher, with ramie showing a very high value comparing to the other ones and coir
and cotton showing a very low value. Despite ramie is the stiffest fibre considering the Young modulus,
it has one of the lowest elongations at break, with coir having the highest value. Cotton is the one with
higher moisture content and hemp and flex the ones with the lowest values.
Two recent review studies were used to list the natural fibres properties. During the last
years several reviews have been published [72–78], promoting their use and raising awareness of
natural fibres advantages. Still, these authors did not include the required information for ease of
comparison and topicality. The emerging potential of natural fibres provides a steady progress towards
knowledge and insight, generating data to support further researches and developing new approaches
to overcome the challenges. The two recent studies used are comprehensive and based on a significant
list of references, reflecting and incorporating the findings from older studies. Nevertheless, those
publications [72–78] should be also considered for a complete review of the information available and
its evolution over time.

Table 5. Properties of some natural fibres Adapted from: [79,80]. a average value between parenthesis.

Density Diameter Length Tensile Strength Young’s Modulus Elongation at Moisture

Fibre
(g/cm3) a (µm) a (mm) a (MPa) a (GPa) a Break (%) a Content (%) a
Abaca 1.5 10–30 (20) 4.6–5.2 (4.9) 430–813 (621.5) 31.1–33.6 (32.35) 2.9 14
Bamboo 0.6–1.1 (0.85) 25–88 (56.5) 1.5–4 (2.75) 270–862 (566) 17–89 (53) 1.3–8 (4.65) 11–17 (14)
Banana 1.35 12–30 (21) 0.4–0.9 (0.65) 529–914 (721.5) 27–32 (29.5) 5–6 (5.5) 10–11 (10.5)
Coir 1.2 7–30 (18.5) 0.3–3 (1.65) 175 6 15–25 (20) 10
Cotton 1.21 12–35 (23.5) 15–56 (35.5) 287–597 (442) 6–10 (8) 2–10 (6) 33–34 (33.5)
Flax 1.38 5–38 (21.5) 10–65 (37.5) 343–1035 (689) 50–70 (60) 1.2–3 (2.1) 7
Hemp 1.47 10–51 (30.5) 5–55 (30) 580–1110 (845) 30–60 (45) 1.6–4.5 (3.05) 8
Jute 1.23 5–25 (15) 0.8–6 (3.4) 187–773 (480) 20–55 (37.5) 1.5–3.1 (2.3) 12
Kenaf 1.2 12–36 (24) 1.4–11 (6.2) 295–930 (612.5) 22–60 (41) 2.7–6.9 (4.8) 6.2–12 (9.1)
Pineapple 1.5 8–41 (24.5) 3–8 (5.5) 170–1627 (898.5) 60–82 (71) 1–3 (2) 14
Ramie 1.44 18–80 (49) 40–250 (145) 400–938 (669) 61.4–128 (94.7) 2–4 (3) 12–17 (14.5)
Sisal 1.2 7–47 (27) 0.8–8 (4.4) 507–855 (681) 9–22 (15.5) 1.9–3 (2.45) 11

Despite some clues that natural fibre properties can be derived from the analysis of Table 5, some
comments must be made regarding the comparison of data from different authors. In the published
documents analysed in this study, the adopted measurements standards are not always reported
and the authors do not say often if the measurements have been conducted on a single or bundle
of fibres. This information is important because the calculation of properties depends directly on
the cross-section. Another important aspect regarding the comparison of natural fibres properties
is related with the process of obtaining the fibres from the plants. Many extraction techniques have
been reported such as mechanical, chemical or a combination of both, some of them are
rudimentary processes and there is no scientific consensus or standards allowing a robust comparison.
In addition, natural fibres require the modification of the roughness and the surface physio-chemistry of
fibres to improve functional properties such as wettability and dimensional stability, therefore
increase their adhesion with hydrophobic matrix [81–85]. Typically, these may consist of water or
dew retting on stalks or decorticated fibres plus mechanical scutching and chemical processing [71,83]
but again there are no standard procedures. Table 6 shows some of the chemical treatments
available in the market and its effects. Meanwhile, most researchers apply peroxide treatments on
natural fibres due to its simplicity and relatively good mechanical properties [83].
Hence, it is important to know the degree of uncertainty associated with the values of Table 5.
A publication clearly suggests that some measurements of strength and stiffness obtained by some
authors might be underestimations [13]. So, as a tentative to summarize the findings regarding the
natural fibre properties listed in Table 5, one can conclude that there is an important variability in the
properties of most of the fibres and there is a relevant amplitude of properties among fibres. There
is not one type of natural fibre that can be considered better than the others, meaning that the selection
of the proper fibre depends largely on the application requirements and type of composite to be
produced, fibre availability to answer to the product demand volume and the guarantee of
properties levelling among different crops or batches (depending on the fibre origin, plant processing
and post-treatments).
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 9 of

Moreover, fibres cost, translated most of the times in price to the composite producer, is also an
important aspect for natural fibres selections that will be analysed in the next paragraphs.

Table 6. The effect of chemical treatments on the functional properties of natural fibre. Adapted
from: [83,86,87].

Treatment Effect
Alkali Reduce the lignin content. Improve fibre-matrix adhesion, thermal stability and heat resistivity [86,87]
Acetylation Improve tensile and flexural strength [83]
Benzoylation Improve hydrophobicity [83]
Enzyme Reduce the lignin content [83]
Grafting Improve UV-protective properties, hydrophobicity and mechanical properties
[83] Isocyanate Surface modification [83]
Mercerization Reduce the moisture regain and improve the mechanical properties
[83] Methacrylate Improve tensile and flexural strength [83]
Ozone Affect surface energy and contact angle
[83] Peroxide Reduce the moisture regain [83]
Plasma Improve hydrophobicity [83]
Silane Improve hydrophobic and mechanical properties [83]
Sodium chlorite Improve tensile strength, young’s modulus and elongation at break [83]

Based on several recent references, Table 7 displays a comparison on the price of each fibre in the
market. This data was only based on the scientific publications found, meaning that a comprehensive
study including natural fibres suppliers was not included. Nevertheless, it is possible to understand
that there is a strong price variation depending on the type of fibre, meaning that it is not correct to
generalize the price of natural fibres. There are also contradictions between these values and the ones
in Table 4, that stated the natural fibres price ranging from 200 to 1000 US$/ton. Fibres like cotton, flax,
hemp and ramie exhibit the highest price, being higher than the one of glass fibre in Table 4. Contrarily,
coir, abaca and kenaf prices are far lower. The usefulness of compiling this data is to have the relative
level of cost for each kind of fibre.
a
Table 7. Price per tonne of some natural fibres. Adapted from: [66,80,88]. Mean value between parenthesis.
a a
Fibre Price (US$/ton) Fibre Price (US$/ton)
Abaca 345 Hemp 1000–2100 (1550)
Bamboo 500 Jute 400–1500 (950)
Banana 890 Kenaf 300–500 (400)
Coir 200–500 (350) Pineapple 360–550 (455)
Cotton 1500–4200 (2850) Ramie 2000
Flax 2100–4200 (3150) Sisal 600–700 (650)

Despite the comments regarding price variability and uncertainty, the authors of this paper
propose an analysis to support natural fibres selection based on cross analysis of properties and price.
In Figure 5 the interrelationships between tensile strength, Young modulus and specific strength (ratio
between tensile strength and density) are presented. Pineapple fibres show a very interesting position
being the one with higher tensile strength with a relative low price. On the other side, ramie, cotton
and flax show lower mechanical behaviour with a much higher price. Regarding the specific strength
pineapple fibres keep a good position but bamboo fibre shows a higher value for the same kind of
cost. Sisal also have a good performance when combining these two characteristics. Regarding the
Young modulus with price analysis ramie higher mechanical behaviour is impaired by its higher price,
assuming pineapple and bamboo fibres exhibit a good combined behaviour in this analysis.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 10 of

900 P

Average Tensile Strength (MPa)

H
800 BA
K S
700 F
R
600 A
500
400 BO J
COT
300
200
100
CO
0

0 1 2 3
Average Price (US$/kg)

(a)
100
R
Average Young's Modulus (GPa)

90
80
70 P
60 F
50 BO
40 K J H
30 A
20 S BA
10
0 CO COT

0 1 2 3
Average Price (US$/kg)
(b)
700
BO
Average Specific Strength (kN.m/kg)

600 P H
S BA
K F
500 R
A
J COT
400

300
CO
200

100 0 1 2 3
Average Price (US$/kg)
0
(c)

Figure 5. Interrelationships between mechanical properties and price (average values in Tables 5 and 6
were used). (a) Average Tensile strength (MPa); (b) Average Young’s Modulus (GPa); (c) Average
Specific strength (kN·m/kg) per Price (US$/kg), respectively. Legend: Abaca (A); Bamboo (BO);
Banana (BA); Coir (CO); Cotton (COT); Flax (F); Hemp (H); Jute (J); Kenaf (K); Pineapple (P); Ramie (R)
and Sisal (S).
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 11 of

Other kind of outputs can be derived from these analyses mainly if more reliable data is obtained
from scientific and commercial sources. Nevertheless, they give an interesting picture of the differences
and positioning of the several types of natural fibres, allowing to understand the importance of
knowing and studying several natural fibres in the process of selecting them for composite applications.
Despite the variability and lack of robust scientific-based information regarding the natural fibres,
there are a myriad of industrial applications of these fibres that are presented and discussed in the
next section.

3. Applications
There are several industries such as automotive, construction, energy and aerospace, among
others which are being challenged by the society and governments to make products which are more
environmentally sound and reduce their dependence on fossil fuels [10,89,90]. In this perspective,
the European Commission implemented a “European Guideline 2000/53/EG” that set a goal of
improving automotive recyclability to 85% in 2005 for a vehicle by weight. This percentage was
increased to 95% by 2015 [91]. This type of legislation is a significant driving factor towards the
adoption of natural fibre composites. In this scenario, natural fibres are an attractive option for
industries to meet socio-economic and environmental challenges. Furthermore, the use of natural
fibres would create employment opportunity in rural and less developed regions thus helping in
achieving the sustainable development goals by the United Nations, namely eliminating poverty,
building inclusive and sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation, creating sustainable
cities and communities and responsible production and consumption [92]. Therefore, natural
fibres will play a vital role in socio-economic development of our society. In this section, applications
where natural fibres are already in use and where can be used and what does the future holds in
terms of their applications across many different industries is presented and discussed.

3.1. Industrial Applications of Natural Fibre Composites in the Automotive Sector

Nowadays, the increased importance of raw materials from renewable resources and recyclability
or biodegradability of products is causing the transformation from petroleum-based synthetics to
natural fibres in automotive applications [93]. The applications of natural fibre composites in the
automotive sector can be traced as far back as the 1940s, when Henry Ford produced the first
composite components in a car using hemp fibre [91]. The next referred application was in the
1950s, with the production of the body of the East German Trabant and other manufacturers also
followed the same path including Daimler–Benz (1994) and Mercedes (1996) [91]. Natural fibre-based
composites hold significant potential for automotive industry because the demand for light weight and
environmentally friendly materials is higher. Studies indicate that natural fibre composites can
contribute to a cost reduction of 20% and weight reduction of 30% of an automotive part [43].
Following those authors, light weight of components leads to lower fuel consumption, good
recycling possibilities, reduction in waste disposal and greenhouse emissions which are some of
main drivers for use of natural fibres. Natural fibre composites are mostly being used for interior
parts such as dashboards, door panels, parcel shelves, seat cushions, backrests and cabin linings
whereas the use of natural fibre composite parts for exterior applications is very limited [43]. As an
example, the following Figure 6 shows the production of door from hemp fibre.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 12 of

Figure 6. Production of door from hemp fibre [94].

Different regions across the globe cultivate and use different types of natural fibres and sometimes
they import or export to other regions as well. For instance, European automotive industry mainly
uses flax and hemp, whereas jute and kenaf are mainly imported from Bangladesh and India,
banana from the Philippines and sisal from South Africa, the United States and Brazil. Flax fibre has
been the most relevant natural fibre for the German automotive industry [43]. Figure 7 shows the
use of different natural fibres in European automotive industry with highest share of wood and
cotton fibre followed by flax, hemp, kenaf and others. The European composites market as whole
contains a 10–15% share of wood plastic and natural fibre composites [95].

Others(mainly jute, coir, sisal and

7%
abaca)

Hemp 5%

Kenaf 8%

Flax 19%

Cotton 25%

Wood 38%

Figure 7. Use of Wood and Natural Fibres for Composites in European automotive industry in 2012
(total volume: 80,000 tons, adapted from: [95]).

Moreover, it is interesting to mention here that 15.7 million passenger cars were produced in the
EU in 2011 in addition to 2 million other motor vehicles including trucks, transporters, motor bikes
and so forth. Considering that 30,000 tons of natural fibres and another 30,000 tons of wood fibres
were used in 15.7 million passenger cars, on average every passenger car in Europe is estimated to
contain
1.9 kg of natural fibres and wood fibres each [95]. German automotive industry is the most important
consumer of natural fibre parts within the European automotive sector, where each car produced
in Germany on average contains 3.6 kg of natural fibres [95]. A bibliometric study was done for this
paper about the applications of natural fibres mainly in automotive industry using keywords “natural
fibres”, “applications”, “automotive industry”, “bio-composites” on the web and the findings are
presented in Tables 8 and 9. Most of the components produced by natural fibres are interior
components such as inner door panels, seat covers and insulations and so forth and most
commonly used fibres are flax, hemp and kenaf. Moreover, the matrix used in combination with these
natural fibres is polypropylene (PP) and PLA. Most of the automotive manufacturers already use
natural fibres composites in their products, aiming to decrease cost, vehicle weight and the life cycle
environmental impact, using these aspects commercially as a marketing advantage.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 13 of

Table 8. Applications of natural fibres in automotive industry. Adapted from: [43,91,96–99].

Natural Fibres Component Description Reference(s) Other Constituents

Carrier for covered door panels, covered
components for instrument panels, covered inserts,
Bast fibres (flax, hemp, carrier for hard and soft armrests, seat back panels, Polypropylene (PP)
[91]
kenaf, jute, sisal, etc.) door panels, door bolsters, headliners, side and back and polyester
walls, seat backs, rear deck trays, pillars, centre
consoles, load floors, trunk trim
Abaca Under-floor panel and body panels [43,97] -
Banana Wrapping paper [98] -
Seat bottoms, back cushions and head restraints,
Coconut interior trim and seat cushioning, seat [43,96,99] Natural rubber
surfaces/backrests
Coir Car seat covers, mattresses, doormats, rugs [99] -
Cotton Soundproofing, trunk panel, insulation [43,96] PP/PET

PP granules,
Fibrowood recycled Plastic retainer for seat back panel [91]
thermoplastic
Seatbacks, covers, rear parcel shelves, other interior Flax trim,
Mat with PP
floor trays, pillar panels and central consoles, [43,96]
(floor panels)
floor panels
Flax or Hemp Carrier for covered door panels [91] Epoxy resin
Flax/Sisal In the interior door linings and panels, door panels [43,96] Thermoset resin
Kenaf Door inner panel [97] PP
Kenaf/Flax Package trays and door panel inserts [43] -

Door panel, rear parcel shelves, other interior trim,

Kenaf/Hemp Lexus package shelves, door panels [43] -
Carrier for covered door panels, carrier for
covered
door panels, covered or foamed instrument panels,
Acrylic resin and
Wood covered inserts and components, covered seat back [43,91]
synthetic fibre
panels, fibre in the seatback cushions, inserts,
spare tire, covers
Carrier for covered door panels, carrier for
Wood Flour armrest, carrier for covered inserts [91] PP or polyolefin (POE)
Wool Upholstery, seat coverings [43,96] Leather

3.2. Applications in Other Sectors than Automotive

Despite most prominent applications of natural fibre composites are in automotive sector [95]
there are additional fields of applications of natural fibre composites mainly: textiles, medical,
healthcare and pharmaceuticals, home and personal care, food and feed additives, construction and
furniture, packaging, pulp and paper, bioenergy and biofuels. This section focuses on applications of
natural fibre composites in other industries than automotive sector and some of these applications
are presented in the in Table 10. This table shows the result of a bibliometric analysis done for this
paper about the applications of natural fibres in different industries using keywords “natural
fibres”, “applications”, “bio-composites” on the web. The lower weight and relatively lower cost of
natural fibres are the main aspects referred to as the reasons for the use of natural fibre composites in
these applications. There is a wide scope of activity sectors using natural fibres composites, from
construction, pharmaceutical, sports and music instruments, involving their use to obtain panels,
containers, boxes, casing and other type supporting and packaging objects.
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 14 of

Table 9. Natural fibre-based parts in different models of several automotive manufacturers. Adapted
from: [11,99,100].

Instrument Panel
Door Panels

Boot Lining

Insulations
Seat Parts

Others
Automotive Manufacturer Companies (Models)

AUDI (A2, A3, A4, A6, A8) □G G□ G□ Hat rack, spare tyre
BMW (3, 5, 7) □G G□ G□ lining Moulded foot well
Chrysler (Chrysler Sebring) G□ linings

□G
CITROEN (C5) □G

Windshield, dashboard, business table,

DAIMLER-CHRYSLER (A, C, E, S) □G pillar cover panel
FIAT (Punto, Brava, Marea, Alfa Romeo 146)
G□ G□

□G
FORD (Mondeo, Focus, Ford fusion, Lincoln)

□G
General Motors (Cadillac De Ville, Chevrolet) □G Cargo area floor mat
LOTUS (Eco Elise) □G Spoiler, interior carpets
G□

MERCEDES-BENZ (C, S, E & A class truck) □G Internal engine cover, bumper, wheel,
G□ box, roof cover, glove box
Mitsubishi
□ G□ Cargo area floor mat
PEUGEOT (406) G
□ G□
RENAULT (Clio, Twingo) G
ROVER (2000 and others) Rear storage shelf/panel
SAAB (9S) □G G□
Spare tire cover
TOYOTA (Brevis, Harrier, Celsior, Raum) □G G□
VAUXHALL (Corsa, Astra, Vectra, Zafira) □G
VOLKSWAGEN (Golf, Passat, Bora) □G G□ Boot lid
G□
VOLVO (C70, V70) □G Natural foams, cargo floor tray

Table 10. Applications of natural fibres in other fields. Adapted from: [100,101].
Fibres Applications Reference Composition Manufacturer
Containers, boxes, Coir and natural
Coir trays, packaging [100] Enkev
latex rubber
50% recycled resin,
Flax Green wall panel [100] reinforced with flax Innovation in green
(25%) and E-glass (25%) composites technology
roving
Racing Bicycle [101] Flax, Hemp and Epoxy Museeuw Bikes
Flax, Hemp
Plastics (PLA and PP) and
Cases for musical instruments [100] Green line
additives, natural fibres
Natural fibre and composite
Flax, Balsa, Wood Summer and winter sports [100]
Bcom
reinforcement material
Containers for shipping and
storage, interior panels, load
floors and underbody shields for
Natural fibres and fiberized
Hemp, Jute, Kenaf cars and trucks, workspace [100] FlexForm Technologies
thermoplastic polymers
 panels and Furnishings for
offices and homes, structural
support for agricultural
seedlings
J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, Mobile phone casing
Kenaf [101] Kenaf and PLA NEC 15 of
Wood Modular house construction [100] Wood plastic composites Tech-wood International

4. Future Trends
This section is devoted to the future trends in terms of applications of natural fibres. However, it
is important to point out there are only very few reports on use of the bio-based materials in the
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 16 of

European activity sectors. There is only a limited information and transparency about applications,
markets and future market potential. Moreover, the latest market data is from 2012 and no information
is available since then in the last five years [102]. There could be two reasons for this situation.
First reason is that the industrial sector in general and the automotive sector in particular, do not see
natural fibres as a part of the bio-based industries; consequently, there are no targets to increase
the share of bio-based products. Secondly, the industrial sector is very sensitive about privacy and
only a few producers disclose data while others prefer not to share any data and official statistics
on shares of bio-based materials in the products [102].
Based on [95], the use of natural fibres is expected to increase significantly in future as they
are starting to enter other markets than just the automotive sector. The production forecast
scenarios are presented in Table 11 for 2012 and 2020. A significant difference in amount of
natural fibre and wood-based composites can be observed for this period. However, it can be
argued that the fast development will not take place if there are no substantial political incentives to
increase the bio-based share of the materials used in products, mainly in automotive sector
products. [95].

Table 11. Production (in ton) of wood based and natural fibre composites in 2012 and their forecast for
2020. Adapted from: [95].

Production (ton)
Bio-Composites 2020 (without Incentives for 2020 (with Strong Incentives
2012
Bio-Based Products) for Bio-Based Products)
Wood-Plastic Composites
Construction, extrusion 190,000 400,000 450,000
Automotive, compression moulding
and extrusion/thermoforming 60,000 80,000 300,000
Granulates, injection moulding 15,000 100,000 >200,000
Natural Fibre Composites
Automotive, compression moulding 90,000 120,000 350,000
Granulates, injection moulding 2000 10,000 >20,000

The potential of use of natural fibres, especially as composite reinforcement, depends largely on
the increasing of regulation and its commercial characteristics, namely by creating standards for their
production and post-treatment. The evolution of the knowledge regarding natural fibres will allow to
standardize the kind of fibres available in the market and allow designers to have higher levels of trust
concerning mechanical and chemical properties. The scientific community has a crucial role in relation
to the releasing of accurate and fully characterized studies allowing a robust increase in fundamental
knowledge about natural fibres.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

Natural fibres polymeric composites are an effective way of improving the quality of parts
regarding the environment, economic and technical feasibility. However, to accomplish this goal,
there are certain issues that need to be tackled.
A first issue is addressed in Section 2, where a comparison of the several natural fibres properties
and price is presented. However, it is clear from this review that material properties are strongly
dependent on the context namely, where the crop is cultivated, how the treatment is made, how it is
processed and applied. Moreover, it is also evident from this section that several natural fibres are
available in the market and whilst most have relevant mechanical properties, they also present very
scattered properties. Again, this is due to the natural cycle but also due to each manufacturer using its
own method to produce and use these natural fibres. It can also be noticed that several studies present
results using different standards and some are not even clear about the standards used.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 17 of

Another important observation is that several fibres are reported as more expensive than others,
with the same performance in terms of mechanical properties. Fibres such as flax, ramie, cotton
and hemp are reported to have costs that are superior to all the others but with no great advantage in
terms of mechanical properties. Availability, reliability or other “ility” are responsible for this.
Therefore, selecting the most suitable natural fibre for a particular application requires an
integrated analysis followed by a decision-making process.
Despite all of these aforementioned issues, there are several markets and industries that
have interesting applications of natural fibres. The automotive industry is the most active
and knowledge-intensive sector which plays an important role in the development of non and
semi-structural parts. But there are other industries which gradually branched out to products
segment made of natural fibre composites as well, such as furniture, medical, sports, among others.

Author Contributions: P.P., H.C., H.S. and M.L. had equal contribution.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Mitra, B.C. Environment friendly composite materials. Def. Sci. J. 2014, 64, 244–261. [CrossRef]
2. Mohanty, A.; Misra, M.; Drzal, L.; Selke, S.; Harte, B.; Hinrichsen, G. Natural Fibers, Biopolymers,
and Biocomposites; Mohanty, A., Misra, M., Drzal, L., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005;
ISBN 978-0-8493-1741-5.
3. Dicker, M.P.M.; Duckworth, P.F.; Baker, A.B.; Francois, G.; Hazzard, M.K.; Weaver, P.M. Green composites:
A review of material attributes and complementary applications. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2014, 56,
280–289. [CrossRef]
4. AL-Oqla, F.M.; Salit, M.S. Material selection of natural fiber composites. In Materials Selection for Natural
Fiber Composites; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 107–168.
5. Bar, M.; Alagirusamy, R.; Das, A. Advances in Natural Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastic Composite
Manufacturing: Effect of Interface and Hybrid Yarn Structure on Composite Properties. In Advances in
Natural Fibre Composites; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 99–117.
6. Shah, D.U.; Schubel, P.J.; Clifford, M.J. Modelling the effect of yarn twist on the tensile strength of
unidirectional plant fibre yarn composites. J. Compos. Mater. 2013, 47, 425–436. [CrossRef]
7. Mallick, P. Fiber-Reinforced Composites; Dekker Mechanical Engineering; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA,
2007; Volume 20072757, ISBN 978-0-8493-4205-9.
8. Goutianos, S.; Peijs, T.; Nystrom, B.; Skrifvars, M. Development of Flax Fibre based Textile
Reinforcements for Composite Applications. Appl. Compos. Mater. 2006, 13, 199–215. [CrossRef]
9. Erden, S.; Ho, K. Fiber reinforced composites. In Fiber Technology for Fiber-Reinforced Composites; Elsevier:
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 51–79.
10. AL-Oqla, F.M.; Sapuan, S.M. Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in industrial applications:
Feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive industry. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 66, 347–354.
[CrossRef]
11. Mohammed, L.; Ansari, M.N.M.; Pua, G.; Jawaid, M.; Islam, M.S. A Review on Natural Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Composite and Its Applications. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2015, 2015, 1–15. [CrossRef]
12. Cicala, G.; Cristaldi, G.; Recca, G.; Latteri, A. Composites Based on Natural Fibre Fabrics. In Woven Fabric
Engineering; Dubrovski, P., Ed.; InTech: London, UK, 2010.
13. Pickering, K.L.; Efendy, M.G.A.; Le, T.M. A review of recent developments in natural fibre composites and
their mechanical performance. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2016, 83, 98–112. [CrossRef]
14. Chermoshentseva, A.S.; Pokrovskiy, A.M.; Bokhoeva, L.A. The behavior of delaminations in composite
materials—Experimental results. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 116, 012005. [CrossRef]
15. Stevens, C.V. Series Preface; Mü ssig, J., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 2010; ISBN 9780470695081.
16. Imre, B.; Pukánszky, B. Compatibilization in bio-based and biodegradable polymer blends. Eur. Polym. J.
2013, 49, 1215–1233. [CrossRef]
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 18 of

17. Niaounakis, M. Biopolymers: Processing and Products; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014;
ISBN 9780323279383.
18. Mattew, A.; Bell, R. Dupont’s renewably sourced high performance polymers. In Proceedings of the SPE
ANTEC, Indianapolis, IN, USA, 23–25 May 2016.
19. Rohan, T.; Tushar, B.; Mahesha, G.T. Review of natural fiber composites. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018,
314, 012020. [CrossRef]
20. Bleys, G. Technology Watch: Biopolymers; Essenscia Publishing: Brussels, Belgium, 2015.
21. Muniyasamy, S.; Muniyasamy, S.; John, M.J.; John, M.J. Biodegradability of Biobased Polymeric Materials
in Natural Environments. In Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017; pp. 625–653.
22. ISO/TC61/SC14 ISO 17088:2012. Available online: www.iso.org/standard/57901.html (accessed on
1 September 2018).
23. ISO/TC61/SC14 ISO 16620:2015. Available online: www.iso.org/standard/63766.html (accessed on
1 September 2018).
24. ISO/TC61/SC14 ISO 14852:2018. Available online: www.iso.org/standard/72051.html (accessed on
1 September 2018).
25. Institut fü r Biokunststoffe und Bioverbundwerkstoffe (IfBB). Biopolymers—Facts and Statictics; IfBB: Hannover,
Germany, 2016.
26. Carus, M. Market Study on Bio-Based Polymers in the World. Capacities, Production and Applications:
Status Quo and Trends Towards 2020. In Proceedings of the Fifth German WPC Conference, Cologne,
Germany, 10–11 December 2013.
27. Koronis, G.; Silva, A.; Fontul, M. Green composites: A review of adequate materials for automotive
applications. Compos. Part B Eng. 2013, 44, 120–127. [CrossRef]
28. Smith, G.F. New developments in producing more functional and sustainable composites. In Management,
Recycling and Reuse of Waste Composites; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 425–439.
29. Pickering, S.J. Thermal methods for recycling waste composites. In Management, Recycling and Reuse of Waste
Composites; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 65–101.
30. Reynolds, N.; Pharaoh, M. An introduction to composites recycling. In Management, Recycling and Reuse
of Waste Composites; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 3–19.
31. Sanjay, M.R.; Arpitha, G.R.; Yogesha, B. Study on Mechanical Properties of Natural—Glass Fibre
Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites: A Review. Mater. Today Proc. 2015, 2, 2959–2967. [CrossRef]
32. Bharath, K.N.; Basavarajappa, S. Applications of biocomposite materials based on natural fibers from
renewable resources: A review. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 2016, 23. [CrossRef]
33. Aditya, P.H.; Kishore, K.S.; Prasad, D.V.V.K. Characterization of Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites. Int. J.
Eng. Appl. Sci. 2017, 4, 26–32.
34. Cordis Cordis. Available online: Cordis.europa.eu/news/rcn/13445_en.html (accessed on 1 September 2018).
35. Kazan-Allen, L. Asbestos—The Human Cost of Corporate Greed; European Parliamentary Group: Brussels,
Belgium, 2006.
36. Dittenber, D.B.; GangaRao, H.V.S. Critical review of recent publications on use of natural composites in
infrastructure. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2012, 43, 1419–1429. [CrossRef]
37. Thakur, V.K.; Singha, A.S.; Thakur, M.K. Biopolymers Based Green Composites: Mechanical, Thermal and
Physico-chemical Characterization. J. Polym. Environ. 2012, 20, 412–421. [CrossRef]
38. Singha, A.S.; Kumar Thakur, V. Saccaharum Cilliare Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites. J. Chem. 2008, 5,
782–791. [CrossRef]
39. Thakur, V.K.; Singha, A.S. Mechanical and Water Absorption Properties of Natural Fibers/Polymer
Biocomposites. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 2010, 49, 694–700. [CrossRef]
40. Singha, A.S.; Thakur, V.K. Fabrication and Characterization of H. sabdariffa Fiber-Reinforced Green Polymer
Composites. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 2009, 48, 482–487. [CrossRef]
41. Nadlene, R.; Nadlene, R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Ishak, M.R.; Ishak, M.R.; Ishak, M.R.;
Yusriah, L. Material Characterization of Roselle Fibre (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) as Potential Reinforcement
Material for Polymer Composites. Fibres Text. East. Eur. 2015, 23, 23–30. [CrossRef]
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 19 of

42. Naldony, P.; Flores-Sahagun, T.H.; Satyanarayana, K.G. Effect of the type of fiber (coconut, eucalyptus,
or pine) and compatibilizer on the properties of extruded composites of recycled high density polyethylene.
J. Compos. Mater. 2016, 50, 45–56. [CrossRef]
43. Huda, M.S.; Drzal, L.T.; Ray, D.; Mohanty, A.K.; Mishra, M. Natural-fiber composites in the automotive
sector. In Properties and Performance of Natural-Fibre Composites; Woodhead Publishing: Oxford, UK,
2008; ISBN 9781845692674.
44. Cheung, H.; Ho, M.; Lau, K.; Cardona, F.; Hui, D. Natural fibre-reinforced composites for bioengineering
and environmental engineering applications. Compos. Part B Eng. 2009, 40, 655–663. [CrossRef]
45. Faruk, O.; Sain, M. Biofiber Reinforcements in Composite Materials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
2014; ISBN 9781782421276.
46. Carvalho, H.; Raposo, A.; Ribeiro, I.; Kaufmann, J.; Gö tze, U.; Peças, P.; Henriques, E. Application of Life
Cycle Engineering Approach to Assess the Pertinence of Using Natural Fibers in Composites—The
Rocker Case Study. Procedia CIRP 2016, 48, 364–369. [CrossRef]
47. Ho, M.; Wang, H.; Lee, J.-H.; Ho, C.; Lau, K.; Leng, J.; Hui, D. Critical factors on manufacturing processes of
natural fibre composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2012, 43, 3549–3562. [CrossRef]
48. Chen, H. Biotechnology of Lignocellulose; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2014; ISBN 978-94-007-6897-0.
49. Verma, D.; Jain, S. Green Approaches to Biocomposite Materials Science and Engineering. In Advances in
Chemical and Materials Engineering; IGI Global Publishing: Hershey, PA, USA, 2016; ISBN 9781522504245.
50. Srinivasababu, N. Manufacturing of Long Puchika Grass Fibre Reinforced Polyester Composites: Assessment
Under Mechanical and Dielectric Loading. In Manufacturing of Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites;
Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 199–215.
51. Praful, P.; Lanjewar, N.P.A. Review paper on design and modeling of multipurpose fiber extracting machine.
Int. J. Eng. Sci. Res. Technol. 2017. [CrossRef]
52. Hodzic, A.; Shanks, R. Natural Fibre Composites: Materials, Processes and Properties; Woodhead Publishing:
Oxford, UK, 2014; ISBN 0857099221.
53. Franck, R.R. Bast and Other Plant Fibres; Woodhead Publishing: Oxford, UK, 2005; ISBN 9781855736849.
54. Kabir, M.M.; Wang, H.; Lau, K.T.; Cardona, F. Chemical treatments on plant-based natural fibre reinforced
polymer composites: An overview. Compos. Part B Eng. 2012, 43, 2883–2892. [CrossRef]
55. Ku, H.; Wang, H.; Pattarachaiyakoop, N.; Trada, M. A review on the tensile properties of natural fiber
reinforced polymer composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2011, 42, 856–873. [CrossRef]
56. Bousfield, G.; Morin, S.; Jacquet, N.; Richel, A. Extraction and refinement of agricultural plant fibers for
composites manufacturing. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2018, 21, 897–906. [CrossRef]
57. Todor, M.P.; Bulei, C.; Heput, T.; Kiss, I. Researches on the development of new composite materials
complete/partially biodegradable using natural textile fibers of new vegetable origin and those
recovered from textile waste. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 294. [CrossRef]
58. Abdul Khalil, H.P.S.; Bhat, I.U.H.; Jawaid, M.; Zaidon, A.; Hermawan, D.; Hadi, Y.S. Bamboo fibre reinforced
biocomposites: A review. Mater. Des. 2012, 42, 353–368. [CrossRef]
59. Shah, D.U.; Sharma, B.; Ramage, M.H. Processing bamboo for structural composites: Influence of preservative
treatments on surface and interface properties. Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 2018, 85, 15–22. [CrossRef]
60. Slaven, D.K.L.; Vaidya, U. Biobased Bamboo Composite Development—Resource Fiber Phase I Summary Report;
Oak Ridge National Lab. (ORNL): Oak Ridge, TN, USA, 2017.
61. Anonymous Future Fibres—Coir. Available online: www.fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/coir/en/
(accessed on 15 August 2018).
62. Verma, D.; Gope, P.C.; Shandilya, A.; Gupta, A.; Maheshwari, M.K. Coir fibre reinforcement and application
in polymer composites: A review. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 2013, 4, 263–276.
63. Fadzullah, S.H.S.M.; Mustafa, Z. Fabrication and Processing of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Composites;
IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2016; pp. 125–147.
64. Marsyahyo, E.; Soekrisno Rochardjo, H.S.; Jamasri. Identification of Ramie Single Fiber Surface Topography
Influenced by Solvent-Based Treatment. J. Ind. Text. 2008, 38, 127–137. [CrossRef]
65. Kamath, M.G.; Bhat, G.S.; Parikh, D.V.; Mueller, D. Cotton fiber nonwovens for automotive composites.
Int. Nonwovens J. 2005, 14, 34–40.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 20 of

66. Satyanarayana, K.G.; Guimarães, J.L.; Wypych, F. Studies on lignocellulosic fibers of Brazil. Part I: Source,
production, morphology, properties and applications. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2007, 38, 1694–1709.
[CrossRef]
67. Fuentealba, C.; Montory, J.S.; Vega-Lara, J.; Norambuena-Contreras, J. New Biobased composite material
using bark fibres Eucalyptus. In Proceedings of the 13th Pacific Rim Bio-Based Composite Symposium,
Concepción, Chile, 13–15 November 2016.
68. Rohit, K.; Dixit, S. A Review—Future Aspect of Natural Fiber Reinforced Composite. Polym. Renew. Resour.
2016, 7, 43–59. [CrossRef]
69. Carus, M. The European Hemp Industry: Cultivation, Processing and Applications for Fibres, Shivs, Seeds and
Flowers; European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA): Hü rth, Germany, 2017.
70. Benítez, A.N.; Monzón, M.D.; Angulo, I.; Ortega, Z.; Hernández, P.M.; Marrero, M.D. Treatment of banana
fiber for use in the reinforcement of polymeric matrices. Measurement 2013, 46, 1065–1073. [CrossRef]
71. Bacci, L.; Di Lonardo, S.; Albanese, L.; Mastromei, G.; Perito, B. Effect of different extraction methods on
fiber quality of nettle (Urtica dioica L.). Text. Res. J. 2011, 81, 827–837. [CrossRef]
72. Saheb, D.N.; Jog, J.P. Natural fiber polymer composites: A review. Adv. Polym. Technol. 1999, 18, 351–363.
[CrossRef]
73. Li, Y.; Mai, Y.-W.; Ye, L. Sisal fibre and its composites: A review of recent developments. Compos. Sci. Technol.
2000, 60, 2037–2055. [CrossRef]
74. Biagiotti, J.; Puglia, D.; Kenny, J.M. A Review on Natural Fibre-Based Composites—Part I. J. Nat. Fibers 2004,
1, 37–68. [CrossRef]
75. Puglia, D.; Biagiotti, J.; Kenny, J.M. A Review on Natural Fibre-Based Composites—Part II. J. Nat. Fibers 2005,
1, 23–65. [CrossRef]
76. Summerscales, J.; Dissanayake, N.; Virk, A.; Hall, W. A review of bast fibres and their composites. Part
2—Composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2010, 41, 1336–1344. [CrossRef]
77. La Mantia, F.P.; Morreale, M. Green composites: A brief review. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2011, 42,
579–588. [CrossRef]
78. Yan, L.; Chouw, N.; Jayaraman, K. Flax fibre and its composites—A review. Compos. Part B Eng. 2014, 56,
296–317. [CrossRef]
79. Gurunathan, T.; Mohanty, S.; Nayak, S.K. A review of the recent developments in biocomposites based on
natural fibres and their application perspectives. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2015, 77, 1–25. [CrossRef]
80. Bhardwaj, S. Natural Fibre Composites—An Opportunity for Farmers. Int. J. Pure Appl. Biosci. 2017, 5,
509–514. [CrossRef]
81. Ramesh, M.; Palanikumar, K.; Reddy, K.H. Plant fibre based bio-composites: Sustainable and renewable
green materials. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 79, 558–584. [CrossRef]
82. Le Moigne, N.; Otazaghine, B.; Corn, S.; Angellier-Coussy, H.; Bergeret, A. Modification of the
Interface/Interphase in Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites: Treatments and Processes. Surf. Interfaces Nat.
Fibre Reinf. Compos. 2018, 35–70. [CrossRef]
83. Azam, A.; Khubab, S.; Nawab, Y.; Madiha, J.; Hussain, T. Hydrophobic treatment of natural fibers and their
composites—A review. J. Ind. Text. 2016, 1–31. [CrossRef]
84. Ferrero, F.; Periolatto, M. Modification of Surface Energy and Wetting of Textile Fibers. In Wetting and
Wettability; InTech: London, UK, 2015.
85. Sood, M.; Dwivedi, G. Effect of fiber treatment on flexural properties of natural fiber reinforced composites:
A review. Egypt. J. Pet. 2017. [CrossRef]
86. Zin, M.H.; Abdan, K.; Mazlan, N.; Zainudin, E.S.; Liew, K.E. The effects of alkali treatment on the
mechanical and chemical properties of pineapple leaf fibres (PALF) and adhesion to epoxy resin. IOP
Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 368, 012035. [CrossRef]
87. Kabir, M.M.; Wang, H.; Aravinthan, T.; Cardona, F.; Lau, K.-T. Effects of Natural Fibre Surface on
Composite Properties: A Review. Energy Environ. Sustain. 2011, 94–99. [CrossRef]
88. Vä isä nen, T.; Das, O.; Tomppo, L. A review on new bio-based constituents for natural fiber-polymer
composites. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 149, 582–596. [CrossRef]
89. Salazar, V.L.P.; Leão, A.L.; Rosa, D.S.; Gomez, J.G.C.; Alli, R.C.P. Biodegradation of Coir and Sisal Applied in
the Automotive Industry. J. Polym. Environ. 2011. [CrossRef]
 J. Compos. Sci. 2018, 2, 21 of

90. Faruk, O.; Bledzki, A.K.; Fink, H.-P.; Sain, M. Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers: 2000–2010.
Prog. Polym. Sci. 2012. [CrossRef]
91. Witayakran, S.; Smitthipong, W.; Wangpradid, R.; Chollakup, R.; Clouston, P.L. Natural Fiber Composites:
Review of Recent Automotive Trends. In Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering;
Elsevier Publishing: Amherst, MA, USA, 2017; ISBN 9780128035818.
92. Nations, U. Sustainable Development Goals. Available online: Sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300
(accessed on 26 September 2018).
93. Muessig, J. Influence of fiber fineness on the properties of natural fiber composites. In Proceedings of the 4th
International Wood and Natural Fiber Composites Symposium, Kassel, Germany, 10–11 April 2002.
94. Pollitt, E. Automotive Composites. Available online: www.globalhemp.com/2011/02/automotive-
composites.html (accessed on 11 July 2018).
95. Carus, M.; Eder, A.; Dammer, L.; Korte, H.; Scholz, L.; Essel, R.; Breitmayer, E.; Barth, M. Wood-Plastic
Composites (WPC) and Natural Fibre Composites (NFC): European and Global Markets 2012 and Future Trends in
Automotive and Construction; Nova-Institute: Hü rth, Germany, 2015.
96. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Unlocking the Commercial Potential of Natural Fibres;
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2012.
97. Holbery, J.; Houston, D. Natural-fiber-reinforced polymer composites in automotive applications. JOM 2006,
58, 80–86. [CrossRef]
98. Ramdhonee, A.; Jeetah, P. Production of wrapping paper from banana fibres. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2017.
[CrossRef]
99. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Common Fund for Commodities. In
Proceedings of the Symposium on Natural Fibres, Rome, Italy, 20 October 2008.
100. Ngo, T.-D. Natural Fibers for Sustainable Bio-Composites. In Natural and Artificial Fiber-Reinforced Composites
as Renewable Sources; InTech: London, UK, 2018.
101. Lucintel. Opportunities in Natural Fiber Composites; Lucintel: Las Colinas, TX, USA, 2011.
102. Dammer, L.; Carus, M.; Iffland, K.; Piotrowski, S.; Sarmento, L.; Chinthapalli, R.; Raschka, A. Current Situation
and Trends of the Bio-Based Industries in Europe with a Focus on Bio-Based Materials; Nova-Institute
GmbH: Huerth, Germany, 2017.

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open
access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).