DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Mid - La Union Campus

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

[MEFC 105 - ADVANCED MATHEMATICS FOR M.E.]

MODULE 2:
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS IN ENGINEERING:

THE TAYLOR SERIES

 MODULE 2

 INTRODUCTION

Numerical analysis is a branch of mathematics that solves continuous problems

through numeric approximation. It involves methods that provide approximate but
accurate numeric solutions it uses numerical techniques in solving problems that
cannot be solves analytically. One of these techniques that will be focused in this
module is the Taylor Series.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 To obtain sufficient understanding of the Taylor Series.
 To apply the Taylor series technique in solving functions with complicated
formulas.
 To approximate the solution for any function.

LESSON: TAYLOR’S SERIES

BRIEF HISTORY

The Taylor series is named after the English mathematician Brook Taylor, who
introduced it in his work "Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa" in 1715. Taylor
developed the series as a way to represent functions as infinite series of polynomial
terms.

Taylor derived the series using a fundamental concept in calculus called Taylor's
theorem. This theorem states that “any sufficiently smooth function can be
approximated by a polynomial function near a particular point.”

WHAT IS THE TAYLOR SERIES?

Taylor series is an approximation of a non-polynomial function by a polynomial. It

helps us to find the value of functions that don’t have a simple formula, for example,
sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), ex etc. This is helpful as polynomials are much easier to solve
and deal with.

Taylor's series expansion formula expresses a function f(x) as an infinite sum of terms
involving the function's derivatives evaluated at a specific point (usually denoted as
a).

The general form of the Taylor series expansion for a function f(x) about the point a
is:

f(x) = f(a) + f’(a)(x-a)/1! + f’’(a)(x-a)2/2! + f’’’(a)(x-a)3/3! + … f(n)(a)(x-a)(n)/(n)!

Each successive term will have a larger exponent or higher degree than the preceding
term. Based on the accuracy required, we truncate the Taylor series to a certain
term. The resulting polynomial we get from this truncation is the Taylor polynomial.
The above Taylor's Series expansion is given for a real values function f(x)
 where f’(a), f’’(a), f’’’(a), etc. denotes the derivative of the function at point
‘a’.
 If the value of point ‘a’ is zero, then the Taylor's Series is called the Maclaurin
Series.
In sigma notation, the Taylor's Series can be written as,

∑∞n=0 f(n)(a)•(x-a)(n)/n!
Where:
 f(n)(a) = nth derivative of ‘f’
 n! = Factorial of ‘n’
 a = x0 = assumed value at point a or x0

Ex: TAYLOR SERIES of Sin(x)

1. f(x) = sin(x)
2. f’(x) = cos(x)
3. f’’(x) = -sin(x)
4. f’’’(x) = -cos(x)
5. f’’’’(x) = sin(x)...
And so on.

.: The Taylor series expansion for Sin(x) at a=x0=0, is given by:

f(x) = sin(x) = ∑∞n=0 f(n)(0)(x-0)(n)/(n)! = 1(x)/1! - 1(x)³/3! + 5(x) ⁵/5! - 1(x) ⁷/7! + …

EXAMPLE (USING TAYLOR SERIES)

Problem: Find the taylor series for the function f(x0)= ln(x0) centered at a=x0=1

Step 1. Find the derivative of the function until you reach its 4th derivative
f(x0)= ln(x0)
1st Derivative: f’(x0)= 1/x0 ; x0=a
2nd Derivative: f’’(x0)= -1/x02
3rd Derivative: f’’’(x0)= 2/x03
4th Derivative: f’’’’(x0)= -6/x04

Step 2. Evaluate the function and derivatives at a = 1

f(a)= 0 or f(1)= 0
1st Derivative:
f’(x0)= 1/x0 = 1/(1)
= f’(1)= 1
2nd Derivative:
f’’(x0)= -1/x02 = -1/(1)2
= f’’(1)= -1
3rd Derivative:
f’’’(x0)= 2/x03 = 2/(1)3
= f’’’(1)= 2
4th Derivative:
f’’’’(x0)= -6/x04 = -6/(1)4
= f’’’’(1)= -6

Step 3. Expand the series

f(x) = f(a) + f’(a)(x-a)1/1! + [f’’(a)(x-a)2]/2! + [f’’’(a)(x-a)3]/3! + [f’’(a)(x-
a)4]/4!
Step 4. Substitute the values from step 2 to step 3
ln x= 0 + 1(x-1)1 – [1(x-1)2]/2! + [2(x-1)3]/3! - [6(x-1)4]/4!
Step 5. Simplify the equation
ln x= [(x-1)1]/1 – (x-1)2]/2 + (x-1)3]/3 - [(x-1)4]/4
Step 6. Write series in summation notation
ln x= ∑ [(x-1)(n+1)]/n+1

PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS (Examples)

PROBLEM #1: Determine the Taylor Series at x0 = 0 for f(x0) = ex

SOLUTION: Given: f(x0) = ex

Differentiate the given equation,

f(x0) = ex
f’(x0) = ex
f”’(x0) = ex
At x = 0, we get:
f(0) = e⁰ = 1
f’(0) = e⁰ = 1
f’’(0) = e⁰ = 1
f’’’(0) = e⁰ = 1

When the Taylor Series is at x0=0, it is then a Maclaurin Series with the function:

f(x) = f(0) + f’(0)x + f’’(0)x²/2! + f’’’(0)x³/3! +...

Because f(x) = ex, we have

ex = 1 + (1)x + (x²/2!)(1) + (x³/3!)(1) +...

.: ex = 1 + x + (x²/2!) + (x³/3!) +...

PROBLEM #2 : Evaluate the Taylor Series for f(x0) = cos(x0) when x0=a=0
SOLUTION: Given: f(x0) = cos(x0)

We need to take the derivatives of the cos(x0) and evaluate them at x0=a=0

f(x) = cos(x0) =⟩ f(0) = 1

f’(x) = -sin(x0) =⟩ f’(0) = 0
f’’(x) = -cos(x0) =⟩ f’’(0) = -1
f’’’(x) = sin(x0) =⟩ f’’’(0) = 0
f’’’’(x) = cos(x0) =⟩ f’’’’(0) = 1
f(5)(x) = -sin(x0) =⟩ f(5)(0) = 0
f(6)(x) = -cos(x0) =⟩ f(6)(0) = -1
And so on,
.: According to the Taylor Series,

PROBLEM #3: Evaluate the Taylor Series for f ( x0 ) = x03 − 10x02 + 6 at x0 = 3.

Solution:
First, we will find the derivatives of the given function.
f(x0) = x03 − 10x02 + 6 ⇒ f(3) = -57
f’(x0) = 3x02 − 20x0 ⇒ f’(3) = 33
f’’(x0) = 6x0 – 20 ⇒ f’’(3) = -2
f’’’(x0) = 6 ⇒ f’’’(3) = 6
f’’’’(x0) = 0

.:The Taylor series is:

PROBLEM #4: Find the Taylor series expansion of f(x0) = ln(1+x0) at x0=2.

Solution: First, we will find the derivatives of f(x0)=ln(x0+1) at x0=2.

f(x0)=ln(x0+1)⇒f(2)=ln(3)
f′(x0)=1(x0+1)⇒f′(2)=⅓
f”(x0)=−1(x0+1)2⇒f”(2)=−19
f”′(x0)=2(x0+1)3⇒f”′(2)=2/27

The Taylor series expansion of f(x0) at x0=a is

f(x)= f(a) + f′(a)(x−a)/1! + f”(a)(x−a)²/2! + f”’(a)(x−a)³/3! + …

Now, substituting the relative values in R.H.S. of Taylor series expansion.

.:The required series is:

PROBLEM #5: Evaluate the Taylor series expansion for f(x0)=x0³−10x0²+6 at x0=a=3.

Solution: First, we will find the derivatives of f(x0)=x0³−10x0²+6 at x0=a=3.

f(x0)=x0³−10x0²+6⇒f(3)=−57
f′(x0)=3x0²−20x0⇒f′(3)=−33
f”(x0)=6x0−20⇒f”(3)=−2
f”′(x0)=6⇒f”′(3)=6
f””(x0)=0

The Taylor series expansion of f(x) at x=a is

f(x)= f(a) + f′(a)(x−a)/1! + f”(a)(x−a)²/2! + f”′(a)(x−a)³/3! + …

Now, substituting the relative values in R.H.S. of Taylor series expansion.

.:The required series is:

 References:

Admin. (2021, March 1). Taylor Series (Proof and Examples). BYJUS

https://byjus.com/maths/taylor-series/https://byjus.com/maths/taylor-series/

Testbook. (2023, May 4). Taylor Series: Formula, Theorem with Proof Method & Examples.

https://testbook.com/maths/taylor-series

What is numerical analysis? (n.d.). MATLAB & Simulink.

https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/numerical-analysis.html#:~:text=Numerical

%20analysis%20is%20a%20branch,or%20prohibitively%20expensive%20to

%20calculate.
DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
Mid - La Union Campus
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by:
Abundo, Valerie
Bersamina, Jacob Baroma
Campos, Kier
De Vera, Gabriel Lozano
Eugenio, Mafie Joy Torres
Gundran, Jarell Francis Sanson
Itchon, Juan Raphael Jularbal
Murao, Airish Verutiao
Ramos, Rheden Lloyd
Valerio, Shanntel Louise Flores

Submitted to:
Engr. Bonifacio Cabradilla