1 Sem2 B.C. 206 U1 P

ifstYNs AYjk
Uu S
y n ivBwg
pMjwbI XUnIvristI, pitAwlw
ebk; L phH ekwH Gkr gfjbk ;w?;No d{ik
g/go L phH ;hH 206 (fgqz;hgbia nkca fpiB; fJeBkfwe; ^ II)

whvhnw L gzikph :{fBN L 1
gkm BzH
1H1 L w?eo' noE-FkFso dh G{fwek

1H2 L okFNoh nkwdB
1H3 L o'}rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs ns/ ;/} f;XKs
1H4 L e/B} dk nkwdB ns/ o'}rko f;XKs
1H5 L T[gG'r cbB (Consumption Function)
1H6 L r[De (Multiplier)
Department website : www.pbidde.org

phH ekwH Gkr gfjbk phH ;hH 206
fgz q ; hgbia nkca fp}B; fJeBkfwe;
gkm BzH 1H1 b/ye L vkH gqskg f;zx
w? e o' noE-Fk;so dh G{ f wek

fJ; G{fwek ;to{g (Introductory) gkm d/ nfXn?B bJh n;h_ fJ; dh tzv fBwB nB[;ko
eoKr/.
1H1 G{fwek (Introduction)
1H2 gkm d/ T[d/F (objectives)
1H3 nkw f;XKs (General Theory)
1H4 nkw f;XKs dh wjZssk
1H5 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so eh j? <
1H5H1 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu fGzBsk
1H5H2 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so dk J/eheoB (Integration)
1H6 w?eo' noE Fk;so dh wjZssk
1H7 w?eo' noE Fk;so dhnK ;hwktK
1H8 w?eo' nkofEe ftFb/FD dh gfoGkFeh (terminology)
1H9 gkm dk ;ko (Summary)
1H1 G{fwek (Introduction) : fJ; nXhB n;h_ gVQKr/ fe e/B} tZb'_ fdZsk frnk o'}rko ns/
nkwdBh f;XKs fet/_ j'_d ftu nkfJnk. fJ;B{z nkw f;XKs (General Theory) dk Bk feT[_ fdZsk
frnk < fJ; nkw f;XKs dh wjZssk eh j? < wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so eh j? < w?eo' noE
Fk;so fejV/ ;tkbK s/ nkXkfos j? < wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu eh nzso j? < eh wkJheo'
ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so fJe d{i/ d/ fto'Xh jB < w?eo' noE Fk;so dk nfXn?B fet/_ wjZstg{oB
j? < fJ; s'_ fJbktk, n;h_ fJj th fJ; gkme ftu gVQKr/ fe fe;/ d/F dh gdkoEe GbkJh dh gqfeqsh
ns/ nkeko dk nfXn?B eoB bJh w?eo' noE Fk;so fet/_ wjZstg{oB j? ns/ fJ; w?eo' noE Fk;so
dhnK eh ;hwktK jB < fJj jh Bjh_, ;r'_ fJ; gkm ftu w?eo' nkofEe ftFb/FD bJh tosh iKdh
gofGkFeh (terminology) pko/ th dZf;nk ikt/rk.
1H2 gkm d/ T[d/F (Objectives) : fJ; gkm dk w[Zy T[d/F ftfdnkoEh B{z fJj ;wMkT[Dk j? fe
(T) ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK dk o'}rko f;XKs fej' fijk ;h <
(n) e/B} tb'_ fdZsk o'}rko ns/ nkwdBh f;XKs fet/_ iBfwnk <
(J) e/B} tZb'_ fdZs/ o'}rko f;XKs B{z nkw f;XKIs (General Theory) feT[_ fejk iKdk j? <
(;) o'}rko f;XKs B{z gqGktg{oB Yzr Bkb ;wMD bJh fejVh gfoGkFeh (terminology) B{z ;wMD
dh b'V j? <
1H3 nkw f;XKs dh T[sgsh (Origin of General Theory) :
;BksBh noE-Fk;sohnK nB[;ko, fiBQK ftu foekov', ikB ;N{noN fwZb (John, Sturat
Mill), wkoFb (Marshall), n?}toE (Edgeworth) ns/ ghr{ Fkwb jB, gz{ihtkdh noE ftt;Ek ftu
1
phH ekw Gkr gfjbk (;w?;No d[ik) 2 phH;hH 206
nkw p/o}rkoh ;zGt jh Bjh_ j?. T[BQK nB[;ko g{oB o'}rko d/ gZXo s/ ;ws'b dk j'Dk fJe nkw
jkbs j?. n;EkJh rVpVK ekoB p/ekoh j' ;edh j? go ;t?-ub ;zukbe (automatic regulators)
fco ;zs[bB dh jkbs fbnk fdzd/ jB. T[j ;oekoh dyb B{z r?o }o{oh ;wMd/ jB. o'}rko ;ws'b
pfDnk ofjzdk j? ns/ ezw eoB d/ fJS[Ze pko/ b'eK B{z ezw fwfbnk ofjzdk j?, i' gquZbs w}d{oh s/
ezw eoB bJh fsnko j[zd/ jB feT[_fe g{oB o'}rko dh jkbs B{z T[j gfjbK s'_ wzB e/ uZbd/ ;B,
fJ;/ ekoB T[BQK B/ o'}rko dk e'Jh f;bf;b/ tko f;XKs (Systematic Theory) fdZsk jh Bjh_.
;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK d/ fJ; ftFtk; dk nkXko, n;b ftu coK; d/ noE Fk;soh i/H phH ;hH
(1767-1832) d/ ftuko jh ;B fiBQK B{z ;/ dk wzvhnK dk fB:w efj e/ g[ekfonk iKdk j?. fJ; fB:w
dh w'Nh rZb fJj j? fe g{osh nkgDh wzr g?dk eodh j? ns/ nkofEe ;z;ko ftu jo uh} nkgDh
nkgDh ;ws"b ftu nk iKdh j?. noEks i/ g{osh tXh ns/ fizBh tXh, wzr Bkb jh ns/ T[Bh jh tX
iKdh j? ns/ ;ws'b j' iKdk j?. ;oeko B{z nkofEe gqDkbh d/ ezw ftu e'Jh dyb Bjh_ d/Dk ukjhdk.
fJ; soQK ftt;Ek ftu tZX T[sgkdB dh e'Jh ;wZf;nk Bjh_ j' ;edh ns/ Bk jh nkw p/o'}rkoh dh
;wZf;nk j' ;edh j?.
fJ; ftu e'Jh FZe Bjh_, #;/* B/ fJj rZb }o{oh wzBh fe fe;/ yk; t;s{ dh g{osh, T[;dh
wzr s'_ E'VQ/ ;w/_ bJh f}nkdk j' ;edh j?, fi; dk f}zw/tko T[; B/ tkgohnK d/ rbs wB[wkBK B{z
mfjokfJnk j?. fe;/ yk; T[d:'r ftu j'fJnk tkX{ T[sgkdB nkgD/ nkg mhe j' iKdk j? noEks T[;
d/ T[d:'r dhnK t;s{nK dh g{osh nkgD/ nkg T[BQK t;sK dh wzr d/ pokpo j' iKdh j? feT[_ i'
tgkohnK B{z fJj t;s{ t/uDh n"yh bZrdh j? noEks T[BQK B{z xkNk g?_dk j? ns/ T[j nfijhnK t;sK
g?dk eoB bZrd/ jB fiBQK B{z T[j nk;kBh Bkb t/u ;ed/ jB. foekov' ns/ fwZb B/ ;/ d/ fJ; ftuko
dk ;woEB ehsk fe pk}ko ftu nkw tkX{ T[sgkdB Bjh_ j' ;edk.
1929-33 dh wjK wzdh ekoB, e/B} dk ftFtk; g[oksB noE Fk;sohnK d/ ftFtk; Bkb'_
fpbe[b tZyok j' frnk ns/ fJ; soQK T[; d/ o'}rko ns/ nkwdBh f;XKs dk (i' T[; B/ nkgDh gqf;ZX
g[;se General Theory of Employment and Money ftu ;zB 1936 ftu g/F ehsk( iBw j'fJnk.
T[; t/b/ ;ko/ d/FK ftu tZv/ g?wkB/ T[s/ p/o'}rkoh ns/ p/ekoh nkw ;h. b'eK dh nkwdBh Bhth_ gZXo
s/ fvZr u[Zeh ;h s/ T[BQK B{z tZvh w[Feb dk ;kjwDk eoBk g? fojk ;h. g[okDk s[fonk nk fojk noE
Fk;so, T[BQK B{z fJ; rzGho ;fEsh dh ftnkfynk eoB d/ n;woE ikfgnk ns/ T[BQK B/ ;'funk fe
i/ g[okD/ noE Fk;so T[s/ jh BhshnK pDkJhnK jB ngDkJhnK rJhnK sK jkbs j'o th ftrV
ikt/rh. T[j (e/B}) ;oekoh Bk dyb d/D dh Bhsh ekoB g{zihtkdh B{z T[iVdk Bjh_ ;h t/yDk ukj[zdk
;r'_ T[; B{z ;[XkoBk ukj[zdk ;h. n;b ftu e/B} Bk sK g{zihtkdh B{z ysw eoBk ukj[zdk ;h ns/ Bk
jh fJ; dhnK p[fBnkdh ftF/FskJhnK fit/_ fe ;[szso wzvh ns/ ehws gqDkbh B{z SZvDk ukj[zdk ;h. T[j
sK f;oc fJ; B{z pdbDk ukj[zdk ;h sK fe g{zihtkd pdb/ j'J/ jkbsK nB[;ko ezw ;kodk oj/. e/B}
B{z p/o'}rkoh ekoB p/eko gJ/ nkofEe d/ jZb tZb nkgDk fXnkB e/_dfos ehsk ns/ ek\h jZd sZe
;\bsk gqkgs ehsh. n;b ftu e/B} ukj[zdk ;h fe pdb/ j'J/ jkbsK nB[;ko g{zihtkd B{z ;[Xkfonk
ikt/ ns/ f}nkdk rshFhb sZsK B{z dZ; ;e/ fijV/ fe;/ yk; ;w/_ s/ o'}rko d/ gZXo B{z fBoXkfos eod/
;B.
;/ d/ fB:w ftu ftFtk; oZyd/ j'J/ ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK dk ftuko ;h fe noE ftt;Ek
ftu brGr jw/FK g{oB o'}rko ofjzdk j? fJ; ekoB nkwdB ns/ o'}rko dk gZXo ;fEo jh ofjzdk
j?. T[BQK dh fJe' fJe ;wZf;nk fJj ;h fe w"i{dk ;kXBK dh rbs gkf;nK tZb tzv B{z o'e e/, T[BQK
dk fet/_ tXhnK gq:'r ehsk ik ;e/. n;b ftu ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK B/ o'}rko dk e'Jh
f;bf;b/tko (Systematical) f;XKs fdZsk jh Bjh_.
fJj e/B} jh ;h fi; B/ fJj f;XKs fdZsk, fijVk fJj dZ; e/ fe noE ftt;Ek ftu fe;/
;w/_ s/ o'}rko dk gZXo fejV/ sZsK T[Zs/ fBoGo eodk j?. e/B} B/ nkgD/ fJ; f;XKs B{z nkw f;XKs
(General Theory) dk BK fdZsk j? ns/ fJ; ftu o'}rko d/ jo gZXo Gkt/_ T[j g{oB o'}rko, ng{oB
o'}rko dk g{oB o'}rko T[gobk gZXo feT[_ Bk j't/, dh ftnkfynk ehsh rJh j?. d{i/ gk;/ ;BksBh
f;XKs B{z fJ; nkw f;XKs dh ;g?Fb jkbs d/ s"o s/ dZf;nk frnk j? feT[_fe fJj f;o\ g{oB o'}rko
dh ;fEsh dh jh ftnkfynk eodk j?.
;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK d/ fpbe[b T[bN, e/B} dk fynkb ;h fe g{zihtkd ftu fiE/ ;oekoh
Bk dyb d/D dh Bhsh gkJh iKdh j?, ng{oB o'}rko fJe ;kXkoD nt;Ek j? ns/ g{oB o'}rko dh
nt;Ek edh edkJh tkgoB tkbh ;fEsh j?. e/B} d/ f;XKs B{z fJ; eoe/ th nkw f;XKs fejk iKdk
j? fe fJj ;chsh dh jkbs dh th T[Bh jh e[Fbsk Bkb ftnkfynk eodk j?, fizBh fe p/ekoh dh
jkbs dh, feT[_fe fJj d't/_ gqGkth wzr ftu tkXk iK ewh ekoB g?dk j[zdhnK jB. e/B} dk f;XKs
fJ; eoe/ th nkw f;XKs (General Theory) fejk iKdk j?, feT[_fe fJj o'}rko ns/ T[sgkdB ftu
spdhbh B{z ;w[Zuh noE ftt;Ek ftu j'Jh spdhbh Bk ;pzXs eodk j?. fijV/ b'e fJj ;wMd/ jB
fe fJj f;XKs fes/ th, jo irQk ;ko/ jkbsK EZb/, iK jo fe;w dh noE ftt;Ek s/ bkr{ Bjh_z j[zdk,
iK ftnkge ;ukJhnK Bjh_ dZ; ;edk, T[BQK tk;s/ fJj okj mhe j? fe T[j nkw f;XKs T[s/ jh nkgDk
;wK BFN Bk eoB, feT[_fe n;h_ ikDd/ jK fe f;XKs nkw j? feT[_fe fJj o'}rko d/ ;ko/ gZXoK ns/
T[BQK ;ko/ sZsK dh ftnkfynk eodk j? fijV/ fJ; B{z fBoXkfos eod/ jB.
;zy/g T[Z soK tkb/ gqFB L
(i) e/B} d/ o'}rko f;XKs B{z nkw f;XKs feT[_ fejk iKdk j? <
(ii) eh e/B} g{zihtkd B{z ysw eoBk ukj[zdk ;h <
1H4 nkw f;XKs dh wjZssk L-
w?eo' noE Fk;so iK nkwdBh f;XKs dk pVk Gkoh f;XKse ns/ fttjkoe wjZst j?. n;b
ftu w?eo' noE Fk;so fpBK, noE Fk;so dk ftfrnkB, Bk f;oc nX{ok ofj iKdk j?, ;r'_ eJh
nkofEe ;wZf;nktK d/ ftFb/FD ftu w?eo' fdqFNh Bk nkgDk e/, e/tb wkJheo' nkXko s/, n;h_ rbs
f;XKs pDk b?_d/ jK, i' jkBhekoe ;kps j' ;ed/ jB.
p/o'}rkoh dh ;wZf;nk fe;/ th d/F dh ;G s'_ tZvh nkofEe ;wZf;nk j[zdh j?. p/ekoh B{z jNk
e/ o'}rko dh jkbs T[BQK fuo sZe Bjh_ fbnKdh ik ;edh fizBK fuo sZe ;kB[z fJj frnkB Bjh_ j[zdk
fe o'}rko feBQK sZsK T[s/ fBoGo eodk j? ns/ f;o\ sK jh T[fus Bhsh ngDkJh ik ;edh j?.
nkwdBh iK w?eo' f;XKs d[nkok jh fJj gsk brdk j? fe noE ftt;Ek ftu nkofEe
T[sokn-uVQkn (Economic fluctuations) feT[_ nkT[_d/ jB ns/ T[BQK dh shposk (severity) B{z fet/_
xZN ehsk ikt/.
fJj w?eo' noE Fk;so jh j? fi; d[nkok ;chash ns/ ;[zr/V (deflation) fijhnK w[dfoe
;wZf;nktK d/ f;XKse o{g B{z mhe sohe/ Bkb ;wfMnk ik ;edk j?. fJBQK d'jK d/ jkBhekoe gqGktK
s'_ puD bJh fejVh Bhsh T[fus j?, fJj th w?eo' noE Fk;so dk jh ftFk j?.
nkofEe ftek; f;XKs (Theory of Economic Growth) th w?eo' noE ftt;Ek dk ftFk j?.
fejVk d/F j? i' nkgDk tX/o/ ftek; Bjh_ ukj[zdk < fJj rZb xZN T[Bs ns/ Bk-T[Bs
(underdeveloped and un-developed) d/FK d/ ;pzX ftu j'o th }o{oh j?.
T[fuZs w[dok Bhsh iK T[fuZs okie'Fh Bhsh, fe;/ d/F d/ ;pzX ftu fejVh j't/rh, fJj th
w?eo' noE Fk;so d/ nkXko s/ jh fBFfus ehsk ik ;edk j?.
rZb eh, e/B} d/ nkw f;XKs B{z noE Fk;so d/ ;ko/ y/soK T[s/ fJe eqKshekoh gqGkt gkfJnk
j?. wzdh ns/ bVkJh Bkb ;zpzXs w[Zy nkofEe phwkohnK d/ rZb bZGD bJh e/B} d/ ftuko pj[s
;jkfJe pkps j'J/ jB. Gkt/_ T[; d/ fdZs/ fttjkoe jZb ;w/_ s/ ;EkB nB[;ko pdbd/ oj/ jB. fJj
nkw f;XKs jh ;h fi; ekoB e/B} B{z T[; gqf;ZXh Bkb fI}nkdk ;BwkB fwfbnk fijVk fe foekov'
B{z 100 s'_ tX/o/ ;kbK d/ no;/ ftu gqkgs j'Jh, iK wkoFb B{z nyhob/ 50 ;kbK ftu fwbh. 1936 s'_
;z;ko d/ noE Fk;sohnK dh Gkoh ;zfynk B/ e/B} d/ nkw f;XKs B{z gfVQnk ns/ #jkoK* B/ fJ; d/
dZ;/ wkor B{z pV/ fXnkB ns/ FoXK Bkb ngBkfJnk. pj[s xZN nfijhnK fbysK jB fijVhnK e/B}
d/ nkw f;XKs d/ n;o s'_ ykbh jB. ;?w[nb;B (Samuelson) nB[;ko, **nkw f;XKs B{z Gkt/_ tXhnK
sohe/ Bkb fbfynk ns/ noE Fk;sohnK, fit/_ n?vw ;fwZE tkbo; ns/ e{oBK (Cournot) d/ ezwK d/
pokpo wzfBnk ikDk ukjhdk j?.** gq'H j?}fbN sK fJE'_ sZe efjzdk j? fe fJ; g[;se d/ B[e; th fJ;
dh tfvnkJh ftu tkXk eod/ j'J/ fdZ;d/ jB .
;zy / g T[ Zs oK tkb/ gq F B
(i) e/B} dk nkw f;XKs fet/_ fJe eqKshekoh f;XKs j? <
(ii) w?eo' noE Fk;so d/ w[Zy ftF/ fejV/-fejV/ jB <
1H5 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so eh j? <
noE Fk;so dk ftFk t;s{ d' GkrK ftu tzfvnk j'fJnk j? - fJe j? wkJheo' ns/ d{ik j?
w?eo' noE Fk;so. fJj d't/_ BK gfjbK okrBo cfoF (Ragner Frisch) B/ pDkJ/ ns/ tos/ ns/ j[D
;ko/ ;z;ko d/ noE Fk;soh fJBQK dk gq:'r eod/ jB.
wkJheo' noE Fk;so L wkJheo' noE Fk;so ftu S'N/ S'N/ GkrK iK nzFK dk ftFb/FD ehsk
iKdk j?, Bk fe noE ftt;Ek dk ;w[Zu/ s"o s/. fJ; ftu ftneshrs T[gG'rh, ftneshrs cow,
ftneshrs T[d:'r ns/ T[BQK dk ;ws'b dh nt;Ek nkfd dh gVQkJh ehsh iKdh j?.
wkJheo' noE Fk;so d/ ;pzX ftu fJe ft;/aF toDB:'r rZb fJj j? fe fJ; ftu nfXZeso
fJj wzB e/ ftFb/FD ehsk iKdk j? fe ;w[Zuh noE ftt;Ek ftu g{oB o'}rko j?.
;wFNh noE-Fk;so L nzro/}h GkFk dk Fpd Macro rohe GkFk d/ Mackros Fpd s'_
fbnk frnk j?, fi; dk noE j? tZvk Large, fJ; bJh ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu nkofEe ;wZf;nktK
dk ;koh noE-ftt;Ek d/ fdqFNhe'D Bkb nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?l fit/_ e[b T[gG'r, e[b o[}rko,
okFNoh nkwdB ehws gZXo nkfd.
gfoGkFk L gq'H F/fgo' nB[;ko, ##;wFNh noE-FkFso ;koh noE-ftt;Ek d/ ekoi eoB Bkb
;pzfXs j?.
Macro economics deals with the functioning of the economy as a whole–Shapiro
w?eo' noE Fk;so L w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu ;wZ;s noE ftt;Ek B{z b? e/ ;wZ;s noE
ftt;Ek d/ w[Zy e[Zb i'VK, iK T[BQK dhnK w[Zy n";sK dk toDB ehsk iKdk j?. T[dkjoD ti'_ d/F dh
;wZ;s okFNoh nkwdB, ;wZ;s okFNoh T[sgkdB, ;wZ;s okFNoh T[g:'r, pZus iK fBt/F, e[Zb g{osh
ns/ ehwsK dh ;wkB gZXo (General price level) dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?. w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu
n;h_ fJj nfXn?B eod/ jK fe ;w[Zuh noE ftt;Ek d/ e[Zb i'V ns/ T[; dhnK w[Zy n";sK fet/_
fBoXkfos j[zdhnK jB ns/ fejV/ ekoBK eoe/ tXdhnK xNdhnK ofjzdhnK jB. fJ; soQK w?eo' noE
Fk;so ;w{jK dk nfXn?B eodk j?. fJ; eoe/ fJ; B[z eJh tkoh ;w{fje noE Fk;so (Aggregative
Economics) th fejk iKdk j? feT[_fe fJj ;w/_ ns/ ;EkB nB[;ko ;w{jK d/ toskU dk nfXn?B
eodk j?. e/H p'bfvzr (K. Boulding) nB[;ko, ## nkofEe ;w{j Gkt ftneshrs wksok Bkb ;pzX
Bjh_ oZydk pbfe fJBQK wksoktK d/ ;w{j Bkb ;pzXs j?, fBZih nkwdB Bjh_ pbfe okFNoh nkwdB
Bkb ;pzXs j?. vkH i/H n?b j?B;B (J. L. Hanson) d/ FpdK ftu, ##nkofEe ;w{j-Gkt, noE Fk;so
dh T[j Fkyk j?, fijVh o'}rko dh wksok,pZus s/ fBt/F dh e[Zb wksok ns/ okFNoh nkwdB nkfd
fij/ tZv/-tZv/ ;w{jK ftu ;pzX dk nfXn?B eodh j?.**
fbg;h (Lipsy) nB[;ko, nkofEe ;w{j-Gkt dh p[fBnkdh ;wZf;nk nkwdBh d/ tjkT[ dk
fBoXkoB j? ns/ w"fbe f;XKse YKuk ns/ nkwdB d/ uZeoh tjkT[ dk Bw{Bk (Model) j?. ;zy/g ftu
w?eo' noE Fk;so, nkofEe f}zdrh d/ n;bh s/ tZv/ ;tkbK dk itkp d/D dh e'fF; eodk j?, fit/_
fe g{oB o'}rko iK p/ekoh, ;woZEk s'_ EZb/ d/ gZXo dk T[sgkdB, s;ZbhpyF T[ZBsh dh do, ;chsh
iK ehwsK dh ;fEosk nkfd. w?eo' noE Fk;so fJBQK ;tkbK d/ nkXkfos j? fe L
(T) fe;/ d/F d/ e[Zb T[sgkdB dh wksok, fe;/ yk; ;w/_ ftu fwEh iKdh j? <
(n) T[j do fet/_ fwZEh iKdh j? fi; T[Zs/ T[sgkdB ftu tkXk j[zdk j? <
(J) ehwsK dk gZXo fet/_ fBoXkfos j[zdk j? <
(;) ehwsK ftu spdhbh dh do ns/ T[; dh fdFk fet/_ fBoXkfos j[zdh j? <
(J) fe;/ d/F dhnK n:ksK ns/ fBo:ksK dk gZXo fet/_ fBoXkfos j[zdk j? <
fJBQK ;tkbK d/ i[nkp bJh, ;kB{z nfij/ ;w{jK, fit/_ fe T[sgkdB, o'}rko, e[Zb T[gG'r, fBt/F
w[dok dh g{osh, ehwsK dk nkw gZZXo, fBo:ksK ns/ nk:ksK nkfd ;w{jK dh iKu eoB dh b'V j?
i' fe o'}rko f;XKs, ehws gZXo f;XKs ns/ nkofEe ftek; f;XKs nkfd dk th ftFk jB. fJ; s'_
fJbktk w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu fJBQK i'VK d/ gZXo B{z fBoXkfos eoB ftu ;oeko dk eh o'b j? ns/
;oeko nkgDh Bhsh ;pzXh n'}ko fet/_ tosdh j? sK fe fJBQK dh g{osh ehsh ik ;e/, d/ nfXn?B
dh b'V j?.
y/so (Scope) : ;wFNh noE-Fk;so dk y/so okFNoh gZXo s/ nkofEe ;kXBK dk T[g:'r
j?. fJ; d/ y/so B{z j/mK fby/ fjZf;nK ftu tzfvnk ik ;edk j? L
1H okFNoh nkwdB dk f;XKs (Theory fo National Income) : ftneshrs noE-Fk;so
ftu okFNoh nkwdB dh XkoBk, T[; d/ tZy tZy sZsK, wkg dhnK ftXhnK ns/ ;wkfie b/y/ (Social
Accounting) dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?.
2H o[}rko dk f;XKs (Theory of Employment) : ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu o[}rko ns/
p/o[}rkoh dhnK ;wZf;nktK dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?. fJ; ftu o[}rko fBoXkoD d/ tZy-tZy sZsK
fit/_ gqGktg{oB wzr, e[Zb g{osh, e[b T[gG'r, e[b fBt/F, e[Zb pZus, r[De nkfd dk nfXn?B ehsk
iKdk j?.
3H w[dok dk f;XKs (Theory of Money) : o[}rko d/ gZXo s/ w[dok dh wzr s/ g{osh ftu
j'D tkb/ gfotosBK dk tX/o/ gqGkt g?_dk j?. fJ; soQK ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu w[dok d/ ezwK ns/
T[; Bkb ;pzfXs f;XKsK dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?. p?_eK ns/ d{ihnK ftZsh ;z;EktK dk th nfXn?B
ehsk iKdk j?.
4H ;XkoB ehws gZXo dk f;XKs (Theory of General Price Level) : ;wFNh noE-Fk;so
ftu ;kXkoB ehws gZXo d/ fBoXkoD ns/ T[; ftu j'D tkb/ gfotosBK dk nfXn/B ehsk iKdk j?.
;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu w[dok ;chsh Gkt ehwsK ftu j'D tkb/ ;XkoB tkX/ ns/ w[dok ;\hsh Gkt
ehwsK ftu j'D tkbh ;XkoB ewh Bkb ;pzfXs ;wZf;nktK dk th nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?.
5H nkofEe ftek; dk f;XKs (Theory of Economics Growth) : ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu
nkofEe ftek; Gkt gqsh wB[Zy n;b nkwdB ftu j'D tkb/ tkX/ Bkb ;zpzfXs ;wZf;nktK dk nfXn?B
ehsk iKdk j?. xZN ftef;s noEftt;EktK d/ nkofEe ftek; dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?. ;oeko dh
okie'Fh ns/ w[dok ;zpzXh BhshnK dk nfXn?B th ehsk iKdk j?.
6H nzsookFNoh tgko dk f;XKs (Theory of International Trade) : ;wFNh noE-Fk;so
ftu tZy tZy d/FK ftu j'D tkb/ tgko dk nfXn/B th ehsk iKdk j?. nzso oka;Noh tgko d/ f;XKs
N?foc, ;[oZfynk nkfd ;wZf;nktK d/ nfXn?B dh ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu tX/o/ wjZssk j?.
7H tzv d/ f;XKs (Macro Theory of distribution) : tzv d/ e[M ;w{fje nkofEe f;XKs
jB. fJj f;XKs ftnkfynk eoB dh e'fFF eod/ jB fe okFNoh nkwdB B{z ftfGzB ;kXBK ftu fet/_
tzfvnk iKdk j?.
1H5H1 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu fGzBsk
ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu nzso (Difference between Micro and
Macro Economics) :
ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu w[Zy nzso j/m fby/ jB L
(1) ;wFNhsk d/ gZXo ftu nzso (Difference in the Degree of Aggregation) : ftneshrs
ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so d/ nkofEe sZsK dh ;wFNhsk d/ gZXo ftu nzso gkfJnk iKdk j?.
ftneshrs noE-Fk;so ftu fJeZbh nkofEe fJekJh fit/_ fe fJe cow iK nkofEe fJekfJnK d/
fJe S'N/ ;w{j fit/_ fJe T[d:'r Bkb ;pzfXs nkofEe ;wZf;nktK dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?.
ftneshrs noEFk;so nkofEe sZsK d/ S'N/ S'N/ fjZf;nK dk nfXn?B j?. id'_ fe ;wFNh noE-
Fk;so nkofEe sZsK d/ wjZstg{oB ;w{jK dk nfXn?B j?.
(2) T[d/FK ftu fGzBsk (Difference in Objectives) : ftneshrs noE-Fk;so dk T[d/F
;kXBK dh T[fus tzv Bkb ;pzfXs f;XKsK, ;wZf;nktK ns/ BhshnK dk nfXn?B eoBk j?. fJ;d/ T[bN
;wFNh noE-Fk;so dk T[d/F ;kXBK dk g{oB o[}rko ns/ ;kXBK d/ fteko eoB Bkb ;pzfXs
;wZf;nktK, f;XKsK ns/ BhshnK dk nfXn?B j?.
(3) ehws ns/ nkwdB B{ z tZ y -tZy wjZ s sk (Difference Importance to Price and
Income) : gq'H ihH fEwZr nB[;ko ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu wZy nzso fJj j? fe
ftneshrs noEFk;so dhnK ;wZf;nktK dk w[Zy fBoXkoe nkwdB j?. id'_ fe ;wFNh noE-Fk;so
dhnK w[Zy ;wZf;nktK dk w[Zy fBoXkoe nkwdB j?. ftneshrs noE-Fk;so ftu T[gG'rh, T[sgkdB,
T[sgkdB d/ ;kXB nkfd nkofEe fJekfJnK nkgD/ c?;b/ w[Zy s"o s/ ehwsK d/ nkXko s/ b?_dhnK jB.
fJ;d/ T[bN ;wFNh noEFk;so ftu e[b T[gG'r, e[b fBt/F, pZus nkfd Bkb ;pzfXs c?;b/ w[Zy s"o
s/ nkwdB d/ nkXko s/ bJ/ iKd/ jB.
(4) nfXn?B dhnK ftXhnK ftu nzso (Difference in the Methods of Study) : ftneshrs
noEFk;so d/ f;XKsK B{z pDkT[_d/ ;w/_ n;h_ fJj wzB b?_d/ jK fe **d{ihnK rZbK ;wkB ofjDrhnK**
(Other things being equal) . fJ; dk wsbp fJj j'fJnk fe n;h_ fe;/ feqnk Bkb ;pzfXs f;o\
wjZstg{oB sZsK ;pzXh nfXn?B eod/ jK. wzr d/ nkwdB, o[uh, nkds, d{ih t;s{nK dhnK ehws nkfd
d/ g?D tkb/ n;o B{z n;h_ ;fEo wzB b?_d/ jK. fJ; d/ T[bN ;wFNh noEFk;so ftu nkofEe sZsK
tZv/ tZv/ wjZstg{oB ;w{jK ftu tzv fdZsk iKdk j?. fit/_ e[Zb, wzr, e[b g{osh, e[b T[gG'r, e[b
fBt/F. fJBQK sZsK dh nkg;h fBoGosk dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?.
(5) fto'XkGk; (Paradoxes) : ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh feqnktK ftu eJh tko fto'XkGk; gkfJnk
iKdk j?. fJ; dk Gkt fJj j? fe Gkt/_ wB[ZyK d/ w/b Bk ;wki dh ouBk j[zdh j?, go eJh ezw i'
fJe wB[Zy bJh bkGdkfJe f;ZX j[zd/ jB T[j ;ko/ ;wki bJh jkBhekoe j' ;ed/ jB. fJ; soQK d/
ezwK B{z fto'XkGk; fejk iKdk j?. fit/_ i/eo fJe wB[Zy nkgDh nkwdB dk f}nkdk fjZ;k iwQK eodk
j?. i' T[; d/ bJh tX/o/ bkGdkfJe j't/rk go i/eo ;kok ;wki pus eodk j? sK T[gG'r xZN j't/rk,
wzr xZN j't/rh ns/ g{osh xZN j' ikt/rh. fJ; bJh ;wki bJh tX/o/ pZus eoBk jkBhekoe j't/rk.
(6) tZy-tZy wkBsktK (Different Assumption) : ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh noEFk;so dhnK
wkBsktK tZy-tZy j[zdhnK jB. ftneshrs noEFk;sop ftu wzB fbnk iKdk j? fe d/F ftu g{oB
o[}rko j?, e[Zb T[sgkdB ns/ e[Zb you fBFfus j?. ;kXBK dh T[fus tzv fet/_ j't/ ns/ tZy tZy
nkofEe fJekJhnK ;zs[bB dh jkbs fet/_ gqkgs eodhnK jB. fJ;d/ T[bN ;wFNh noEFk;so dh fJj
wkBsk j? fe d/F ftu ;kXBK dh T[fus tzv j' ojh j?. fJ; wkBsk d/ nkXko s/ fJj ikDB dh e'fFF
ehsh iKdh j? fe ;kXBK B{z g{oB o'}rko fet/_ gqkgs j't/.
(7) ftFb/FDkswe nzso (Analytical Difference) : gq'H g"fNeB, g'qH eb'to nkfd nB[;ko
ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu w[Zy nzso fJj j? fe ftneshrs noEFk;so dk ;pzX
;zs[bB (Equilibrium) dh jkbs ftu nkofEe sZsK d/ ftjko d/ nfXn?B Bkb j?.
(8) gfotosB Bkb ;pzfXs nzso (Difference relating to Change) : ftneshrs ns/
;wFNh noEFk;so ftu nzso fJ; rZb s'_ th ;gZFN j' iKdk j? fe eJh nkofEe feqnktK ftneshrs
fdqFNhe'D s'_ pdb ojhnK jB. go ;wFNh fdqFNhe'D s'_ fJj ;fEo ofjzdhnK jB. T[dkjoD ti'_ eJh
gfotkoK d/ w?_poK dh frDsh tZX ;edh j? go eJh gfotkoK ftu T[Bh jh xN j' ;edh j?. fJ; bJh
;ko/ gfotkoK dh n";s eZYD s/ e[Zb tZ;'_ ftu e'Jh gfotosB Bk j'D dh ;zGktBk j' ;edh j?.
1H5H2 wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so dk J/eheoB (Integration) :
ftnFNh ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu ;pzX (Relation between Micro and Macro
Economics)
noEFk;so d/ nfXn?B bJh ftneshrs ns/ ;wFNh d't/_ jh nkofEe ftFb/FDK dh tX/oh
wjZssk j?. fJj d't/_ fJe d{i/ d/ fto'Xh Bjh_ ;r'_ g{oe jB. fJe d/ nfXn?B bJh d{i/ dk nfXn?B
}o{oh j?. ;?w{nb;B B/ mhe fejk j? fe, ##n;b ftu ftnFNh ns/ ;wFNh noE-Fk;so ftu e'Jh
fto'Xsk Bjh_ j?. d't/_ pj[s f}nkdk }o{oh jB. i/eo s[;h_ fJe B{z ;wMd/ j' ns/ d[i/ B{z Bjh_ ;wMd/
j' sK s[;h_ nZr/ gVQ/ fby/ j'.** (There is really no opposition between micro and macro
economics. Both are absolutely vital. And you are only half educated if you understand
one while being ignorant of the other. - Samuelson)
fJjBK d/ ;pzX ns/ nzso dk nfXn?B eoB s'_ gfjbK ftnFNh noEFk;so dk noE ;wMDk
}o{oh j?. nzro/}h GkFk dk Fpd Micro rqhe d/ wkJheq'} (Mikros) s'_ fbnk frnk j?. fi; dk
wsbp j? S'Nk (Small) go fJ; dk wsbp fJj Bjh_ j? fe ftnFNh noE-Fk;so S'Nk j? s[S j?.
1H ftnFNh noEFk;so dk nfXn? B bJh ;w{ f je noEFk;so dk nfXn? B }o{ o h j?
(Micro Economics Analysis depends on Macro Economics Analysis) : ftnFNh nkofEe
ftFb/FD d/ f;XKs d{ihnK rZbK ;wkB ofjD (Other Things being Equal) dh wkBsk s/ nkXkfos
j?. fJj wkBsk ftnFNh noEFk;so d/ ;w{fje noE-Fk;so d/ gqGkt B{z gqrN eodh j?. (Other
Things being Equal) dh wkBsk s/ nkXkfos j?. fJj wkBsk ftnFNh noE-Fk;so d/ ;w{fje noE-
Fk;so d/ gqGkt B{z gqrN eodh j?. T[dkjoD ti'_ fe;/ fJe t;s{ dh ehws fezBh fBoXkos j't/rh.
fJj f;oc T[; t;s{ dh wzr ns/ g{osh s/ fBoGo Bjh_ eodh, ;r'_ d{ihnK t;s{nK dh wzr ns/ g{osh
s/ th fBoGo eodh j?. fJ; s'_ ;gZFN j' iKdk j? fe fe;/ ft;/aF ;wZf;nk dk nfXn?B eoB bJh
;gZFNh nkofEe ftFb/FD dh b'V g?_dh j?.
2H ;w{ f je noEFk;so d/ nfXn? B bJh ftnFNh noEFk;so dk nfXn? B }o{ o h j?
(Study of Micro Economics analysis is necessary for macro Economic Analysis) : ;w{fje
noEFk;so d/ nfXn?B bJh ftnFNh noEFk;so dk nfXn?B pj[s }o{oh j?. n;b ftu ;wki wB[ZyK
dk ;w{j j?. fi; soQK wB[ZyK Bkb fwb e/ ;wki pDdk j?. T[; soQK pj[s ;kohnK cowK d/ nkwdB
dk fe;/ T[gG'rh ns/ fBt/F s/ n;o g?_dk j?. ftnFNh T[gG'rh ns/ fBt/F ;pzXh c?;b/ okFNoh
;zy/g T[ZsoK tkb/ gqFB -
(i) wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE Fk;so ftu eh nzso j? <
(ii) wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' noE-Fk;so fJe d{i/ s'_ fpBK nX{o/ jB. dZ;' fet/_ <
1H6 w?eo' noE Fk;so dh wjZssk
nZi eZbQ nkofEe ;w{j-Gkt fijVk nkofEe ftneshGkt dk S'Nk GkJh j?, tX/o/ jowB fgnkok
j' fojk j?. fJ; B/ ;w{fje ftukoXkok dk c?FB jh ubk fdZsk j? ns/ fJj ;w{fje ftukoXkok,
nkofEe f;XKs ns/ b'e Bhsh dk fJe }o{oh T[goeD pD frnk j?. noEks w?eo' noE Fk;so dh
wjZssk fJ; d/ j/m fdZs/ f;XKse ns/ fttjkoe wjZssk tkb/ gZyK s'_ ;k\ B}o nkT[_dh j?.
(i) okFNoh nkofEe T[ d / F K dh gq k gsh
(Achievement of National Economic Objectives)
w?eo' noE Fk;so dh gVQkJh e[M w[Zy okFNoh T[d/FK B{z gqkgs eoB bJh pDB tkbhnK
;oekoh nkofEe BhshnK d/ fBowkD ftu ;jkfJsk eodh j?. ;oeko dk ;pzX fe;/ yk; ftnesh iK
fe;/ yk; ;w{j Bkb Bk j' e/ ;w[Zu/ oki Bkb j[zdk j?. fJ; bJh ;oeko bJh nkgDhnK BhshnK
pDkT[Dk }o{oh j' frnk j? sK i' fJBQK j/mb/ T[d/FK B{z gqkgs ehsk ik ;e/.
(T) g{oB o'}rko dh gqkgsh L p/o'}rko b'eK bJh ;oeko o'}rko d/ w"e/ bZGD bJh,
T[uh gZXo s/ :sB eodh j?. wkJheo' noE Fk;so tKr w?eo' noE Fk;so, g{oB o'}rko dh jkbs
wzB e/ Bjh_ ubdk. fit/_ fe e/B} B/ fejk j? fe g{oB o'}rko dh dFk B{z wzBDk f;o\ nkgDhnK
nZyK B{z Bk wzBD d/ pokpo j?.
( n ) ;fEosk dh gqkgsh L feT[_fe ehwsK ftu wzdh ns/ s/}h ;wki d/ tZy tZy torK
s/ tZy-tZy gqGkt gkT[_dh j? ns/ pj[s ;kohnK okFNoh ;wZf;nktK iBwdhnK jB, fJ; ekoB ;oeko
fJe ;fEo ftt;Ek dh ;EkgBk eoBk ukj[zdh j?. w?eo' noE Fk;so dk nfXn?B ;kB{z fJj bZGD ftu
wdd eodk j? fe wzdh s/ s/}h d/ eh ekoB jB s/ T[BQK B{z d{o fet/_ ehsk ik ;edk j?.
(J ) nkofEe ftek; dh gqkgsh L nkofEe ftek; dh gqkgsh th noE Fk;so dk jh
ftFk j?. fejVk d/F j? i' fJj Bjh_ ukj[zdk fe fJ; dk j'o tX/o/ ftek; j't/. fJj rZb xZN T[ZBs
s/ Bk-T[ZBs d/FK d/ ftF/ ftu j'o th }o{oh j?. wkJheo' noE-Fk;so nXhB okFNoh nkwdB B{z ;fEo
wzfBnk iKdk j? s/ w[Zy ;wZf;nk okFNoh T[sgkdB B{z T[sgkdB d/ ;kXBK ftu tzvD dh j[zdh j?. d{i/
gk;/ w?eo' noE Fk;so d/ nfXn?B Bkb , Bk f;oc noE ftt;Ek ftu XB d/ gZy'_ tZvhnK n;wkBsktK
dk gsk bZfrnk j? ;r'_ tZy tZy d/FK d/ b'eK d/ ihtB gZXo ftu Gkoh coe dk th gsk bZrk j?.
fJ; Bkb T[BQK B{z fJj fJFkok j'fJnk j? fe e[M edw u[ZeD/ }o{oh jB sK fe Bht/_ ihtB gZXo tkb/
T[BQK b'eK dh nkofEe GbkJh ftu tkXk ehsk ik ;e/.
(ii) wkJheo' noE Fk;so d/ nfXn? B ftu ;jkfJsk
n;b ftu t/fynk ikJ/ sK w?eo' noE Fk;so dk nkuoD (behaviour) iK d[otos'_
(misbehaviour) wkJheo' noE Fk;so d/ nkuoD iK d[otos'_ B{z ;wMD ftu ;jkfJsk }o{o eodk
j?. fJ; s'_ fJbktk wkJheo' noE Fk;so dk e'Jh fB:w ;w{jK d/ nfXn?B s'_ fpBK Bjh_ pDkfJnk
ik ;edk. T[dkjoD ti'_, T[gG'r d/ fB:wK dk nfXn?B ftneshnK d/ ;w{j d/ nkuoD s'_ fpBK n;zGt
j?.
(iii) okFNoh nkofEe gqDkbh pko/ ftuko (Conception of a National Economic System):
fe;/ ihtB nkofEe gqDkbh dk ekoi (functioning) ;wMD bJh w?eo' noE Fk;so dk
nfXn?B pj[s }o{oh j?. w?eo' noE Fk;so dk nfXn?B ;kB{z fJj ;wMD :'r pDk fdzdk j? fe
okFNoh ftt;Ek dhnK pj[s ;kohnK ;wZf;nktK (fit/_ p/ekoh, tgko uZeo, w[dok n;chsh nkfd) dk
ekoB ;kvh noE ftt;Ek dh ekoi gqDkbh ftu yokph ekoB j' Bk fe fe;/ yk; ftnesh dh yokph
ekoB j?.
(iv) okFNoh nkwdB dk nfXn? B
fJj w?eo' noE Fk;so dk nfXn?B jh j? fi; d[nkok ;kB{z okFNoh nkwdB ns/ ;wkfie b/yk
(Social Account) nzefVnK dh Gkoh wjZssk dk gsk bZfrnk. wkJheo' noE Fk;so d/ nfXn/B ftu
fJ; soQK d/ nfXn?B B{z e'Jh wjZssk Bjh_ fdZsh rJh j?. fJj okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzeV/ jh jB fiBQK
d/ nkXko s/ tZy-tZy d/FK dh nkofEe nt;Ek dh s[bBk ehsh ik ;edh j? ns/ tZy tZy okFNoK bJh
T[fuZs nkofEe BhshnK pDkJhnK ik ;edhnK jB.
(v) noE ftt;Ek d/ nkuoD B{z ;wMDk
w?eo' noE Fk;so, fe;/ noE ftt;Ek d/ nkuoD B{z ;wMD ns/ T[; dh ftnkfynk eoB ftu
pj[s T[g:'rh j?. okFNoh nkwdB ;koh ftt;Ek d/ nkuoD B{z wkgD dk fJe T[Zsw wkge :zso j?.
tZy-tZy ;w/_ s/ okFNoh nkwdB d/ gqkgs j'J/ nzeV/, i' fe t;sK s/ ;/tktK d/ T[sgkdB dh wksok
B{z dZ;d/ jB, noE ftt;Ek d/ nkuoD d/ ;{ue jB fe eh noE ftt;Ek dh T[ZBsh j' ojh j? iK
Bjh_. fJ;/ soQK okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK dh pDso s'_ tZy-tZy ;?eNoK d/ :'rdkB dk gsk bZrdk
j?.
(vi) gdkoEe GbkJh dh gq f eq s h
fJj w?eo' noE Fk;so jh j? fi; d[nkok fe;/ d/F dh gdkoEe GbkJh dh gqfeqsh ns/
nkeko dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j?. ;wkfie GbkJh B{z wkgD dh ;wZf;nk e'Jh ;"yh rZb Bjh_. fJZE'_
sZe fe GbkJh noE Fk;so (Welfare Economics) th f}nkdk ;jkfJe Bjh_. fJ; soQK w?eo' noE
Fk;so dh wjkBsk dk gsk ubdk j?, feT[_fe id'_ noE Fk;so dk w[Zy fBFkBk ;ko/ ;wki dh GbkJh
j[zdk j? sK ;kvk ;pzX w?eo' noE Fk;so d/ nfXn?B Bkb jh j[zdk j?.
;zy/g ftu n;h_ efj ;ed/ jK fe Gkt/_ g{oB o'}rko dk T[d/F gqkgs eoBk j't/, d/F dh
nkwdBh tZX s'_ tZX eoBh j't/, nkofEe ;fEosk dh gqkgsh eoBh j't/, fJBQK ;ko/ T[d/FK dh gqkgsh
bJh T[fuZs w[dok iK okie'Fh Bhsh fBFfus eoB dh b'V j[zdh j? ns/ fJBQK d'jK BhshnK dk nkXko
w?eo' noE Fk;so jh j?.
;zy/ g T[ZsoK tkb/ gq F B -
(i) w?eo' noE Fk;so dh wdd Bkb fejV/ okFNoh T[d/F gqkgs ehs/ ik ;ed/ jB <
(ii) fe;/ d/F dh gdkoEe GbkJh dh gqfeqsh ns/ nkeko dk nfXn?B w?eo' noE Fk;so d[nkok
ehsk ik ;edk j?. eh fJj ;jh j?, i/ j? sK fet/_ <
1H7 w?eo' noE ftt;Ek dhnK ;hwktK
Gkt/_ w?eo' noE Fk;so dh tXdh j'Jh b'efgq:sk pko/ e'Jh FZe Bjh_l fco th fJ; dhnK
;hwktK B{z th nZy'_ T[jb/ Bjh_ ehsk ik ;edk, i' j/mK fdZshnK rJhnK jB L
(1) nfs f}nkdk ;kXkoDheoB
;w{fje ftukoXkok dk ;G s'_ tZvk ysok iK ;hwK fJj j? fe nkofEe ;w{j-Gkt d/ e[M
fto'XkGk; (Macro Economic Paradoxes) th jB, fijV/ ;kvh ;wM s'_ pkjo ofj iKd/ jB. fijVh
rZb fJe ftnesh iK fJekJh bJh ;Zu j? T[j ;ko/ ftneshnK iK fJekJhnK bJh rbs j' ;edh j?.
fJe nkdwh dh tX/o/ pZus sK T[; bJh mhe j? gqzs{ ;kok ;wki i/ pZus tXk d/t/ sK fJe eJh tkoh
B[e;kBd/j th j' iKdh j?.
(2) ;w{ j K dh fGz B sk
d{ih ;hwk fJj j? fe n;h_ T[BQK ;w{jK pko/ ;'ud/ jK fiBQK dhnK fJekJhnK fJe' fijhnK Bjh_
i/ ;kok ;w{j fJe' fijhnK fJekfJnK dk i'V j't/ sK fJ; dk e[M wsbp (meaning) j? ns/ i/ fJj
tZy tZy fe;w dhnK fJekJhnK dk i'V j? sK p/noE (meaningless) j?. p'bfvzr (Boulding) dh
T[dkjoD nB;ko L
(i) 6 ;/p O 7 ;/p - 13 ;/p, fJj i'V ;koEe j?.
(ii) 6 ;/p O 7 ;zrso/ - 13 cb, fJj i'V th ekch jZd sZe ;koEe j?.
(iii) 6 ;/p O 7 EzGN?e; (Thumbtacks) - 13 S'NhnK t;sK, fJBQK t;s{nK d/ i'V dk
th e[M wsbp j?.
(iv) 6 ;/p O pj[s T[u/ wekB (Sky scrappers)
fJj i'V fpbe[b p/noE (meaningless) j?. fJ;/ soQK i/ n";sK th ;koEe pDkT[DhnK j'D
sK T[j fJe fe;w dhnK t;sK iK i'VK dhnK n";sK j'DhnK ukjhnK jB. T[dkjoD ti'_ fJe ftnesh
ns/ fJe eko d/ Gko dh n";s dk nze p/noE j?.
(3) i'V K d/ wkg ftu n"f ynkJh
tZy-tZy wksoktK (fit/_ pZus, fBt/F, T[gG'r ns/ nkwdB nkfd) dk fJe nkofEe wkg pDkT[D
bJh wkg dzv ekfJw eoBk w[Feb j?. fJ; n"y B{z w[dok o{gh wkg dzv ;"yk eo ;edk j?. gqzs{ n"y
fJj j? fe w[dok dh ehws th pdbdh ofjzdh j?. fJ; eoe/ tZy tZy fe;wK dhnK wksoktK dk i'V
iK n";s ;jh nkofEe ftFb/FD ns/ nkofEe Bhsh bJh wkor-doFB Bjh_ pD ;edk.
(4) G[ b/y k-gkT[ i'V (Misleading Aggregates)
i'VK dk nfXn?B G[b/yk gkT[D tkbk th j' ;edk j?. okFNo dh e[Zb nkwdBh ftu sK e'Jh
spdhbh Bk nkt/, go fJ; rZb s'_ fJj noE eZfYnk ik ;edk j? fe ftneshnK, gfotkoK iK cowK
dh nkwdBh ftu e[M tkXk, e[M j'o ftneshnK iK cowK dh nkwdBh ftu j'fJnk xkNk g{ok eo d/t/.
fJ;/ soQK ;fEo ehws gZXo s'_ Gkt fJjh Bjh_ fe noE ftt;Ek d/ ;ko/ y/so ;jh jB s/ T[BQK ftu
e'Jh d'F g?dk Bjh_ j'fJnk. fJ; bJh noE ftt;Ek d/ fe;/ Gkr dh ;jkfJsk bJh e[M th eoB dh
b'V Bjh_ j?, id'_ fe n;bhns fJj j? fe ehws ftu xkN/ B/ T[; y/so dh pj[s jkBh ehsh j?, go
nkw ehws gZXo (General price level) fpbe[b ;fEo ojh j?, feT[_fe fJe y/so ftu ehwsK xND
Bkb j'fJnk B[e;kB j'oBK y/soK d/ tkX/ Bkb g{ok j' frnk j?. fJ; soQK ehwsK d/ tXD iK xZND
s'_ fJj f;ZNk eZYDk th pj[s jkBhekoe j? fe ;wki d/ ;G torK s'_ fJe' fijk jh gqGkt fgnk j?.
(5) i'Vk ftu ekoikswe (functional) ;pzX
fJj }o{oh j? fe i'V, i' fe w?eo' noE Fk;so dk w[Zy nzr jB, nkg' ftu ekoikswe ;pzX
oZyd/ j'D noEks nkg' ftu soe;zrs j'D. T[dkjoD ti'_ e[b T[gG'r ns/ fBt/F you, i' fe w?eo'
noE Fk;so dk jh fjZ;k jB, dh e'Jh wjZssk Bjh_ j't/rh i' T[BQK dk nkwdB gZXo, ftnki ns/
o'}rko Bkb e'Jh ekoikswe ;zpzX Bjh_. i' fJBQK i'VK dk nkg/ ftu ;[w/b iK ekoikswe ;pzX Bk
j't/ sK w?eo' nkofEe f;XKs dk e'Jh bkG Bjh_.
(6) i'V K d/ wkg ftu n"f ynkJh
tZy-tZy i'VK dk fJe nkofEe wkg pDkT[D bJh wkgdzv ekfJw eoBk efmB j?. w[dok dk
wkg dzv, fJ; n"y B{z d{o eo ;edk j?, gzqs{ w[dok dh ehws y[d th ;fEo Bjh_ ofjzdh ns/ w[dok
d/ wkgdzv s'_ fJbktk j'o e'Jh wkg ftXh th Bjh_. okFNoh nkwdB, i' fe fGzB fGzB i'VK Bkb pDdh
j?, T[; B{z wkgD dk th fJj' jh sohek j?.
;wFNh noEFk;so dhnK wkBsktK (Assumptions of Macro Economics) :
(1) nbgekb (Short Period) : ;wFNh noEFk;so d/ f;XKs nbg ekb ftu bkr{ j[zd/ jB.
nbgekb ;w/_ dk T[j ekb j? fi; ftu Bt/_ gbkN iK BthnK wFhBK brk e/ T[sgkdB tXkT[D dk ;wK
Bjh_ j[zdk. fJ; bJh nZbgekb ftu T[sgkdB Fesh, seBhe, feoshnK dh ;zfynk, T[gG'rsktK dh
o{uhnK, nkdsK ns/ c?FB fJe' ofjzd/ jB.
(2) g{oB w[ekpbk (Perfect Competition) : ;wFNh noEFk;so g{oB w[ekpb/ dh wkBsk s/
fBoGo eodh j?. g{oB w[ekpb/ dh jkbs ftu ehwsK d/ bkr{ eoB s/ e'Jh pkjoh dyb Bjh_ j[zdk.
ehwsK, wzr ns/ g{osh ftu j'D tkb/ gfotosB Bkb tZX iK xZN j' ;edhnK jB.
(3) pzd noE ftt;Ek (Closed Economy) : ;wFNh noEFk;so dh fJj th wkBsk j? fe
g{zihtkdh ftef;s noE-ftt;Ek fJe pzd noE ftt;Ek j?. pzd noE ftt;Ek T[j noE ftt;Ek j[zdh
j? fi; ftu o[}rko ns/ nkwdB d/ gZXo s/ ftd/Fh tgko dk e'Jh n;o Bjh_ g?_dk. fJ; bJh e[Zb
wzr ns/ nk:ks ns/ fBo:ks ftu nzso dk e'Jh n;o Bjh_ gt/rk.
(4) xNdh ;hwKs T[sgkdesk (Diminishing Marginal Productivity) : ;wFNh noEFk;so
dh fJe wkBsk fJj th j? fe fit/_ feos dh tX/o/ fJekJhnK B{z o[}rko s/ brkfJnk ikt/rk T[BQK
dh ;hwKs T[sgkdesk xZN j[zdh j?. fJ; dk Gkt fJj j? fe T[sgkdesk s/ xZNd/ ;hwKs gqshcb dk
fB:w bkr{ j[zdk j?. fJ; bJh tX/o/ feoshnK B{z sK jh o[}rko fdZsk ikt/rk i/ T[BQK dh n;bh
w}d{oh xZN j't/rh.
(5) f;o\ w}d{o jh T[sgkdB dk xZNdk tZXdk ;kXB j? (Labour is the only variable
factor of production) : ;w{fje noEFk;so dh fJj wkBsk j? fe nbgekb ftu e/tb feos jh
T[sgkdB dk xNdk tXdk ;kXB j?. Gkt feoshnK dh ;zfynk ftu tkXk eoB Bkb T[sgkdB ftu tkXk
j[zdk j?.
Gkt P = f (N)
fJ; soQK T[sgkdB (P), w}d{o (N) dk cbB (f) j?.
(6) ;w/_ nzsokb dh nDrfjbh (No Time Lag) :- ;wFNh noE Fk;so dh fJj wkBsk j? fe
tZyo/ nkofEe sZsK ftu w/bi'b fpBK fe;/ ;w/_ nzsokb s'_ j[zdk j?. T[dkjoD ti'_ ;'wtko B{z ehsk
ikD tkbk T[gG'r you ;'wtko dh nkwdB s/ jh fBoGo eodk j?. Gkt toswkB nkwdB s/ fBoGo
eodk j?. fJ; soQK fJj wzfBnk iKdk j? fe nkwdB ftu fijV/ ekb ftu gfotosB j[zdk j?, T[gG'r
ns/ fBt/F ftu th T[;/ ekb ftu gfotosB nk iKdk j?.
1H8 w?eo' nkofEe ftFb/FD dh gfoGkFeh (Terminology) :
ni'e/ ;w/_ ftu, yk; eoe/ e/B} s'_ wro'_, i' nkofEe ftek; pko/ ftukoXkok dk ftek;
j'fJnk j?, ftu e[M gdK (terms) dh pj[s tos'_ ehsh rJh j?. eJh tko fJBQK gdK B{z w?eo' noE
ftfrnkB d/ gd th efj fdZsk iKdk j?, i' fe j/mK fdZs/ rJ/ jB L
uo (Variables)
uo fJe nfijh wksok j? fi; dk w[Zb fe;/ jZd sZe pdb ;edk j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu fJj
nfijh wksok j? i' brksko tXdh iK xNdh ofjzdh j?. fJ; B{z nfijh wksok th efj ;ed/ jK fi;
d/ fJe gdktbh (expression) ftu nDfrDs w[Zb j' ;ed/ jB. fJ; soQK uo s'_ Gkt fJe pdbt/_
w[ZbK tkbh nfijh wksok j? fi; B{z wkfgnk iK g?wkB/ nB[;ko dZf;nk ik ;edk j? ns/ fi; d/ pdbd/
w[ZbK ftu n;h_ e[M sK fJ; dh f;ZXh wjZssk ekoB ns/ e[M fJ; d/ d{i/ uoK T[Zs/ nf;ZX/ n;o ekoB
fdbu;gh b?_d/ jK. fJBQK uoK ftu ekch jZd sZe spdhbh j[zdh j? fi; ekoB fJe ;E?fse gqDkbh
rshFhb o{g XkoB eo b?_dh j?. fJj mhe j? fe fJBQK uoK dh frDsh ns/ fe;wK pj[s f}nkdk jB
fit/_ fe fBozso, ;[szso, nXhB, ftbZy (descrete) ns/ p/soshp uo fJfsnkfd. w?eo' noE Fk;so
ftu j/m fby/ w[Zy uoK dk nfXn?B ehsk iKdk j? L-
i/ e'Jh uo, nkofEe gqDkbh Bkb fJ; sohe/ Bkb i[fVnk j't/ fe fJj gqDkbh dk nN[ZN nzr
j't/ sk fJ; B{z nzdobk uo (Endogenous variable) nkfyn iKdk j? ns/ uo, gqDkbh s'_ pkjobk
j? ns/ gqDkbh dk nN[ZN nzr Bjh_ sK fJ; B{z pkjobk uo (Exogenous variable) nkfynk iKdk j?.
T[dkjoD ti'_, o'}rko f;XKs ftu fBt/F, pZus T[sgkdB, nkwdB ns/ o'}rko dh wksok nzdob/ uo
jB. d{i/ gk;/ iB-;zfynk dk nkeko, seBhe dk gZXo, nk:ks ns/ fBo:ks, w}d{oK dh frDsh, gqpzX
dh fe;w nkfd pkjuob/ uo jB. fJBQK ;kfonK dk Gkt/_ o'}rko ns/ nkwdB Bkb ;zpzX j?, gzqs{
gfjbh fe;w d/ uoK dk ;pzX pj[s B}dheh j? s/ fJe ftu gfotosB, d{i/ ftu gfotosB }o{o
fbnkT[_dk j?. d{ih fe;w d/ uoK dk ;pzX B}dheh Bjh_. fJj rZb th nZy'_ T[jb/ Bjh_ ehsh ik ;edh
fe fJBQK d'jK ftueko e'Jh gZeh beho fyZuDh n;zGt j?, tZy tZy ;fwnK s/ fJBQK dk gqGkt g? fojk
j?, fJ; rZb s'_ jh fJBQK d/ ;to{g pko/ fBIoDk fbnk ik ;edk j?.
Gzvko ns/ tjkT[ uo (Stock and Flow Variables)
Gkt/_ e'Jh uo nzdo{Bh j? iK p?o{Bh fJj iK sK Gzvko ftu iK tjkT[ o{gh j?. fJe Gzvko uo
dk ;w/_ Bkb e'Jh ;zpzX Bjh_, id'_ fe tjkT[ uo dk j[zdk j?. fJe jtkJh ijk} dk Gko fJe Gzvko
uo j? id'_ fe fJ; dh o\sko fJe tjkT[ uo j?. Gzvko dh wksok dk e'Jh ;wK wkg ;pzX Bjh_,
id'_ fe tjkT[ B{z f;o\ gqsh ;wK fJekJh d/ o{g ftu jh dZf;nk ik ;edk j?. Gzvko ns/ tjkT[ uoK
ftueko w[Zy coe, ;w/_ T[Zs/ nkXkfos j?, tjkT[ uo, fJe nfijh wksok j? fijVh f;o\ fe;/ fdZs/
j'J/ ;w/_, dZ;/ te\/ T[Zs/ jh wkgh ik ;edh j?. Gzvko uoK B{z ;w/_ d/ Bkb f;o\ i'fVnk ik ;edk
j?, gozs{ tjkT[ uoK dk ;w/_ Bkb ;zpzX j[zdk j?. Gkt/_ Gzvko ns/ tjkT[ d't/_ fe;w d/ uoK dk ;w/_
Bkb ;zpzX i'fVnk iKdk j?, go Gzvko uo, tjkT[ uo Bkb'_ tZyok j?, feT[_fe ;w/_ dk fJe fpzd{ ;w/_
d/ tec/ Bkb'_ tZyoh uh} j?.
ekoikswe ;pzX (Functional Relationship)
uoK ftueko ;pzX B{z cbB (function) d/ gd Bkb do;kfJnk iKdk j? fit/_ fe T[gG'r,
nkwdB dk cbB (function) j?. fJE/ T[gG'r fJe fBoGo (dependent) uo j? ns/ nkwdB fJe
;[szso uo j?. fJj rZb fe e'Jh uh} dk cbB j?, fJe nkw ;zpzX (general relationship) s'_ tZX
j'o e[M Bjh_ dZ;dh. pZus iK T[gG'r, nkwdB Bkb'_ tZX iK xZN ;ed/ jB. noEks d'jK ;fEshnK
ftu fJj nkwdB dk jh cbB j?. fJe uo dk d{i/ uo Bkb ;zpzX dZ;Dk, w?eo' nkofEe wkvbK dh
fJe wjZstg{oB ftF/FskJh j?.
d{i/ gk;/ fJe ;fEo oZfynk (constant) uo nfijh wksok j? fijVh pdbdh Bjh_. fe;/ uo
Bkb i/ ;EkJh ;zfynk i'Vh iKdh j? T[; B{z nkw s"o s/ T[; uo dk do (eoefficient) fejk iKdk
j?.fJj }o{oh Bjh_ fe do (coefficient) ;zfynktkdh (numerical) j't/. fJj ;ze/se (symbolic) th
j' ;edh j?. wzB bU fe ;ze/s 'a' fe;/ ;fEo ;zfynk dk gqfsfBX j? ns/ n;h_ fe;/ wkvb B{z tX/o/
ftnkge pDkT[D bJh fJ;dh EK 'a' gdktbh (expression) dh tos'_ eod/ jK. fJj ;ze/s pV/ yk;
sohe/ d/ toskT[ B{z dZ;dk j?. fJj fe;/ fdZsh j'Jh ;fEo ;zfynk B{z dZ;dk j? feT[_fe fJ; B{z rfDse
o{g ftu Bjh_ dZf;nk frnk, fJ; bJh fJj e'Jh th w[Zb nyfsnko eo ;edk j?. ;zy/g ftu fJj
nfijh ;fEo ;zfynk j? fi; dk w[Zb pdfbnk ik ;edk j?. fJ; B{z fJe yk; doik gqkgs j?, fi;
eoe/ fJ; B{z g?okwhNfoe ;fEo ;zfynk (parametric constant) fejk iKdk j?.
;wkB noEhnk (Tautologies)
;?w{nb;B d/ FpDK ftu ;wkB noEhnK T[j eEB j[zd/ jB fijV/ n;bhns pko/ e[M th Bjh_
dZ;d/, go T[j gfoGkFk okjh_ ;Zu j[zd/ jB.**
;N'Bhno s/ j'r d/ FpdK ftu ;wkB noEh, eEBK dh ftnkfynk eodh j? fijV/ d' sZsK ftu
g{oh ;wkBsk gqrN eod/ jB ns/ fJ; bJh gfoGkFk okjh_ jh ;Zu j[zd/ jB. n;b ftu fJj nfij/
eEB jB fiBQK B{z nKefVnK d/ nkXko s/ fBohyD eoe/ rbs ;kps Bjh_ ehsk ik ;edk. fJj
nkofEe ftukoXkok ftu nfjw o'b ndk eod/ jB. e/B} d/ nkw f;XKsK ftu ;wkB noEh eEB
nkT[_d/ jB. j?pobo (Heberler) nfij/ jh fJe ;wkB noEh r[De B{z wzBdk j?. fJ;/ soQK J/H ihH
jkoN (A. G. Hart) B/ r[De dh XkoBK B{z fJe \}{b gzitK gjhnk dZf;nk j?. rkovBo nzeb/
(Gardener Ackley) th fJ; rZb B{z mhe wzBdk j? feT[_fe r[De dk ftukoK s/ ns/ Bk jh T[gG'r
gqftosh d/ nzsofjs BshfinK s/ BtK ukBD gkT[_dk j?.
;wsktK (Identities)
;wsktK f;oc nfij/ ;zpzX B{z jh dZ;dhnK jB i' f;oc gfoGkFk o{g ftu jh ;Zu j[zd/ jB.
;wsk f;o\ fJe ;t?-f;ZX ;ukJh dk o{g j[zdh j? ns/ e[M th ;kps Bjh_ eodh. ;wheoB MV = PT
e/tb fJj dZ;dh j? fe t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dh yohd T[s/ ehsk frnk e[Zb you, T[BQK d/ w[dok w[Zy
d/ pokpo j[zdk j?. e/B} B/ fJ; ;zpzX ftu fejk, ##w[dok dk gfoDkw f;XKs fJe wzBh j'Jh rZb j?
i' fe bkr{ j[zdk j?, Gkt/_ fJ; dk e'Jh wjZst Bjh_ j?.** fJ;/ soQK fJj ;wsk fe fBt/F, pZus, e[M
th bkj/tzd Bjh_ dZ;dh.
fttjkoe ;wheoB (Behavioural Equation)
fttjkoe ;wheoB fttjkoe ;zpzX B{z dZ;dh j? noEks fe e'Jh uo, d{i/ uo ftu spdhbh
nkT[D s/ fet/_ toskT[ eodk j?, noEks fet/_ tXdk iK xNdk j?. w'N/ FpdK ftu, fttjkoe
;wheoDK B{z fe;/ wkvb dhnK nkw ;z;Ekswe i[VkT[ (setting) dh ftnkfynk eoB bJh tofsnk ik
;edk j?. fJ; s'_ fJbktk, T[j T[; s/ seBheh ns/ ekB{zBh gZyK B{z dZ;dhnK jB.
T[dkjoD ti'_
c = a + by
noEks i/ ;kB{z a, b ns/ y dh wksok gsk j't/ sK n;h_ tZy-tZy nkwdB gZXoK s/ c dh wksok
pko/ nk;kBh Bkb ikD ;ed/ jK. noEks, i/ fJBQK uoK ftu'_ fe;/ fszB dk gsk j't/ sK u"E/ pko/
nk;kBh Bkb ikfDnk ik ;edk j?.
tec/ (Lags)
toswkB ;w/_ ftu T[sgkdB ftXh nfijh j? fe T[sgkdB j'D ftu ekch ;wK brdk j?.
T[dkjoD ti'_ nkwdB ftu tkXk j'D Bkb, fJj }o{oh Bjh_ fe T[gG'r T[;/ tes tZX ikJ/rk, ;r'_ fJ;
B{z e[M ;wK bZr/rk. fJj i' ;wK nkwdB d/ tXD Bkb T[gG'r B{z tXD bJh bZrk, fJ; B{z jh w?eo'
noE Fk;so ftu teck iK ;wK teck fejk iKdk j/. fJBQK tefcnK ftu T[gG'r youk teck, w}d{oh
teck, T[sgkdB teck ns/ gqpzXe teck nkfd Fkwb jB. fJBQK tefcnK dh ezw dh ftXh B/ nkgD/
f;XKs ftu fJBQK tefcnK d/ gqGkt B{z nZy'_ T[jb/ oZfynk ns/ T[; B/ w'N/ s"o s/ w?eo' nkofEe uoK
s/ sZsekbh (instantaneous) fttjko B{z th fXnkB ftu oZfynk. fJj rZb e/B} s'_ pknd d/ noE
Fk;sohnK B/ T[gG'r, fBt/F, cbB, sobsk soihj, r[De nkfd :zsoK ftu bkr{ ehsh sK fe fJBQK
:zsoK B{z f}nkdk rshFhb pDkfJnk ik ;e/.
uZeoh gqtkj (Circular flow)
fe;/ th nkofEe feqnk, fi; d/ T[d/F tNKdo/ d[nkok d{finK dhnK b'VK B{z g{ok eoBk j't/,
B{z T[sgkdB nkfynk iKdk j?. T[sgkdB dh feqnk brksko uZbD tkbh j?. nkX[fBe noE ftt;EktK
tNKdok noE ftt;EktK jB, fiE/ gfotko T[dwhnK B{z nkgDhnK T[sgkdB ;/tktK gqdkB eod/ jB.
fJ; soQK gfotko ns/ T[sgkdB ftukoe fJe nkwdB ns/ you d/ uZeoh tjkT[ s'_ Gkt fJj j? fe
youh j'Jh w[dok, iwQK eoe/ Bjh_ oZyh iKdh ;r'_ nkwdB d/ fe;/ yk; gZXo B{z pDkJh oZyD bJh
tjkT[ d/ o{g ftu ofjDh ukjhdh j?. nkwdB ns/ T[sgkdB dk uZeoh gqtkj fJ; rZb B{z ;wMD ftu
;kvh ;jkfJsk eodk j? fe #nkdB dk gqtkj* ns/ you dk gqtkj, ;ko/ pokpo feT[_ j[zd/ jB. fJ;
dk ekoB fJj j? fe ;ko/ gqtkj fJe' uh} dk jh Bkg eod/ jB.
nB[wkfBs ns/ tk;sfte dhnK XkoBktK (The Concepts of Ex-ante and Ex-post)
nB[wkfBs ns/ tk;sfte dhnK XkoBktK B{z r[Bo fwovb (Gunar Myrdal) B/ nkgD/ w[dfoe
sZsK s/ pfj; pko/ iBw fdZsk. fJj bkshBh (Latin) tkeK; (phrases) jB, fiBQK dk wsbp gfjbK
s'_ ns/ pknd ftu j?. tgko uZeo f;XKs ftu nB[wkfBs s'_ Gkt fBt/F, T[gG'r ns/ pZus dhnK T[j
wksoktK jB, fiBQK pko/ efEs ;w/_ s'_ gfjbK s'_ :'iBk ehsh rJh j? iK nk; ehsh rJh j?. T[dkjoD
ti'_ nB[wkfBs pZus s'_ Gkt T[j wksok j? fi; B{z fe;/ ;w/_ nkgDh nkwdB ftu'_ eoB bJh b'eK B/
gfjbK s'_ :'iBk pDk oZyh j?.
tk;sfte s'_ Gkt, fBt/F pZus iK T[gG'r dhnK T[j wksoktK jB fijVhnK fe fe;/ ;w/_ d/
nzs s/ n;b ftu gqkgs j[zdhnK jB. fJ; soQK n;b (realised) pZus, fBt/F iK T[gG'r dhnK
wksoktK j[zdhnK jB. T[dkjoD ti'_, tk;sfte pZus nfijh wksok j? fijVh b'e fe;/ n;b o{g ftu
pukT[_d/ jB. tk;sfte wksoktK }o{oh Bjh_ fe T[jh j'D, fiBQK dh F[o{ ftu nk; iK :'iBk ehsh rJh
;h ns/ fJ; soQK fJBQK ftu coe :'iBktK B{z gqGkfts eodk j?.
nkofEe wkvb (Economic Model)
nkofEe wkvb s'_ Gkt ;wheoDK iK ;zpzXK d/ nfij/ ;w{j s'_ j?, fi; B{z okFNoh noE
ftt;Ek, cow iK fe;/ nkofEe fJekJh d/ ezw-eki dh ;zy/g ftnkfynk bJh tofsnk iKdk j?. fJBQK
wkvbK B{z i' ifNbsk d/ nkXko s/ tZyo/ tZyo/ jB, fe;/ f;XKse fB:w iK nkofEe toskT[ dh
ftnkfynk bJh tofsnk ik ;edk j?. eJh fJe'B'whNfoe (Econometric) wkvb, fijV/ fe okFNoh
nkofEe feqnk d/ nfXn?B bJh tos/ iKd/ jB, eJh ;ze/s ;wheoDK d/ pD/ j'J/ jB. nkw s"o s/
fJj nkofEe f;XKs dk tZvk Gkr nfij/ wkvbK dk pfDnk j'fJnk j? fiBQK dh i' tXhnk ftT[_s ehsh
ikt/ sK tXhnk s/ ;jh f;ZN/ gqkgs ehs/ ik ;ed/ jB.
noE Fk;sohnK B{z wkvb pDkT[D dh b'V fJ; eoe/ gJh feT[_fe T[j ekch ftfrnkBK tkr
s}ofpnK bJh gq:'rFkbk dh tos'_ Bjh_ eo ;ed/ ;B. fJ; eoe/ T[BQK bJh fJj }o{oh j? fe T[j
n;b ;fEsh s'_ T[BQK tZy tZy gqGktK ns/ ;zpzX, fijV/ fe fe;/ yk; f;ZfNnK d/ w[Zy fBoXkoe ;wM/
iKd/ jB, B{z tZy eoBk. fe;/ wkvb d/ tZy-tZy Gkr nzso ;zpzX ns/ gqGkt gkT[D tkb/ gqw[Zy sZs,
fJj ftnkfynk eoB ftu ;kvh wdd eod/ jB fe T[j wkvb fet/_ ezw eodk j?. i/ e'Jh wkvb n;b
f}zdrh dhnK wjZstg{oB ft;/aFsktK g?dk eodk j? sK T[j GftZypkDh d/ ;wMD bJh fJe nkXko dk
ezw eodk j?.
wkvb d' fe;wK d/ j[ zd / jB L fJe wkJheo' nkofEe wkvb ns/ d{ik w?e o' nkofEe
wkvb. wkJheo' nkofEe wkvbK dh wdd Bkb fJj ;wMDk nk;kB j[ zd k j/ fe e[ M yk; t;s{nK
dhnk ehwsK T[ sgkdB ns/ tZy -tZy ;kXBK dk G[ r skB nkfd fet/_ fwfEnk iKdk j? . e[ Zb iK
okFNoh nkwdB b/ y k (National income accounting) dh pDso ekoB tZ y -tZ y noE
Fk;sohnK d[ n kok w?e o' nkofEe wkvb tZv / g?wkB/ s/ pDkJ/ rJ/ jB. w?e o' nkofEe wkvb dh
tos'_ d[ n kok noE ftt;Ek d/ ;w[ Zu / o{g ftu toskT[ dh ftnkfynk ns/ GftZy pkDh ehsh iKdh
j? . :'i Bkpzd h d/ ;zp zX ftu tZy -tZ y ftek; doK d/ Gkt ;wMD bJh th w?e o' nkofEe wkvbK
dh jh tos'_ j[ zd h j? .
wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' nkofEe wkvbK dh tzv, nZr/ ;ws'b ns/ gqfeqnk (porcess) wkvbK d/
s"o s/ ehsh ik ;edh j? L ;ws'b wkvb T[BQK jkbsK dk f}eo eod/ jB fiBQK nzdo wkb ftu
tos/ rJ/ uo ;fEo ofjzd/ jB, Gkt/_ T[BQK dh tos'_ spdhbh d/ ekoBK B{z bZGD bJh ehsh iKdh
j?. gfjbh sK fJj j? fe eJh tkoh T[j ;/X fdzd/ jB fi; ftu n;ws'b dhnK jkbsK ftu ;wk:'iB
(adjustment) j' ;edk j?. d{ik fJj fe F[o{ dhnK jkbsK ftu ;ws'b dh s[bBk, T[BQK jkbsK d/
;ws'b Bkb, fijVhnK fe;/ fJe gZy'_ tZyohnK jB, T[; fJe coe ekoB, nyho s/ eh n;o j?, dk
fJFkok d/ ;edhnK jB. wkJheo' nkofEe wkvbK d/ ;zpzX ftu fJe wjZstg{oB coe nkw
(General) ns/ nzfFe (Partial) ;ws'b wkvbK ftu j?.nkw nkofEe wkvbK dk w[Zy wzst fJj
ftnkfynk d/Dk j[zdk j? fe noE ftt;Ek d/ ;ko/ Gkt nkg' ftu fet/_ nzso ;zpzXs jB. fJ; d/
T[bN nzfFe ;ws'b wkvbK ftu e[M B/V/ d/ nzso ;pzXs uoK (fit/_ fe yk; t;s{ dh ehws ns/
T[; dh wzr) dh nkg' ftubh nzso fBoGosk B{z t/yD bJh pkeh d/ pko/ uoK d/ w[ZbK B{z ;fEo
wzB fbnk iKdk j?. ;ws'b wkvb fJj Bjh_ d;d/ fe fJe ;ws'b s'_ d{ih ;ws'b ;fEsh fet/_ gqkgs
j'Jh, id'_ fe gqfeqnk wkvb ;ws'b dhnK tZy-tZy ;fEshnK ftubhnK ;kohnK jkbsK dk f}eo eod/
jB.
;zy/g T[s oK tkb/ gq FB L
;zy/g B'N fby' L
(T) nkofEe wkvb
(n) cbBkswe ;pz X
(J ) w? e o' noE Fk;so dhnK ;hwktK
(;) ;wsktK
(j) uZe oh gq t kj
1H9 gkm dk ;ko
fJ; soQK n;h_ t/fynk j? fe ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK B/ o'}rko dk e'Jh f;bf;b/tko
(systematic) f;XKs Bjh_ fdZsk. gqzs{ 1929 - 33 dh wzdh d/ gqGkt ekoB, e/B} B/ 1936 ftu nkgDk
o'}rko dk nkw f;XKs fdZsk,fi; ftu ;oekoh dyb nzdk}h B{z T[Zfus ;wfMnk frnk. fJ; nkw f;XKs
dk pVk Gkoh f;XKse ns/ fttjkoe wjZst j?, fi; nXhB noE ftt;Ek dk ;w[Zu/ s"o s/ nfXn?B
ehsk iKdk j?. id'_ fe wkJheo' ns/ w?eo' ftFb/FD ftXhnK nZv'-nZv jB, gozs{ fco th fJj fJe
d{i/ dhnK g{oe jB.
w?eo' noE Fk;so, noEks ;w{fje ftukoXkok, nkofEe f;XKs ns/ b'e Bhsh dk fJe }o{oh
T[geoD pD u[Zek j?, i' fe w?eo' noE Fk;so dh f;XKse ns/ fttjkoe wjZssk s'_ ;k\ B}o
nkT[_dk j?. fJ; ftu FZe Bjh_ fe fJ; ftFb/FD ftXh dhnK e[M ;hwktK th jB. nkofEe ftek; pko/,
yk; eoe/ e/B} s'_ pknd dh ftukoXkok ftu e[ZM gdK (terms) dh th ek\h tos'_ j'Jh j?. fiBQK
B[z fe w?eo' noE ftfrnkB d/ gd fejk iKdk j?, fit/_ fe n;h_ gkm ftu gVQ e/ nkJ/ jK.
phH ekw Gkr gfjbk phH ;hH 206
fgq z ; hgbia nkca fp}B; fJeBkfwe;
okFNoh nkwdB
1H2H1 G {f we k
1H2H2 okFNoh nkwdB dhnK tZ y -tZ y gfoGkFktK
1H2H3 e/B } dh okFNoh nwdB dh XkoBk
1H2H4 e/ B } s' _ pknd okFNoh nkwdB dhnK XkoBktK
1H2H4H1 ;eb go/ b { T[ s gkd
1H2H4H2 e[ M okFNoh T[ s gkdB
1H2H4H3 F[ Z X okFNoh T[sgkdB
1H2H4H4 e[ b okFNoh you
1H2H4H5 t;sK s/ ;/ tktK T[ s / ;oekoh you
1H2H5 e[ M xo/ b { T[s gkd d/ ;eb okFNoh T[s gkdB ftu ;zp zX
1H2H6 nkwdB dhnK j' o XkoBktK
1H2H7 okFNoh nkwdB dk wkg
1H2H8 okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ftu efmBkJhnK
1H2H9 okFNoh nkwdB dk wjZ s t
1H2H10 gVQB bJh g[; seK
1H2H11 nfGnk; :' r gq F B
1H2H1 G {f we k
wkJheo' noE-Fk;soh ;w[Zuh ftt;Ek dh feqnkFhbsk tZb e'Jh fXnkB Bjh_ ;B fdzd/ id'_ fe
ni'e/ noE-Fk;soh fJ; ftu fdbu;gh oZyd/ jB. r[zMbdko w?eo' nkofEe gqDkbh d/ nkofEe ftuko
;wMD bJh fJ; dh ekor[}koh (performance) d/ fe;/ ;{ue dh ikDekoh j'Dk nfs }o{oh j?.
nfijk ;G s'_ tZX wjZstg{oB ns/ fJe' fJe ;{ue okFNoh nkwdB jh j?. fe;/ noE ftt;Ek dh
T[Bsh j' ojh j?, nt[ZBsh j' ojh j?, iK T[j ;fEo j?, fJ; dk gsk brkT[D bJh ;kB{z t/yDk g?_dk
j? fe okFNoh nkwdB tX xN ojh j? iK T[j' jh j?. gq'H ghr{ (Pigou) nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB ns/
nkofEe GbkJh, fJe d{i/ Bkb f;ZXk ;zpzX oZyd/ jB, gozs{ okFNoh nkwdB dh XkoDk y[d fJe
nfBFfus XkoBk j?. okFNoh nkwdB dh tZy-tZy sohfenK Bkb gfoGkFk nkwdB dh XkoDk y[d fJe
nfBFfus XkoBk j?. okFNoh nkwdB dh tZy-tZy sohfenK Bkb gfoGkFk fdZsh rJh j?.
nkw p'bh ftu okFNoh nkwdB s'_ Gkt, fe;/ d/F ftu, fJe ;kb ftu g?dk ehshnK rJhnK
t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ e[Zb w[Zb s'_ fbnk iKdk j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu, fJe ;kb ftu fe;/ d/F ftubhnK
nkofEe feqnktK (i) tgkoe y/so (business sector), (ii) fBZih y/so fit/_ fe xo/b{ y/so, (iii)
;oekoh y/so iK (iv) pkeh d/ ;z;ko y/so, Bkb ;zpzfXs j' ;edhnK jB. fJBQK uko y/soK s'_ fwbD
tkbh nkwdB B{z i'V e/, fe;/ yk; ;w/_ d"okB okFNoh nkwdB gqkgs ehsh iKdh j?.
17
n;b ftu nkwdB dh XkoBk e/B} d/ o'}rko f;XKs dk nkXko j?. fJ; soQK okFNo nkwdB
b/yk (National Income Accounts), okFNoh nkwdB, T[sgkdB ns/ o'}rko dk fJe wkg dzv jh j?.
fJj' ekoB ;h fe e/B} B/ nkwdB, T[sgkdB ns/ o'}rko B{z ;ko/ fttjkoe we;dK bJh fJe d{i/
d/ pokpo wzfBnk j?. noEks fJj fszB/ fJeZb/ jh fJe' nB[gks Bkb tXd/ s/ xNd/ jB. Gkt/_ n;b
ftu o'}rko ftu j'fJnk tkXk, nkwdB ns/ T[sgkdB ftu j'J/ tkX/ d/ nB[gks nB[;ko Bjh_ j[zdk.
gq'H j?B;B nB[;ko, o'}rko ns/ T[sgkdB ftu Gkt/_ gZe/ s"o s/ pokpoh sK Bjh_ ejh ik ;edh go
;ko/ fttjkoe we;dK bJh, nkwdB o'}rko f;XKs dh fJ; b/yk ;wsK B{z wzB b?D bJh e'Jh B[e;kB
th Bjh_ j[zdk. n;b ftu id'_ n;h_ o'}rko f;XKs ns/ fJ; d/ fBoXkoeK dh rZb eod/ jK sK ;kv/
wB ftu n;bhns tZi'_ T[d'_ nkwdB ns/ T[sgkdB d/ fBoXkoeK dk ftFb/FD jh j[zdk j?. fJ; soQK
fJj o'}rko f;XKs iK T[sgkdB f;XKs jh pD iKdk j?.
1H2H2 okFNoh nkwdB dhnK tZ y -tZ y gfoGkFktK
;kXkoD FpdK ftu okFNoh nkwdB s'_ Gkt, ;ko/ F[ZX nkwdB G[rskBK s'_ j? fijV/ fe d/F
dhnK nkwdB gqkgs eoB tkbhnK fJekJhnK (Units) d[nkok gqkgs ehs/ iKd/ jB. fJ; soQK okFNoh
nkwdB B{z, T[sgkdB d/ ;kXBK B{z ehs/ ikD tkbk e[Zb G[rskB iK okFNoh T[sgkdB B{z g?dk eoB dh
F[ZX bkrs th fejk ik ;edk j?.
;zy/g ftu okFNoh nkwdB dhnK tZy-tZy gfoGkFktK B{z d' F/qDhnK ftu tzfvnk ik ;edk j?
ns/ T[j fJj jB L-
(T) wkoFb, ghr{ ns/ fcFo d[nkok fdZshnK rJhnK gozgokrs gfoGkFktK ns/
(n) nkX[fBe gfoGkFktK.
gq'H wkoFb dh gfoGkFk L gq'H wkoFb nB[;ko, **fe;/ d/F d/ w}d{o ns/ g{zih, T[; d/F d/
gqkfeqfse ;kXBK dh tos'_ eod/ j'J/ jo/e ;kb G"fse, nG"fse gdkoEK ns/ ;G soQK dhnK ;/tktK d/
fBFfus F[ZX i'V dk T[sgkdB eod/ jB. d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB dh fJ; gfoGkFk s'_ ;kc B}o
nkT[_dk j? fe okFNoh nkwdB s'_ Gkt, F[ZX T[sgkdB s'_ j?, noEks t;sK s/ ;/tktK dh e[b T[gi
ftu'_ N[ZN-c[ZN (depreciation) eZY e/ i' pkeh pudk j?.**
wkoFb dhnK gfoGkFktK nB[;ko, okFNoh nkwdB j/m fby/ fszB sZsK dh pDh j'Jh j? L-
1H g{zih, w}d{oK ns/ gqkfeqse ;kXBK d/ ;fj:'r s'_ gqkgs F[ZX T[gi,
2H ;/tktK dk w[Zb ns/,
3H ftd/FK s'_ gqkgs j'Jh nkwdB.
p/f;e vkH wkoFb dh gfoGkFk f;XKse s"o s/ ;jh, ;ob ns/ ftnkge (Comprehensive)
j? fco th fJ; dhnK e[M rzGho fttjkoe ;hwktK jB. T[dkjoD ti'_, fe;/ d/F ftu g?dk j'JhnK e[Zb
t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ nzefVnK pko/ mhe nzdk}/ bkT[D/ n"y/ jB. fJ; s'_ fJbktk d{joh frDsh dhnK
;wZf;nktK B{z d{o eoBk th pj[s w[Feb j? ns/ Bkb jh fJj nzdk}k bkT[Dk fe fBZih T[gG'r bJh
T[dgkdB dk fezB fjZ;k oZfynk frnk j?, j'o th n"yk j?.
gq'H ghr{ dh gfoGkFk L gq'H ghr{ nB[;ko, **okFNoh nkwdB fe;/ d/F dh tk;sfte nkwdB dk
T[j fjZ;k j? fi; B{z w[dok ftu wkfgnk ik ;edk j?. okFNo nkwdB ftu ftd/FK s'_ gqkgs j'Jh
nkwdB th Fkwb ehsh iKdh j?.
okFNoh nkwdB dh fJj gfoGkFk, wkoFb dh gfoGkFk Bkb'_ tXhnk j?. gq'H ghr{ nB[;ko
okFNoh nkwdB ftu f;oc T[BQK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK B{z jh frfDnk ikDk ukjhdk j? i' p}ko ftu fteoh
bJh nkT[_dhnK jB. ghr{ nB[;ko i' t;sK pk}ko ftu t/uhnK iKdhnK jB, T[BQK d/ w[dok w[Zb dk
nzdk}k Bjh_ bkfJnk ik ;edk. fJj' ekoB j? fe ghr{ B/ T[BQK B{z okFNoh nkwdB ftu Fkwb Bjh_
ehsk. fJ; soQK fJj gfoGkFk pj[s ;ze[fus pD iKdh j?. fJ; s'_ fJbktk fJj gfoGkFk ftu'_ eJh
fto'XkGk; th iBw b?_d/ jB, T[BQK ftu'_ fJe pko/ gq'H ghr{ B/ y[d f}eo ehsk j? fe i/ fJe nkdwh
nkgDh B"eokDh (maid servant) Bkb ftnkj eotk b?_dk j? sK okFNoh nkwdB xN iKdh j? feT[_fe
T[j j[D T[; dhnK (B"eokDh dhnK) ;/tktk bJh G[rskB Bjh_ eoBk g?_dk, Gkt/_ gfjbK tkbhnk ;/tktk
T[; B{z (wkbe B{z) ni/ th fwbdhnK ofjzdhnK jB. Gkt/_ fJj gfoGkFk fBFfus, ;"yh ns/ buedko
j? feT[_fe fJj okFNoh nkwdB B{z wkoFb dh gfoGkFk dh soQK wkgDk Bjh_ b'Vhdh, fco th fJj T[BQK
t;sK ftu i' wzvh ftu o[gJ/ d/ pdb/ t/uhnK iKdhnK jB ns/ i' Bjh_ t/uhnK iKdhnK, ftueko fJe
pDktNh ns/ ikD p[ZM e/ tyo/tK ftykT[_dh j?. fi; noE ftt;Ek ftu T[gi d/ tZv/ Gkr dk f;oc
t;sK d/ pdb/ jh tNKdok ehsk iKdk j? T[E/ fJj gfoGkFk nDT[g:'rh j?.
gq'H fcFo dh gfoGkFk L okFNoh nkwdB d/ wkgdzv d/ s"o s/ g'qH fcFo B/ T[sgkdB dh EK
s/ T[gG'r B{z u[fDnk j?. T[; d/ FpdK ftu, okFNoh nkwdB s'_ Gkt T[BQK ;/tktK s'_ j? i' fe nzfsw
o{g ftu ygseko B{z gqkgs j[zdhnK jB, Gkt/_ fJj ;/tktK T[BQK B{z T[BQK d/ G"fse iK wB[Zyh wkj"b s'_
gqkgs j[zdhnK j'D. fJ; gfoGkFk nB[;ko, fJe ;kb d/ d"okB T[sgkdB j'JhnK ;G t;sK B{z okFNoh
nkwdB ftu Bjh_ frfDnk ikDk ukjhdk. e[Zb T[sgkdB d/ f;oc T[; Gkt B{z jh okFNoh nkwdB ftu
Fkwb ehsk ik ;edk j? fi; dh ;kb Go ftu nzsw o{g Bkb ygs j[zdh j?, feT[_fe ihtB-gZXo t/yD
bJh e[Zb T[sgkdB dk fJjh fjZ;k wjZstg{oB j?. fJ; soQK fcFo nB[;ko T[; bJh fJ; ;kb pDkfJnk
frnk tkik (piano) iK Utoe'N (overcoat) fJ; ;kb dh nkwdB dk fjZ;k Bjh_ ;r'_ g{zih ftu j'fJnk
tkXk j?. f;oc fJBQK t;sK d[nkok fJ; ;kb d"okB gqkgs j'JhnK ;/tktK jh nkwdB j?. fJ; soQK gq'H
fcFo d[nkok fdZsh rJh gfoGkFk vkH wkoFb ns/ gq'Hghr{ Bkb'_ T[; jZd se tXhnk j? fi; jZd sZe
fJj nkofEe GbkJh dh XkoBk d/ B/V/ j? feT[_fe GbkJh T[BQK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK s/ fBoGo eodh j?
fijVhnK fe;/ ;wki d/ w?_poK B{z gqkgs jz[dhnK jB gozs{ F[ZX T[sgkdB dh fBFfus F[ZX T[gG'r dk
nzdk}k bkT[Dk f}nkdk n"yk j?. fJ; s'_ fJbktk gkfJdko (durable) t;sK dhnK ;/tktK d/ w[Zy dk
jo/e ;kb nzdk}k bkT[Dk jh pj[s w[Feb j? feT[_fe T[j eJh ;kb sZe jzYdhnK jB.
fJ; soQK fJj efjDk pj[s n"yk j? fe fejVh gfoGkFk mhe iK rbs j? feT[_fe fJBQK ftu'_
fe;/ dh T[fussk (suitability) fJ; rZb T[s/ fBoGo eodh j? fe n;h_ yk; we;d jZb eoBk ukj[zd/
jK.
gq'H ;kJhwB e[B/N; dh gfoGkFk L gqf;ZX noE-Fk;soh g'qH ;kJhwB e[B/N; nB[;ko, **okFNoh
nkwdB, t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dh T[j F[ZX T[sgsh j? i' fe fJe ;kb dh fwnkd ftu d/F dh T[sgkdB
gqDkbh Bkb nzfsw ygseko d/ e'b gj[zudh j? iK d/F d/ g{zih gdkoEK ftu j'J/ F[ZX tkX/ B{z fejk
iKdk j?.**
gq'H ;?w[nb;B (Prof. Samuelson) d/ FpdK ftu, ##okFNoh nkwdB ftu n;gFN (loose) BK
j? i' fe noE ftt;Ek ftu t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ ;bkBk gqtkj d/ w[doe wkg d/ bJh fdZsk iKdk j?.
g'qHn?eb/ (Prof. Ackley) nB[;ko, **okFNoh nkwdB ;kohnK (T) w}d{ohnK, sBykjK, efwFBK,
p'B;K ns/ w[bk}wK dhnK j'o fe;wK dhnK ewkJhnK, (n) feokJ/ ns/ okfJbNhi s'_ F[ZX nkwdB, (J)
ftnki s'_ nkwdB ns/ (;) bkGK dk i'V j?.
:{H n?BH (U.N.) dh fJe fog'oN nB[;ko, **F[ZX okFNoh T[gi d/ o{g ftu okFNoh nkwdB,
fe;/ fBFfus ;w/_ ftu d/F d/ fGzB fGzB GkrK iK y/soK ftu gqkgs nkofEe feqnktK d/ w[ZbK dk i'V
j?, fi; ftu j'o pkjob/ d/FK s'_ gqkgs nkwdB th Fkwb j?.
1H2H3 e/B } dh okFNoh nkwdB dh XkoBk
feT[_fe T[go'es gfoGkFktK fJ; rZb T[s/ e'Jh ukBDk Bjh_ gkT[_dhnK fe T[j fejV/ sZs jB
fijV/ fe;/ yk; ;w/_ fe;/ d/F ftu o[}rko d/ gZXo B{z fBoXkoB eod/ jB, fJ; bJh e/B} B/ fJBQK
ftu'_ fe;/ B{z th Bjh_ u[fDnk. feT[_fe e/B} dk w[Zy we;d sK o[}rko dk gZXo fBoXkfos eoB tkb/
sZsK dk toDB eoBk ;h.
fJ; eoe/ e/B} B/ okFNoh nkwdB dh gfoGkFk nkgD/ jh Yzr Bkb ehsh sK fe T[; dk fJj
we;d jZb j' ;ed/ fe d/F ftu o[}rko dh gZXo fet/_ fBoXkfos j[zdh j?. e/B} d/ o[}rko f;XKs
ftu *nkwdB* dh XkoBk dk T[jh wjZst j? i' wkoFb d/ w[Zb f;XKs (Theory of Value) ftu *ehws*
dk j?.
fe;/ noE ftt;Ek dh ;w[Zuh nkwdB dh gfoGkFk d' YzrK Bkb fdZsh ik ;edh j? L
(1) e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB (Gross National Product)
(2) F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB (Net National Product)
e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB s/ Gkt fe;/ fBFfus ;w/_ nkw s"o s/ fJe ;kb ftu, T[sgkfds ehshnK
rJhnK nzfsw t;sK ;/tktK dk w[dok o{gh w[Zb j?. e[Zb okFNoh nkwdB ftu'_ N[ZN GZi fx;kJh nkfd
dk B[e;kB eZY e/ i' nkwdB pkeh ofj iKdh j? T[; B{z F[ZX okFNoh nkwdB fejk iKdk j?. nzfsw
t;sK (final goods) s'_ Gkt T[; fsnko wkb s'_ j? i' T[sgkdB dh nzfsw T[gi (end products) j[zd/
jB. okFNoh nkwdB dh frDsh bJh wkfXnkfwe gdkoE (intermediate goods) Fkfwb Bjh_ ehs/
iKd/. feT[_fe fJ; soQK eoB Bkb d'joh frDsh (double counting) dk vo j' ;edk j?.
e/B} dh okFNoh nkwdB, Bk sK e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB (G.N.P.) ns/ Bk jh F[ZX okFNoh
T[sgkdB (N.N.P.) d/ pokpo j? ;r'_ fJj fJBQK d'jK d/ fes/ ftu (in between) j[zdh j?.
e/B} dh fJ; nkwdB B{z eZYD bJh, e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB ftu'_ N[ZN-GZi ns/ ngqubB
(Obsolesence) d/ nkwdB dk #e[M fjZ;k* eZYD dh b'V j?. e/B} nB[;ko, okFNoh nkwdB dh fJj
XkoBk o'}rko dh wksok fBoXkoB eoB tkb/ c?;fbnK d/ bJh wjZstg{oB j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu okFNoh
nkwdB gqkgs eoB bJh, e[Zb T[sgkdB d/ pko w[Zy ftu j'Jh e[Zb ewh (depreciation +
obsolesence) B{z Bjh_ xNkT[Dk ukjhdk, ;r'_ g{zih dh tos'_ bkrs (User cost) B{z jh xNkT[Dk
ukjhdk j?. ;' e/B} nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB, pk}ko ehwsK s/ e[Zb T[sgkdB d/ w[Zb ftu'_ g{zih dh
bkrs xNk e/ gqkgs ehsh iKdh j?. ;wheoD d/ o{g ftu L
Y=A–U
Y s'_ Gkt okFNoh nkwdB j?.
A s'_ Gkt e[Zb T[sgkdB dk pk}ko w[Zb ns/
U s'_ Gkt j? g{zih gdkoEK dh tos'_ bkrs.
gq:'r bkrs dk noE (Meaning of User-cost)
gq:'r bkrs dh XkoBk e/B} d/ fdwkr dh ekY j?. T[; nB[;ko gq:'r bkrs, g{zih gdkoE
dh tos'_ eoB Bkb T[; d/ w[Zb ftu j'Jh ewh B{z Bk fe T[; dh tos'_ Bk eoB s/ T[; d/ w[Zb ftu
j'Jh ewh B{z fejk iKdk j?. fJj g{zih gdkoE dh tos'_ ekoB j'Jh bkrs j? Bk fe T[; d/ ftjb
gJ/ ofjD ekoD j'Jh bkrs j?. tos'_ bkrs fe;/ wFhB dh tos'_ eoB s/ T[; d/ w[Zy ftu nkJh
ewh ns/ id'_ T[j ftjbh ofjzdh j?, iwK T[j you i' T[; B{z T[;/ jkbs ftu pDkJh oZyD
(maintenance and upkeep) s/ nkT[_dk j? d/ nzso B{z th fejk ik ;edk j?.
g'qH fvbov (Dillard) d/ FpdK ftu, ##g{zih gdkoE B{z tos'_ ftu Bk fbnkT[D dh pikJ/ T[;
B{z tos'_ ftu fbnkT[D Bkb T[; d/ w[Zb ftu i' ewh ftdwkB j[zdh j? T[; B{z gq:'r bkrs efjzd/ jB.
T[dkjoD ti'_, wzB bU fJe wFhB dh ehws 1000$- o[H j? T[; d/ T[sgkdB ekoi ftu gq:'r d/ ekoB
fJe ;kb pknd T[; dh ehws 800$- o[H ofj iKdh j?. g{zih gdkoE d/ w[Zb ftu j'Jh fJj ;koh 200$-
o[H fx;kJh B{z gq:'r bkrs Bjh_ fejk iKdk. i/eo T[; g{zih gdkoE B{z p/eko gJ/ ofjD fdZsk iKdk
j? sK th T[; dk w[Zb xZN ikDk ;h. ;r'_ T[; B{z ubdh jkbs ftu oZyD bJh 15 o[g? dk j'o you
eoe/ ;kb d/ nyho s/ T[; d/ w[Zb 900$- o[H jh ofj iKdk j?. fJ; soQK gq:'r bkrs 200$- o[gJ/
Bjh_ ;r'_ (100 o[H -15) - 85 o[H j?. fJ; soQK d/F d/ ;ko/ T[d:'rK dhnK gq:'r bkrsK dk i'V eoe/
n;h_ ;ko/ d/F bJh gq:'r bkrs gqkgs eo ;ed/ jK. i/ n;h_ e[Zb gq:'r bkrsK (e/B} dk 'U') B{z
e[b okFNoh T[sgkdB (e/B} dk 'U') ftu'_ xNk d/JhJ/ sK ;kB{z e/B} d/ Gkt nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB
gqkgs j' iKdh j? fijVh fe A–U d/ pokpo j?.
e/B} nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB dh fJj e/B}h XkoBk (A–U) o'}rko f;XKs ftu wjZstg{oB
EK oydh j? feT[_fe fJ; T[s/ nkwdB ns/ o'}rko fBoGo eod/ jB. gqzs{ id'_ d/F d/ T[gG'r you
pko/ nzdk}k brkT[Dk j't/ sK fJj XkoBk fJsBh T[g:'rh Bjh_ ;r'_ F[ZX okFNoh nkwdB dh XkoBk
T[g:'rh j?. e/B} dh fJ; F[ZX nkwdB B{z bZGD bJh ;kB{z okFNoh nkwdb (A–U) ftu'_ g{oe bkrsK
(Supplementary Costs) fi; B{z 'V' fejk iKdk j? xNkT[Dk g?_dk j?.
;wheoD d/ o{g ftu e/B} dh F[ZX okFNoh nkwdB (N.N.P.) B{z fJ; soQK fbfynk iKdk j?
fe L
Y=A–U–V
gzqs{ fJj g{oe bkrsK (V) eh j[zdhnK jB < fJj fJe yk; fe;w dh x;kJh (Extra
depreciation) fJ;dk nzdk}k gfjbK s'_ Bjh_ brkfJnk ik ;edk, noEks fJj T[dwhnK d/ ezNo'b
s'_ pkjo dh rZb j?. fJj fJe fe;w dh nuBu/s bkrs (Contingent Cost) j? fit/_ fe fe;/ wFhB
dk ngqufbs (Obsolete), nfs g[okDk (Outdate) j' ikDk iK nZr bZr ikDh nkfd j?. e/B} B/
nfijhnK bkrsK B{z g{oe bkrsK d/ BK Bkb p[bkfJnk j?. gq'H j?B;B nB[;ko ##g{oe bkrsK, nDfJZS[e
jkBhnK jB i' Bk-T[dwh tkbhnK Bjh_ j[zdhnK. fJj bkrsK T[dwh d/ fB:zsoD s/ pkjo j[zdhnK jB.
fJj jkBhnK T[Zdwh B{z ;fjD eoBhnK g/_dhnK jB, Gkt/_ T[j g{zih gdkoEK dh tos'_ eo/ iK Bk eo/.
1H2H4 e/Bi s'_ pknd okFNoh nkwdB dhnK XkoBktK (Post-Keynesian National Income
Concepts) :
e/B} d/ #nkw f;XKs* d/ j'_d ftu nkT[D s'_ pknd okFNoh nkwdB ns/ ;wkie b/yk (Social
Accounts) dh gVQkJh tZb o[uh tZXdh jh rJh j?. okFNoh nkwdB b/yk B{z okFNoh nkwdB b/yk B{z
;oekoh f}zw/tkoh d/ s"o s/ fbnk frnk j?. okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK s'_ jh fe;/ noE ftt;Ek
dh nkofEe f;js ftu j'Jh spdhbh dk gsk ubdk j?. nkofEe feqnk ftu nk oj/ T[sko uVQk dk
gsk ubdk j?. f;ZN/ ti'_, eJh BthnK XkoBktK B{z okFNoh nkwdB ns/ ;wkfie b/yk d/ nfXn?B d/
;zpzX ftu gfVQnk iKdk j? fi; ekoB fJj nfXn?B j'o th ftFkb nkXko tkbk s/ ftnkge j' frnk
j?. fJj XkoBktK g[okDhnK XkoBktK Bkb'_ f}nkdk rshFhb jB. Gkos dh okFNoh nkwdB ew/Nh
nB[;ko, **fJe fBFfus ;w/_ ftu fe;/ d/F ftu i' t;sK ns/ ;/tktK T[sgkfds ehshnK iKdhnK jB,
T[BQK d/ e[Zb i'V B{z okFNoh nkwdB B{z fszB gqtkjK d/ o{g ftu th t/fynk ik ;edk j?, fit/_ e[Zb
nkwdB, e[b T[sgkdB ns/ e[b you d/ gqtkj. id'_ T[sgkdB j[zdk j?, T[sgkdB d/ ;kXB B{z fJt}kBk
fwbdk j? i' T[BQK dh nkwdB j[zdh j? fijVh fe T[j T[gG'r iK fBt/F T[s/ you eod/ jB. fJj fszB/
fe;w d/ gqtkj, noEks, nkwdB, T[sgkdB ns/ you ;dk jh fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo j[zd/ jB i' fe
shjoh ;wsk (Triple Identity) noEks, T[sgkdB = nkwdB = you dk ekoB jB. FzghNo gfjbk
noE Fk;soh ;h fi; B/ fe okFNoh nkwdB nfXn?B B{z 1917 ftu fszB gqtkjK d/ o{g ftu t/fynk
ns/ T[; s'_ pknd nwohek ftu vpb:{H ;hH fwZSb (W. C. Mitchell) ns/ ;kJhwB e[}B/N; B/ :{H
e/H ftu whv (Meade) ns/ fouov ;N'B B/ ns/ coK; ftu gho{ (Perrux) B/ fJBQK gqtkjK d/ nkXko
s/, okFNoh nkwdB d/ nfXn?B B{z gqf;ZX ehsk. okFNoh nkwdB B{z fJBQK fszBK gqtkjK ftu nfXn?B
eoB dh ni'eh ftXh B{z ;z:[es okFNoh ;zx (United Nations) B/ th ;theko ehsk j?. fJ; soQK
okFNoh nkwdB B{z F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB, tzvDFhb fjf;nK (Distributive Shares) dk i'V ns/
F[ZX okFNoh you d/ o{g ftu t/fynk iKdk j?.
okFNoh nkwdB B{z bZGD d/ fJj fszB sohe/, fit/_ fe T[go dZf;nk frnk j? shjoh ;wsk
B{z iBw fdzd/ jB. fJBQK gfoGkFktK ftu ;wK ;dk fJe ;kb dk jh j[zdk j? ns/ fszBK sohfenK Bkb
fpbe[b T[j' f;ZNk gqkgs j[zdk j? i/eo fJBQK fszBK sohfenK dhnK nzrG{s (Constituent) fJekJhnK
B{z fJe;[osk Bkb tofsnk ikt/. fJ; soQK okFNoh nkwdB dh XkoBk B{z uzrh soQK ;wMD bJh j/m
fbyhnK XkoBktK dk frnkB }o{oh j?.
1H2H4H1 ;eb xo/b{ T[sgkd (Gross Domestic Product) :-
fe;/ d/F dh xo/b{ jZd *u fJe ;kb ftu fizBk th nzfsw t;s{nK ns/ ;/tktK dk T[sgkdB
j[zdk j? T[BQK d/ pk}ko w[Zb d/ i'V B{z ;eb xo/b{ T[sgkd fejk iKdk j?. j?B;B d/ nB[;ko, **;eb
xo/b{ T[sgkd s'_ Gkt ;kXkoD s"o s/ fe;/ d/F dh xo/b{ ;hwk ftu fJe ;kb ftu T[sgkfds nzfsw
t;s{ ns/ ;/tktK d/ w[ZbK d/ i'V s'_ j?.** ;eb xo/b{ T[sgkd dk nB[wkB brkT[D bJh nzfsw t;s{nK
ns/ ;/tktK dh wksok B{z T[BQK d/ pk}ko w[Zb Bkb r[Dk eo fdZsk iKdk j?.
;eb xo/b{ T[sgkd dh w[Zy ftF/FsktK j/m fbyhnK jB L
1H ghNo;B d/ nB[;ko ;eb xo/b{ T[sgkd (GDP) d/ Bkb ;eb Fpd fJ; bJh i'fVnk
frnk j? feT[_fe fJ; ftu fx;kJh d/ w[Zb B{z xNkfJnk Bjh_ iKdk Gkt fJ; ftu fx;ktN dk w[Zb th
Fkfwb j[zdk j?.
2H t;s{nK ns/ ;/tktK d/ w[Zb s'_ ;kvk Gkt gqubs pk}ko ehwsK s'_ j?.
3H ;eb xo/b{ T[sgkdB ftu wkg dh d'joh frDsh d/ d/F s'_ puD bJh nkyoh t;s{nK
ns/ ;/tktK Fkfwb Bjh_ j[zdh.
1H2H4H2 e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB (Gross National Product)
fe;/ d/F dh g{zih ns/ w}d{o T[E'_ d/ e[dosh ;kXBK d/ ;fj:'r Bkb jo ;kb i' nzfsw t;sK
ns/ ;/tktK dk T[sgkdB eod/ jB - B{z e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB fejk iKdk j? ns/ fJBQK t;sK ns/
;/tktK d/ pk}ko w[Zb B{z jh e[Zb okFNoh nkwdB fejk iKdk j?. okFNoh nkwdB dh fJ; XkoBk d/
pko/ ftu j/m fdZshnK rZbK B{z fXnkB ftu oZyDk }o{oh j?.
(i) e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB dk i'V eod/ j'J/ f;oc nzfsw t;sK B{z jh Fkwb ehsk ikDk
ukjhdk j? sK fe t;s{ iK ;/tk dh rDBk fJe Bkb'_ f}nkdk tko Bk j' ikt/. feT[_fe nfijh ;fEsh
ftu okFNoh nkwdB dk nzdk}k tZX iKdk j?. fJ; soQK wkfXne gdkoEK B{z i' fe;/ nzfsw t;s{ iK
;/tk B{z g?dk eoB ftu bZrd/ jB, frDsh ;w/_ pkjo eZY fdZsk iKdk j?. eJh tkoh id'_ nzfsw t;s{
d/ wkfXne t;s{ dk coe eoBk pj[s n"yk j' iKdk j? sK nfijh jkbs ftu d{joh frDsh s'_ puD
bJh tZy tZy T[d:'rK d[nkok i/ F[ZX w[ZbK ftu tkXk ehsk iKdk j?, d/ i'V B{z okFNoh nkwdB ;wM
fbnk iKdk j?. Gkt/_ e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB dh XkoBk dk nzdk}k bkT[Dk ns/ ;wMDk ;"yk sK j? gqzs{
fco th fpjso f;XKse ftnkfynk bJh F[ZX T[sgkdB dh XkoBk uzr/oh j?.
(ii) t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dk w[dok w[Zb gquZbs pk}ko ehwsK s/ nzfenK iKdk j?. fJ;/ ekoB,
e[Zb okFNoh nkwdB B{z pk}koh ehwsK s/ e[Zb okFNoh nkwdB d/ Bkb th p[bkfJnk iKdk j?.
(iii) okFNoh T[sgkdB ftu f;oc T[BQK t;sK ns/ ;/tktk B{z frfDnk iKdk j? i' pk}ko ftu
fteD bJh nkT[_dhnK jB. jK fijVhnK t;sK pk}ko ftu Bjh_ nkT[_dhnK T[BQK d/ nzsoht w[Zb
(Imputed value) B{z okFNoh ftZu Fkwb ehsk iKdk j?. fit/_ nkgD/ ofjD tkb/ xoK dk feokfJnk
nkgD/ T[gG'r bJh oZy/ T[sgkdB dk w[Zb nkfd.
(iv) e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB ftu nD-T[sgkdeh ;"d/ (Non-Productive Transactions)
Fkwb Bjh_ ehs/ iKd/.
(v) fx;kJh ns/ gqfs;EkgB (replacement) bkrsK xNkT[D dh e'Jh b'V Bjh_ j[zdh.
(vi) fJ; soQK okFNoh nkwdB dk wkg eofdnK j'fJnK NoK;co G[rskB fit/_ fe g?BFBK,
w?NofBNh bkG, p/o'}rkoh, GZsk, w[cs :shwK iK b'VtzdK b'eK B{z dkB nkfd, ftu Fkwb Bjh_ ehsk
iKdk feT[_fe fJBQK G[rskBK d/ pdb/ T[BQK tZb'_ e'Jh nkofEe feqnk ndk Bjh_ ehsh iKdh.
(vii) N?e;K d[nkok ;oeko B{z gqkgs nkwdB th fJ; soQK gqkgs ehsh okFNoh nkwdB ftu
Fkwb Bjh_ ehsh iKdh feT[_fe fJ; dk Gkt d'joh frDsh jh j?.
(viii) d'joh frDsh s'_ puD bJh ezgBhnK d[nkok gqkgs F/no j'bvoK B{z bkGKF d/ s"o s/
ehs/ rJ/ G[rskB th, okFNoh nkwdB ftu Fkwb Bjh_ ehs/ iKd/.
(ix) g{zih bkGK B{z th Fkwb Bjh_ ehsk iKdk. i/ e'Jh thj j}ko dh ehws dk xo gZuh
j}ko ftu ftedk j? sK gzi j}ko sK g{zih bkG jh j?. fJ; bJh fJ; g{zih bkG, B{z e[b okFNoh
nkwdB ftu Fkwb Bjh_ ehsk ikDk ukjhdk.
(x) d'joh frDsh s'_ puD bJh gfo;zgshnK pdbD s'_ fwbD tkbh ewkJh B{z fit/_ fe
ikfJdkd dh fteoh iK pKvK ns/ ;feT[foNh dh fteoh s'_ j'Jh ewkJh B{z th e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB
ftu Fkwb Bjh_ ehsk iKdk feT[_fe fJj sK f;oc ikfJdkd d/ o{g dh jh ndbk pdbh j?.
1H2H4H3 F[ Z X okFNoh T[sgkdB
F[ZX ok;Noh T[sgkdB, ;kb Go ftu T[sgkfds t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ F[ZX w[dok d/ w[bK d/
i'V B{z efjzd/ jB. t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ T[sgkdB eod/ j'fJnk g{zih gdkoEk dh N[ZN GZi iK fx;kJh
nkfd d/ ekoD T[BQK d/ w[ZbK ftu e[M ewh j' iKdh j?. g{zih gdkoEK dh fJ; N[ZN GZi fx;kJh
(depreciation) dk BK fdZsk j?. ngqubs (obsolencence) d/ ekoB g{zih gdkoEK d/ w[dok w[ZbK
ftu ewh j[zdh j?. e[b okFNoh ftu'_ gz{ih gdkoEK d/ w[ZbK ftu j'Jh T[go'es d'B'_ soQK dh ewh B{z
eZY d/D Bkb i' pkeh oew pudh j?, B{z pk}koh w[ZbK s/ F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB fejk iKdk j?.
;gZFN j? fe e[Zb okFNoh ns/ F[ZX T[sgkdB dk nkg; ftu v{zxk ;zpzX j?. fJ; B[z ;wheoD
d/ o{g ftu dZf;nk ik ;edk j?.
F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB - e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB - N[ZN-GZi ngqubB)
g{zih gdkoEK d/ w[Zb ftu N[ZN GZi ekoD j'Jh ewh B{z bZGDk okFNoh nkwdB b/yk d/ y/so
ftu ;G s'_ tZvh w[Feb j?. N[ZN GZi dk nzdk}k bkT[D bJh nkw s"o s/ tgkohnK d/ fj;kp feskp
(records) B{z jh wzB fbnk iKdk j? ns/ ukb{ gqsh;EkgB (replacement) pko/ d[[pkok nzdk}/ Bjh_
bkJ/ iKd/. fJ; soQK F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB iK pk}koh ehwsK s/ F[ZX okFNoh nkwdB - fBih T[gG'r
you O F[ZX xo/b{ fBih fBt/F O F[ZX ftd/Fh fBt/F O t;sK ns/ ;/tktK s/ ;oekoh you.
1H2H4H4 e[ Z b okFNoh you
d/F dh e[b nkwdB jw/FK e[b you/ d/ pokpo j[zdh j? feT[_fe w[dok ;"fdnK dk ;o{g n;b
ftu d'-gZyh (dual) j[zdk j?. fJ; soQK okFNoh T[sgkdB, T[BQK ;ko/ yofunK dk i'V j? i' fe fJZe
;kb ftu t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dh yohd bJh ehsk iKdk j?. fJj you j/m fdZshnK wdK dk i'V j[zdk
j?.
1H fBZ i h T[gG' r
fJ; ftu fe;/ d/F d/ ftneshnK tZb'_ fBZih T[gG'r T[Zs/ ehsk frnk jo fe;w dk you Fkwb
j[zdk j?. noEks ;kohnK gkfJdko ns/ d{ihnK T[gg'r t;sK ns/ ;G soQK dhnK ;/tktK s/ ehsk frnk
you Fkwb j[zdk j? ns/ Bkb jh wkfXne t;sK s/ ehsk frnk youk th Fkwb ehsk iKdk j?.
2H e[ Zb xo/ b { fBZi h fBt/ F
fJ; wZd EZb/ fBZih fBt/FeK tZb'_ Bt/_ fBt/F g[okDh g{zih d/ gqfs;EkgB s/ ehsk frnk you
Fkwb j[zdk j?. fJ; ftu F/noK dk ftZsh spkdbk Fkwb Bjh_ j[zdk, feT[_fe T[BQK dh t/u iK yohd
n;b fBt/F Bjh_ eokT[_dh. N[ZN GZi d/ you B{z th i'V ehsk iKdk j?.
3H F[ Z X ftd/ F h fBt/ F
fJ; s'_ fJbktk pokwdK ns/ dokwdK dk nzso noEks pokwdK dk tkXk j?. fJ; soQK pokwdK
(Exports) ns/ pokwdK (Import) d/ w[ZbK d/ nzso B{z Gkt/_ T[j XBkswe j? iK foDkswe j? e[Zb
okFNoh T[sgkdB ftu Fkwb ehsk iKdk j?.
1H2H4H5 t;sK ns/ ;/ t ktK T[ Zs / ;oekoh you
;oeko d[nkok t;sK ns/ ;/tktK T[Zs/ ehsk frnk you th e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB dk fjZ;k
j?. fJ; ftu ;oeko d[nkok ubkJ/ ik oj/, T[d:'rK s/ ehsk youk th Fkwb j[zdk j?. gozs{ NoK;co
G[rskBK s/ ehsk frnk you, fJ; ftu Fkwb Bjh_ ehsk iKdk feT[_fe fJj G[rskB ukb{ ;kb ftu g?dk
j'JhnK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK d/ pdb/ ftu Bjh_ ehs/ iKd/.
fJ; soQK e[Zb you ftXh nB[;ko, e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB & fBZih T[gG'r you (C) O e[Zb
xo/b{ fBZih fBt/F (1) O F[ZX ftd/Fh fBt/F (X–M) O t;sK ns/ ;/tktK s/ ;oekoh you (G) .
fe;/ d/F ftu fJ; ;kb d"okB T[E'_ d/ b'eK B{z T[sgkdeh feqnktK d/ pdb/ i' nkwdB gqkgs
j[zdh j?, T[; B{z ;kXB bkrs s/ okFNoh nkwdB efjzd/ jB. jo/e d/F ftu T[sgkfds t;sK ns/
;/tktK T[sgkdB d/ ;kXBK d/ ;fj:'r s'_ gqkgs j[zdhnK jB. fJBQK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dk wzvh w[Zb,
T[sgkfds t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dh T[sgkdB bkrs j[zdk j?. fJ; soQK d/F d/ b'eK B{z T[sgkdB ;/tktK
d/ pdb/ i' e[M gqkgs j[zdk j? T[jh ;kXB bkrs d/ okFNoh T[sgkdB j?.
T[sgkfds t;sK d/ w[dok w[Zb B{z fGzB fGzB T[sgkde ;kXBK ftu w}d{oh (Wages), brkB
(Rent), ftnk} (Interest) ns/ bkG (Profit) d/ o{g ftu tzfvnk iKdk j?. fJBQK ;kXBK dh nkwdB,
T[sgkfds t;sK d/ pk}koh w[Zb d/ pokpo j[zdh j?.
;kXB ehws s/ okFNoh nkwdB ns/ wzvh ehws s/ okFNoh nkwdB ftu coe j[zdk j? feT[_fe
i' w[dok w[Zb, ygseko, t;sK s/ ;/tktK dh yohd s/ you eod/ jB, T[j T[sgkdB ;kXBK B{z gqkgs
j'Jh oew s'_ f}nkdk iK xZN j' ;edk j?. fJ; nzso ngqsZy N?e;, ;oekoh nB[dkB (Subsidy) ns/
;oeko d[nkok ewkJ/ bkGK d/ ekoB j[zd/ jB.
d/F ftu g?dk j'JhnK t;sK, p}ko w[Zb s/ t/uhnK iKdhnK jB. fJ; ftu ngqsZy N?e;
(Taxes) th ;zfwbs j[zd/ jB. fJ; soQK okFNoh T[sgkdB ;kXBK B{z fdZs/ rJ/ fJtikB/ Bkb'_, ngqsZy
N?e;K dh okFh d/ pokpo f}nkdk j[zdk j?.
gqzs{ ;oekoh nB[dkB d/ f;ZN/ ti'_, t;sK dh pk}koh ehws, ;kXB bkrs Bkb'_ xZN j[zdh j?.
fJ; soQK nB[dkB dh oew B{z pk}koh ehws s/ okFNoh nkwdB ftu i'VB Bkb, ;kXB bkrs dk gsk
bZr ;edk j?, ;wheoD d/ o{g ftu L
;kXB bkrs s/ okFNoh nkwdB = pk}koh ehws s/ okFNoh nkwdB - ngqsZy eo O nB[dkB
;oekoh bkG.
e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkdB, F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB ns/ ;kXB bkrs s/ okFNoh nkwdB dk nkg;h
;zpzX ;wheoD d/ o{g ftu fJt/_ dZf;nk ik ;edk j? L
1H2H5 e[Zb xo/b{ T[sgkd ns/ ;eb okFNoh T[sgkd ftu ;zpzX (Relation between Gross
Domestic Product and Gross National Product) : okFNoh T[sgkd d/ ftgohs xo/b{ T[sgkd dk
;zpzX fJe fBFfus G{r'fbe y/so d/ Bkb j[zdk j?. okFNoh T[sgkd d/ noE ftFb/FD d/ ;zpzX ftu
n;h_ fJj fJj ikfDnk ;h fe fJe okFNoh dk T[sgkd d/ ;z;ko d/ fe;/ th y/so ftu j' ;edk j?
fiE/ T[j okFNo d/ fBtk;h ofjzd/ jB. b/feB xo/b{ T[sgkd e/tb okFNoh j'_d sZe ;hws j[zdk j?.
noEks okFNoh jZd d/ nzdo T[sgkds t;s{nK ns/ ;/tktK B{z xo/b{ T[sgkd ejKr/. fJ; soQK okFNoh
T[sgkd d/ ftgohs xo/b{ T[sgkd ftu ftd/Fh s'_ F[ZX nkwdB B{z Bjh_ i'fVnk iKdk. d{i/ FpdK ftu
i/ fe;/ d/F d/ e[Zb xo/b{ T[sgkd ftu ftd/FK s'_ gqkgs F[ZX ;kXB nkwdB i'V fdZsk ikt/. Gkt T[;
d/F d/ BkrfoeK okjh_ ftd/FK ftu ehsk frnk T[sgkd i'V fdZsk ikt/ ns/ ftd/FhnK okjh_ T[; d/F
d/ nzdo ehsk ikD tkbk T[sgkd xNk fdZsk ikt/ sK e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkd dk nB[wkB brkfJnk ik
;edk j?.
i/eo F[ZX ;kXB nkwdB xBkswe jz[dh j? sK e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkd e[Zb xo/b{ T[sgkd s'_
f}nkdk j't/rk. fJ;dk ftgohs i/ F[ZX ftd/Fh ;kXB nkwdB foDkswe j[zdh j? sK e[Zb okFNoh T[sgkd
e[Zb xo/b{ T[sgkd s'_ xZN j't/rk.
1H2H6 nkwdB dhnK e[M j'o XkoBktK
okFNoh nkwdB dhnK T[go'es XkoBktK s'_ fJbktk, nkwdB dhnK e[M j'o XkoBktK fijVhnK
fe e[M fBt/F we;dK dh gqkgsh bJh bkGekoh jB, j/m fdZshnK jB.
(T) ftneshrs nkwdB (Personal Income)
ftneshrs nkwdB d/F d/ b'eK B{z fJe ;kb ftu gqkgs j'D tkbh nkwdB d/ pokpo j?.
ftneshrs nkwdB ed/ th okFNoh nkwdB d/ pokpo Bjh_ j[zdh. feT[_fe ftneshrs nkwdB ftu
NoK;co G[rsdkB Fkwb j[zd/ jB id'+ fe fJj okFNoh nkwdB ftu Fkwb Bjh_ j[zd/. g?BFB, p/ekoh
GZsk nkfd i' e[M fJj ftnesh B{z fwbd/ jB, T[;dh ftneshrs nkwdB ftu Fkwb ehs/ ikD/ ukjhd/
jB feT[_fe fJj T[; tk;s/ nkwdB j?, id'_ fe okFNoh nkwdB ftu ezgBhnK s/ bZr/ nkwdB eo ns/
;z:[es g{zih ezgBhnK d/ nDtzv/ bkG Fkwb ehs/ iKd/ jB. fJ; soQK jh ftneshnK dh nkwdB ftu
;wkfie ;[oZfynk bJh ehsh rJh eN"sh th T[BQK dh nkwdB Bjh_. fJ; soQK ftneshrs nkwdB bZGD
bJh NoK;co G[rskB, okFNoh nkwdB ftu iwQK ehs/ iKd/ jB ns/ ekog'o/FBK d/ nDtzv/ bkG
ekog'o/FB s/ bZr/ nkwdB eo ns/ ;wkfie ;[oZfynk bJh fdZshnK oewK fJ; ftu'_ xNkJhnK iKdhnK
jB. fJ; bJh, ftneshrs nkwdB & F[ZX okFNoh nkwdB O NoK;co G[rskB - ;z:[es g{zih ezgBhnK
d/ nDtzv/ bkG - ekog'o/FBK s/ bZr/ nkwdB eo - ;wkfie ;[oZfynk bJh nkwdB ftu'_ ehsh eN"sh.
(n) you eoB :'r nkwdB (Disposable Income)
you eoB :'r nkwdB dk Gkt, nkwdB dk T[j Gkr j? i' fe gqsZy N?e; d/D s'_ pknd
b'eK d/ e'b ofj iKdk j?. gqsZy N?e;K d/ xNkT[D s'_ pknd i' nkwdB pkeh ofj iKdh j? T[j you
eoB :'r d/ pokpo j[zdh j?. you eoB :'r nkwdB, XB d/ o{g ftu gqkgs j'D tkbh nkwdB dk
i'V j? i' ftneshnK e'b n;b ftu you eoB bJh ofjzdh j?.
you eoB :'r okFh d/ fjZf;nK ftu tzvh ik ;edh j?. fJe Gkr T[go'es s/ you ehsk
iKdk j? s/ d{ik Gkr puk fbnk iKdk j? noEks nkwdB dk fJe tZvk Gkr ftneshnK d[nkok T[gG'r
t;sK s/ you eo fdZsk iKdk j? ns/ e[M Gkr puk fbnk iKdk j?. ;wheoD d/ o{g ftu L
you eoB :'r nkwdB & T[gG'r you O pZus.
(J ) fBZih nkwdB (Private Income)
fJ; ftu N?e; s'_ gfjbK fBZih nkwdB, iwQK N?e; s'_ gfjbK ezgBhnK d/ nDtzv/ bkG Fkwb
j[zd/ jB.
(;) fBrw nkwdB (Corporation Income)
fBrw nkwdB, ezgBhnK ns/ ;oekoh ekog'o/FBK d/ bkG ns/ pkeh nkwdB dk i'V j[zdh j?
i/ fJ; ftu'_ nkwdB eo ns/ bkG N?e; xNk fdZs/ ikD sK fJj you eoB :'r nkwdB ofj iKdh
j?.
(j ) tk;sfe nkwdB, n;b ftu okFNoh nkwdB B{z jh, fe;/ yk; ;kb B{z nkXko wzB e/, ehwsK
d/ nkw gZXo d/ o{g ftu dZ;dh j?. okFNoh nkwdB ukb{ ehwsK s/ d/F ftu g?dk j'JhnK t;sK dk
w[doe w[Zb j?. gozs{ fJ; Bkb noE ftt;Ek pko/ ;jh gsk Bjh_ brdk. noE ftt;Ek dh ;jh jkbs
dk gsk noE ftt;Ek dh tk;sfte nkwdB d/ gZXo s'_ jh bkfJnk ik ;edk j?.
fe;/ d/F dh tk;sfte nkwdB dk gsk brkT[D bJh, fJe yk; ;kb B{z nkXko wzfBnk iKdk
j?. fi; Bkb ehws gZXo Bk f}nkdk T[Zuk s/ Bk f}nkdk BhtK j[zdk j? ns/ T[; bJh ehwsK d/ gZXo
B{z 100 d/ pokpo wzB fbnk iKdk j?. j[D fe;/ ;kb d/ ehwsK d/ nkw gZXo fi; ;kb bJh gqsh
ftnesh nkwdB (Per-Capita Income) .
fe;/ yk; ;kb ftu fe;/ d/F dh ftnesh dh n";s nkwdB B{z gqsh ftnesh nkwdB fejk
iKdk j?. i/ fe;/ d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB B{z T[; ;kb dh iB ;zfynk Bkb tzv fdZsk ikt/ sK ;kB{z
T[; dh gqsh ftnesh nkwdB gqkgs j' iKdh j?.
gqsh ftnesh nkwdB tXkT[D bJh, iK sK d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB tXkJh ikt/, ns/ iK
iB^;zfynk xNkJh ikt/ sK d't/_ sohe/ tos/ ikD. gqsh ftnesh nkwdB dh XkoBk d[nkok ;kB{z fe;/
d/F d/ b'eK d/ ihtB gZXo dk gsk ubdk j? ns/ fJ; soQK d/F dh nkofEe T[Bsh dk wkg j?.
gqsh ftnesh nkwdB - d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB
d/F dh iB-;zfynk
n;bh nkwdB (Real Income) : n;bh nkwdB fe;/ ;kb B{z nkXko pDk e/ ehwsK Bkb
gqrNkfJnk iKdk j?. id'_ T[; ;w/_ ehwsK dk ;kXkoB gZXo BK T[Zuk j[zdk j? s/ Bk BhtK, id'_ fe T[;
;w/_ ehwsK dk nkXko 100 wzfBnk ikt//.
n;bh F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkdB = F[ZX okFNoh T[sgkd gqubs ;kb ftu
nkXko ;kb ;{ue nze

x
gqubs ;kb ;{ue nze
Base year index
Real NNP = NNP for current year ×
Current year index
1H2H7 okFNoh nkwdB dk wkg (Measurement of National Income)
okFNoh nkwdB d/ wkg bJh fe;/ th ftXh dh tos'_ fJ; rZb s/ fBoGo eodh j?, fe n;h_
eh we;d jZb eoBk ukj[zd/ jK < ns/ eh T[; ftXh dh tos'_ eoB bJh T[; fe;w d/ nzeV/ fwbd/
jB, iK Bjh_ < okFNoh nkwdB B{z wkgD bJh fBwB ftXhnK jB L
1H T[sgkdB ftXh (The Product Method)
2H nkwdB ftXh (Income Method)
3H you ftXh (Expenditure Method)
4H ;wkfie b/yk ftXh (Social Accounting Method)
5H fwFfos ftXh (Mixed Method)
1H T[sgkdB ftXh (Product Method)
fJ; ftXh nB[;ko d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk eod/ j'J/ ;G nzfsw t;sK ns/ ;/tktK
i' fJ; ;w/_ dh ntXh ftu g?dk j[zdhnK jB d/ dqt w[Zb B{z i'V e/, okFNoh nkwdB gqkgs ehsh iKdh
j?. fJ; we;d bJh noE ftt;Ek B{z fszB fjZf;nK ftu tzfvnk ik ;edk j? fit/_ fe gqkEfwe y/so
(Primary Sector), r"D y/so (Secondary Sector) ns/ sh;ok y/so (Teritiary Sector) nkfd.
fJ; ftXh nB[;ko jo/e y/so dh T[sgkfds nkwdB d/ pko/ ikDekoh bJh iKdh j?. fJ; ftXh Bkb
okFNoh nkwdB d/ fGzB-fGzB ;o'sK d/ wjZst dk gsk brdk j? fJ; ftXh nB[;ko, gqkgs ehsh rJh
okFNoh nkwdB B{z T[d:'fre w[ZY d/ nB[;ko gqkgs okFNoh nkwdB (National Income by
Industrial Origin) iK pk}koh ehwsK s/ okFNoh nkwdB (National Income at Market Prices)
fejk iKdk j?. i/ noE ftt;Ek ftu T[sgkdB ;zpzXh ;G nzeV/ (Statistics) gqkgs j'D sK jh fJ;
ftXh B{z ;cbsk g{ote tofsnk ik ;edk j?. fJ; ftXh d/ nB[;ko fJe t;s{ B{z fJe jh tko okFNoh
nkwdB ftu frDBk ukjhdk j?, d{;o/ FpdK ftu d'joh rDBk (double counting)d dh ;wZf;nk s'_
pukn eoBk ukjhdk j?. fJ; T[d/F dh g{osh d/ bJh }o{oh j? fe L
1H f;oc nzfsw t;sK (final goods) dh pk}ko ftu ehws frDh ikt/.
2H ;G t;sK d/ f;oc ykb; tk;sfte w[ZbK B{z okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK ftu Fkfwb
ehsk ikt/.
2H nkwdB ftXh (Income Method)
fJ; ftXh nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBK bJh T[sgkdB d/ ;kXBK dh nkwdB, noEks
w}d{oh, ftnk}, brkB ns/ bkG dk i'V ehsk iKdk j?. fJ; ftXh nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk
bJh b'eK dh T[sgkdB ;kXBK d/ wkbe d/ s"o s/ gqkgs j'Jh nkwdB B{z jh i'fVnk iKdk j?. T[BQK
B{z NoK;co G[rskBK (Transfer Payments) d/ s"o s/ gqkgs nkwdB ftu Bjh_ frfDnk iKdk. fJ;
soQK okFNoh nkwdB ftu fGzB fGzB T[sgkdB ;kXBK d/ :'rdkB dk gsk ubdk j?. fJ; ftXh B{z
T[sgkdB ;kXBK dh nkwdB nB[;ko oFNoh nkwdB (National Income through Distributive
Shares) iK ;kXB bkrs s/ okFNoh nkwdB th efj fdZsk iKdk j?. fJ; ftXh nB[;ko okFNoh
nkwdB j/m fbyhnK oewK dk i'V eoB Bkb gqkgs j[zdh j?.
(T) ;G soQK d/ w}d{oK dh ;kbkBk w}d{oh ns/ nkwdB nkfd.
(n) ;G soQK d/ brkB.
(J) g{zihgshnK B{z g{zih s'_ fwbD tkbk ftnki.
(;) ;z:[es ezgBhnK dk bkG.
(j) ;z:[es ezgBhnK d/ pukJ/ j'J/ bkG dk fjZ;k i' fe GkJhtkbh ftu tzfvnk Bjh_ iKdk.
fJ; ftXh nB[;ko okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk eod/ j'J/ NoK;co G[rskBK B{z okFNoh nkwdB
ftu Bjh_ i'fVnk iKdk feT[_fe fJj G[rskB nfij/ j[zd/ jB fe i' e[M b'eK B{z fpBK ezw ehs/ gqkgs
j[zd/ (Expenditure Method) jB. fJ; bJh nfij/ G[rskBK B{z i'Vh nkwdB dk fjZ;k Bjh_ wzfBnk
ik ;edk.
3H you ftXh (Expenditure Method)
fJ; ftXh nB[ ;ko okFNoh nkwdB, fJe ;kb d/ d"o kB ehs/ ikD tkb/ e[ M youK d/
i'V d/ pokpo j[ zd h j? . fJ; soQ K fJ; ftXh nB[ ;ko, nkwdB dk gsk eoB bJh fBZih T[ g G'r ,
e[ b fBZih xo/b { fB:'r , ;oeko d[ n kok ehs/ rJ/ e[ Zb you ns/ F[ ZX pd/F h ftB:'r dk i'V
brkT[ D g?_d k j? . fJ; soQ K wzv h ehwsK s/ ;kB{z e[ b okFNoh T[ sgkdB gqk gs j[ zd k j? . fJ; ftu'_
N[ ZN GZi s/ fx;kJh eZY e/ pk}ko ehwsK s/ F[ ZX okFNoh T[ sgkdB gqk gs j[ zd k j? . nf;ZX / N?e ;
xNk d/D Bkb ;kXB bkrs s/ okFNoh T[ sgkdB gqk gs ehsk ik ;edk j? . okFNoh T[ sgkdB B{z
wkgD dh fJ; ftXh nB[ ;ko, e[ b okFNoh T[ sgkdB B{z t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dk ;wki d[ n kok,
w[ d oe G[ r skBK d/ o{g ftu gqtkj d/ s"o s/ t/f ynk iKdk j? . e[ Zb okFNoh T[ sgkdB dk you
ftXh nB[ ;ko w[ d oe w[ Zb , T[ sgkdB ftXh d[ n kok gqk gs ehs/ w[ d oe w[ Zb s'_ tyok j' ;edk j?
feT[ _f e fJ; yk; ;w/_ ftu ;wki fizB hnK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK yohddk j? , T[ j T[ ; ;w/_ d/
T[ sgkdB Bkb'_ fI}nkdk iK xZN th j' ;edhnK jB. i/ f}nkdk j'D sK d/F dk okytK wkb
(ainventor stock) xN/ r k Bjh_ sK T[ ; ;w/ _ d/ nyho s/ fJz B k f}nkdk j' t / r k fiz B k fe T[ ;
;w/_ dh yohd, e[ Zb T[ sgkdB Bkb'_ xZN j? . okyt/_ Gzv ko/ d/ ftu }o{o h ;wk:' iB (adjustment)
eoe/ okFNoh nkwdB dh frDsh d'j K sohfenK Bkb fJe' fizB h gqk gs j'D h ukjhdh j? . fJ;
s'_ fJbktk, i' t;sK pk}ko ftu fteD bJh Bjh_ nkT[ _d hnK iK T[ B Q K dk tNKdok j[ zd k j? iK
T[ B Q K dk f;ZX / s"o s/ T[ g G'r j' iKdk j? fit/_ fe noX ftef;s d/F K ftu tkgodk j? , sK e[ Zb
you B{z i'V e/ gqk gs ehsk nzd k}k T[ s gkdB ftXh Bkb gqk gs j'J / e[ Z b okFNoh T[ sgkdB Bkb'_
xZN j't /r k. nfijh jkbs ftu nfij/ ;"f dnK d/ pk}koh w[ Zb B{ z i' wzv h ftu Bjh_ j[ zd / B{z Fkwb
eoBk gt/r k i' fe pj[ s n"y h ;ze bg ;zp zX h (a conceptual) ;wZf ;nk j? .
i/ ;kvh rDBk mhe sohe/ Bkb j't/ sK fJBQK sohfenK Bkb okFNoh nkwdB dh fJe' fijh
frDsh j't/rh. fJ; soQK okFNoh nkwdB dh fJBQK fszBK sohfenK Bkb fJe frDsh dk ekoB fJj
j? fe noE ftt;Ek ftu nkwdB, T[sgkdB ns/ you d/ o{g ftu gqtkj ubd/ jh ofjzd/ jB i' nkg;
ftu nzso ;zpzfXs jB.
4H ;wkfie b/yk ftXh (Social Accounting Method)
okFNoh nkwdB B{z wkgD dh fJj ;Zioh (recent) ftXh nB[;ko i' fe fouov ;N'B
(Richard Stone) B/ ftef;s ehsh, tZy tZy fe;w dhnK ;"d/pk}hnK dh tZy tZy r[oZgK Bkb ;zpzXs
e[M e[M gqshfBX ftneshnK dhnK ;"d/pk}hnK d/ nzefVnK B{z fXnkB nXhB oZy e/ okFNoh nkwdB
d/ nzdk}/ fsnko ehsk iKd/ jB.
5H fwFos ftXh (Mixed Method)
eJh tko okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk bJh d' iK fszBK ftXhnK B{z obk fwbk e/ tos'_ ftu
fbnKdk iKdk j?. fJ; ftXh B{z fwFos ftXh iK ;z:[es ftXh (Combined Method) dk BK fdZsk iKdk
j?. fJ; ftXh dh tos'_ dh b'V T[; ;w/_ j[zdh j? id'_ fe;/ fJe ftXh iK d' ftXhnK dh tos'_ Bk ehsh
ik ;edh j't/ sK T[BQK ftXhnK dh tos'_ bJh nzeV/ gqkgs Bk j'D. i/eo noE ftt;Ek ftu pj[s b'eh
eJh XzfdnK ftu bZr/ j'D sK nkwdB ftXh dh tos'_ pj[s T[fus Bjh_ j't/rh. fJ; soQK i/ T[sgkdB
;zpzXh nzefVnK dh ewh j't/ sK T[sgkdB ftXh dh tos'_ th ;zs'yiBe f;ZN/ Bjh_ d/ ;edh. fJ;/ soQK
tgko ;zpzXh nzefVnK dh nDj'_d ftu, you ftXh dk fJ;s/wkb eoBk mhe Bjh_ j?. nfijh jkbs ftu
fwFos ftXh ;jkfJe f;ZX j[zdh j?. Gkos ftu 1948-49 ftu okFNoh nkwdB ew/Nh B/ fwFos ftXh
dk jh gq:'r ehsk feT[_fe T[sgkdB iK nkwdB ftXh fJeZb/ fJeZb/ mhe f;ZN/ Bk d/ ;eh.
jo n;tEk (stage) s/ w[ZbK dk i'V iK nzfsw t;sK d/ w[Zb dh ftXh L
okFNoh nkwdB dk nzdk}k brkT[_d/ j'J/ eJh tko d[joh frDsh dh ;wZf;nk g?dk j' iKdh
j?. d'joh frDsh s'_ Gkt t;s{ d/ w[Zb iK fe;/ ftnesh dh nkwdB B{z fJe tko Bkb'_ f}nkdk tko
frD b?D Bkb j? fi; Bkb okFNoh nkwdB dk nzdk}k tX iKdk j?. fJ; w[Ffeb s'_ puD bJh nzfsw
t;sK iK ;/tktK d/ w[dfoe w[Zb B{z jh okFNoh nkwdB ftu i'fVnk iKdk j?. nzfsw gdkoE T[j
gdkoE j[zd/ jB i' nzfsw T[gG'r bJh tos/ iKd/ jB. wkfXnkfwe t;sK T[j j[zdhnK jB i' fe d{;oh
t;s{ d/ pDkT[D bJh toshnK iKdhnK jB. Gkt/_ eJh tko fJj c?;bk w[Ffeb j' iKdk j? fe fejV/
gdkoE wkfXnkfwe gdkoE jB ns/ fejV/ nzfsw gEkoE jB. okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ;w/_
wkfXnkfwe gdkoEK B{z Fkwb Bjh_ eoBk ukjhdk feT[_fe nfijk eoB Bkb okFNoh nkwdB dk nzdk}k
nkgD/ nzdk}/ Bkb'_ tZX iKdk j?. nfijh ;wZf;nk d/ j/m fby/ d' ;zGt sohe/ jB L-
1H nkofEe feqnk dh jo nt;Ek (stage) T[s/ w[ZbK ftu j'J/ tkX/ dk i'V eo b?Dk, iK
2H nzfsw t;sK d/ w[ZbK B{z b?Dk.
1H2H8 okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ftu efmBkJhnK (Difficulties in the Measurement of
National Income)
okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk dk ezw pj[s w[Ffeb j?. okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk d/ okj ftu
pj[s ;kohnK f;XKfse ns/ fttjkfoe w[FebK nkT[_dhnK jB. e[iB/N; (Kuznets) nB[;ko, fJj
n"eVK j/m fbyhnK jB L
1H okFNo dh gfoGkFk (Definition of Nation) : ;G s'_ gfjbh w[Ffeb fe;/ okFNo dh
gfoGkFk, T[; dhnK jZdK ns/ y/so B{z fBFfus eoB dh j?. ;ze[fus o{g ftu okFNoh nkwdB s'_ Gkt,
f;oc d/F dhnK G"fse jZdK ftu ofjD tkfbnK dh nkwdB dk i'V jh wzfBnk ikDk ukjhdk j?. fJ;
soQK ftd/FK s'_ gqkgs j'D tkbh nkwdB B{z okFNoh nkwdB ftu Fkwb eoBk T[fus Bjh_ j't/rk.
ft;fsqs fdqFNhe'D s'_ i/eo okFNo dk Gkt T[; d/F d/ ;G BkrfoeK s'_ j? i' d/F iK ftd/FK
ftu ofjzd/ jB sK okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK dk nkXko pdb iKdk j?. fJ; soQK okFNo dh mhe
gqhGkFk d/Dh fJe wjZstg{oB n"eV j?.
2H ftXh dh u'D (Choice of Method)
okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ftu d{ih w[Ffeb fJj j? fe fJ; B{z wkgD bJh fejVh ftXh dh
tos'_ ehsh ikt/. feT[_fe jo ftXh d/ nkgD/ jh r[D ns/ d'F j[zd/ jB. d/F d/ jo y/so bJh, fJe
;otwkBh ftXh dh u'D eoBk th fJe nfjw ;wZf;nk j?.
3H nkofEe feqnk dh nt;Ek (Stage of Economic Activity)
fJj th fJe Gkoh ;wZf;nk j? fe nkofEe feqnk dh fejVh ;N/i s/ nkwdBh d/ nzeV/ bJ/
ikD. okFNoh nkwdB B{z T[gG'r, you, nkfd feqnktK d/ nkXko s/ wkfgnk ik ;edk j?. fJ; ;zpzX
ftu noE-Fk;sohnK dk efjDk j? fe ;N/i d/ pko/ ftu fBoDk okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk d/ T[d/F
ns/ nzefVnK dh gqkgsh s/ fBoGo eodk j?.
4H fejVhnK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK (Which Goods and Services ?)
fJBQK w[FfebK ftu'_ gfjbhnK fszB w[FebK sK ekch jZd sZe jZb j' u[ZehnK jB. okFNoh
nkwdB dh XkoBk ;zpzXh fijVh w[Feb ni/ sZe jZb Bjh_ j' ;eh T[j fJj j? fe okFNoh nkwdB
dh frDsh ftZu fejVhnK t;sK ns/ ;/tktK Fkwb ehshnK ikD. nkw s"o s/ T[j t;sK ns/ ;/tktK
fiBQK dk w[dfoe w[b j[zdk j? T[BQK B{z okFNoh nkwdB ftu Fkwb ehsk iKdk j? T[BQK B{z okFNoh
nkwdB ftu Fkwb ehsk iKdk j?. gqzs{ eJh nfijhnK t;sK j[zdhnK jB fiBQK d/ pdb/ e'Jh w[dfoe
G[rskB Bjh_ jz[dk. nfijh F/qDh ftu n;h_ ghr{ dk gqf;ZX fto'XkGk; (Paradox) b?_d/ jK fi; soQK fe
e[M ;/tktK fgnko ns/ d:k ti'_ jh ehshnK iKdhnK jB fiBQK dk nkofEe gZy sK j[zdk j? gqzs{ w[dfoe
w[Zb Bjh_ j[zdk.
5H T[go'es nzefVnK dk gqkgs Bk j'Dk, iK ekch s/ xZN ftFtk;:'r j'Dk th okFNoh nkwdB
dh rDBk d/ okj ftu ;wZf;nk j?. nfte;s d/FK ftu fJ; w[Ffeb dk rzGho o{g jz[dk j? feT[_fe
fJZE/ ;zpzfXs nzeV/ mhe ns/ n;bh jkbs ftu Bjh_ fwbd/. Gkos dh okFNoh nkwdB ew/Nh nB[;ko,
yk; eoe/ Gkos ftu y/sh ns/ S'N/ T[d:'rK Bkb ;zpzfXs nzeV/ pj[s nftFtk; :'r ns/ nX{o/ jB.
6H t;s{ ftfB:w dk j'Dk (Existence of Barter)
t;s{ tNKdok gqDkbh d/ nzsors d/ pdb/ t;sK dk b?D d/D jz[dk j?. nfijh gqDkbh ftu
w[dok ftfB:w dk g{ok ftek; Bjh_ j[zdk. nfijh jkbs ftu fJj nzdk}k bkT[Dk n;zGt j? fe fJe
fBFfus ;w/_ ftu t;sK ns/ ;/tktK dk fezBk fezBk T[sgkdB j'fJnk j?. fJj ;wZf;nk nkw s"o s/
nftef;s d/FK ftu gkJh iKdh j?.
7H fJz s ekbh G[ r skB dh ;wZ f ;nk
okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ;w/_ fJzsekbh G[rskBK (Transfer Payments) d/ cb;o{g th
rbsh dh ;zGktBk pDh ofjzdh j?. nfij/ G[rskB e[M ftneshnK B{z fpBK fe;/ T[sgkdB ekoi d/
gqkgs j[zd/ jB. fJ; ;wZf;nk d/ jZb bJh ;G s'_ tXhnK sohek fJj j? fe ftneshnK d/ r[oZgK dh,
you eoB :'r nkwdB (Disposable Income) B{z jh fXnkB ftu oZfynk ikt/, noEks T[BQK dh fBZih
nkwdB ftu'_ ;ko/ fJzsekbh G[rskB xNk fdZs/ ikD.
8H ;oeko d[nkok ehs/ rJ/ G[rskBK ekoB th okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk d/ okj ftu efmBkJh
nkT[_dh j?. noE Fk;sohnK dh fJj nkw okfJ j? fe ;oeko d/ oki gqpzXe ezwK B{z fit/_ fe T[j
;wki B{z gqkgs j'JhnK nzfsw ;/tktK ftu tkXk eod/ jB ns/ ;oeko dh fJBQK ;/tktK d/ o{g ftu
d/D, ;oeko tZb'_ w}d{ohnK ns/ sBykjK d/ G[rskB d/ pokpo j't/rh ns/ d/F d[nkok g{zih dh pDso
B{z fe;/ j'o T[sw d[nkok ehsh g{zih dh pDso wzfBnk iKdk j?.
9H nX{oh ftt;kfJe ftFFNheoB (Incomplete Occupational Specialisation) ekoB th
T[d:'fre w[ZY iK tzv F/noK nB[;ko okFNo nkwdB dh rDBk dk ezw n"yk j' iKdk j? feT[_fe
nofEe feqnktK B{z tZyok-tZyok eoB dh ;wZf;nk g?dk j' iKdh j?. nftef;s d/FK ftu eJh b'e fJe
s'_ tZX ezwK ftu bZr/ j'J/ j[zd/ jB. fw;kb ti'_ Gkosh y/sh ftu bZr/ b'e T[d:'rK ftu th ezw eod/
jB. fJ; soQK nfij/ w}d{oK B{z fe;/ yk; Xzd/ ;zpzXh ftfF;NheoB nB[;ko oZyDk w[Feb j' iKdk j?.
10H fe;/ d/F ftu pd/Fh cowK (Foreign Firms) :
ekoB gqkgs j'D tkbh nkwdB th fJe ;wZf;nk g?dk eodh j?. fJj t/yD dh b'V j? fe fJBQK
cowK dh nkwdB, T[; d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB dk fjZ;k j? fi; ftu fJj uZb ojhnK jB iK fi;
d/F dhnK fJj cowK jB < fJ; ;zpzXh ftu nzso okFNoh w[dok czv (I.M.F.) d/ cst/ (Verdict)
B{z ;G B/ ;theko ehsk j? fe fJ; soQK dh nkwdB T[; d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB ejkJ/rh fiE/ T[j
cow ezw eo ojh j?, gzqs{ pd/Fh cowK d[nkok ewkJ/ rJ/ bkG fpd/FhnK dh nkwdB j'Dr/.
11H nzfsw ns/ wkfXnkfwe t;sK ftu rDBk dh ;wZf ;nk L
okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk eod/ j'J/ eJh tkoh fJj c?;bk eoBk th n"yk j' iKdk j? fe
fejV/ gdkoE nzfsw ns/ fejV/ wkfXnkfwe jB. fJ;gks, ;hfwzN, ;zd nkfd gdkoE fJe EK s/ nzfsw
gdkoE wzB/ iKd/ jB id fe d{ih EK s/ T[jh gdkoE wkfXnkfwe ;kps j' iKd/ jB ns/ fJ; soQK
d'joh frDsh s/ ;zGktBk dh ;wZf;nk pDh ofjzdh j?.
12H b'eK dh nfrnkBsk iK ;wkfie-nkofEe gSfVnkgB (Socio Economic Backwardness)
th okFNoh nkwdBH dh ;jh, rDBk d/ o;s/ ftu o[ektN d/ s"o s/ g/F nkT[_dk j?. nfrnkBh, gSV/
j'J/ ns/ FZeh ;[Gk j'D ekoB T[sgkde, T[sgkdB dk ;jh fpT[ok Bjh_ d/ ;ed/ Bk jh T[j b/yk i'yk
oZyD d/ nkdh j[zd/ jB. fJj w[Feb nftef;s d/FK ftu j'o th xDh j[zdh j?. fJ; soQK T[sgkdB
dh wksok d/ Go';/:'r nzdk}/ gqkgs Bjh_ j[zd/.
13H t;sK dhnK ehwsK ftu fBozso gfotosB th okFNoh nkdwB d/ okj ftu o[ektN dk ekoB
pDdk j?. fJ; soQK fJj ;wZf;nk yVQh j' iKdh j? fe fejVhnK ehwsK d/ nkXko s/, t;sK dk w[zb
eZfYnk ikt/.
1H2H9 okFNoh nkwdB dk wjZ s t
fe;/ d/F dh okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk, T[; d/F dhnK nkofEe rshftXhnK dh ;{uBk fdzdh
j? ns/ fJ; d/ nfXn?B dh T[g:'rsk j/m fbyhnK rZbK s'_ ;k\ B}o nkT[_dh j? L-
1H noE ftt;Ek dk YKuk (Structure of an Economy)
okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzdkf}nK Bkb ;kB{z fe;/ noE ftt;Ek d/ YKu/ dh ;jh ns/ ;kc s;tho
dk gsk ubdk j? fe nkwdB fet/_ youh iKdh j?. N?e;K d/ o{g ftu youh iKdh j? iK ftneshnK
tZb'_ pZus ehsh iKdh j? nkfd. fJ; s'_ fJj gsk th ubdk j? fe nkwdB dh fJbkekJh tzv, T[d:'fre
nkXko s/ ekoikswe ;/tktK ns/ tZy tZy ftneshnk nB[;ko fet/_ j?.
2H tZy tZy nkofEe BhshnK pDkT[D bJh nwZ[bk wkor-doFe (Valueable Guide to
economic Policy)
okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzeV/ nkofEe BhshnK pDkT[D bJh fJe wkro doFe jB. okFNoh
nkwdB d/ nzefVnK s'_ jh ;oeko B{z fJj gsk ubdk j? fe noE ftt;Ek iK fJ; d/ fGzB fGzB y/soK
B{z fet/_ T[s/ie (stimulate) iK fB:ws (regular) eoB dh b'V j?.
3H nkofEe efbnkD dh gZXo (Level of Economic Welfare)
gqsh ftnesh nkwdB ns/ okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnk Bkb, b'eK d/ n";s ihtB gZXo d/
pko/ gsk brkfJnk ik ;edk j?. n";s ihtB gZXo d/ pko/ ikDekoh, b'eK dh nkofEe efbnkD dh
;fEsh B{z ;{fus eodh j?. okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK s'_ jh ;gZFN j[zdk j? fe ;w/_ d/ Bkb b'e
dh nkofEe gZXo T[Zuk T[Zm fojk j? iK BhtK j' fojk j?.
4H :'iBk pDkT[D ftu wjZst (Significance in Economic Planning)
okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzeV/, E'V/Q ;w/_ ns/ bzw/ ;w/_ dhnK nkofEe :'iBktK d/ pDkT[D ftu wdd
eod/ jB. nkofEe :'iBk dh ;cbsk dk w[Zb-nzeD dh okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK ftu j'JhnK
spdhbhnK s'_ jh ehsk ik ;edk j?.
5H piN pDkT[D ftu ;jkfJe (Helpful in preparing anti-cyclical budgetary policies)
feT[_fe okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK s'_ jh ;oeko B{z N?e; ns/ foD d/D dh ;woZEk dk gsk
brkfJnk ik ;edk j?, fJ; bJh okFNoh nkwdB d/ nezfVnK d/ pko/ nB[wkB piN pDkT[D ftu
;jkfJe f;ZX j[zd/ jB. fJZE'_ se fe N?e; ns/ foD ;zpzXh BhshnK th fJt/_ pDkJhnK iKdhnK jB sK
fe okFNoh nkwdB ftu Gkoh T[sko uVQkn Bk nkT[D.
6H mhe mhe fx;kJh dk fJzs}kw (Provision for reasonable depreciation)
d/F dh g{zih gdkoEK d/ ;Nke d/ gZXo B{z pDkJh oZyD bJh gz{ih gdkoEK dh fx;kJh ns/
N[ZN GZi bJh fJzs}kw oZyDk th pj[s }o{oh j?. fJ; Gzvko (provision) dh wksok fezBh j'Dh ukjhdh
j? sK fe d/F d/ T[gG'r s/ T[bNk n;o Bk gt/, bJh th ;kB{z okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK dk frnkB
j'Dk }o{oh j?.
7H w[dok ;chsh ns/ n;chsh dh yZfgnK pko/ ikDekoh (Knowledge of Inflationary
and Deflationary gaps) :
;oeko d[nkok ;chsh iK n;chsh fto[ZX ;w/_ f;o T[gkn eoB bJh iK fJBQK yZfgnK B{z g{oB
bJh okFNoh nkwdB, noEks d/F dh yohd Fesh dk pekfJdk (regular) ikDekoh j'Dh th pj[s
}o{oh j?.
8H ;oekoh nB[ d kB fBoXkos eoB bJh wjZ s t
fJe ;zxh (Federal) d/F ftu, e/_do tb'_ fGzB-fGzB oki ;oekoK B{z fezBK-fezBk nB[dkB
(grants) fdZsk ikDk ukjhdk j?, bJh th fGzB-fGzB okiK dh okFNoh nkwdB dk nzdk}k j'Dk }o{oh
j?.
9H nzso-okFNoh s[b BktK (International Comparisions)
tZy tZy d/FK dh okFNoh nkwdB d/ nkXko s/ jh gqsh ftnesh nkwdB dk nzdk}k brk e/
tZy-tZy d/FK d/ b'eK d/ nkofEe efbnkD gZXo dk nzdk}k bkfJnk ik ;edk j? ns/ b'V nB[;ko
nkofEe :'iBk iK Bhsh pDkJh ik ;edh j?.
ni'e/ ;w/_ ftu jo/e d/F bJh ;kohnK nzso okFNoh ;z;EktK fit/_ fe U.N.O., I.M.F. ns/
I.B.R.D. nkfd dk w?_po pDBk th }o{oh j?. tZy-tZy d/FK dk fJBQK ;z;EktK bJh uzdk fBoXkfos eoB
bJh th tZy-tZy d/Fk dh okFNoh nkwdB dk frnkB j'Dk }o{oh j?.
10H fwFos noE ftt;EktK ftu okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK s'_ ;oekoh s/ fBZih ;?eNoK dh
ndkekoh dk th gsk brkfJnk ik ;edk j?.
11H ;[oZfynk bJh ;kXBK dk fJzs}kw (Provision for Defence Requirements)
fJj nB[wkB b?D bJh fe e'Jh d/F nkgDh ;[oZfynk s/ fezBk you eo ;edk j?, fe;/ d/F
bJh T[fus ;[oZfynk Bhsh pDkJh ik ;e/, okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK dk frnkB j'Dk nfs }o{oh
j?.
12H gSV/ j'J/ d/F dhnK nkofEe ;wZf;nktK B{z ;[bMkT[D bJh th okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzefVnK
dh wjZssk B{z nZy'_ Ujb/ Bjh_ ehsk ik ;edk. fJBQK d/FK d/ tZy-tZy T[d:'rK, ;?eNoK dh nkwdB
iK g{zih dh pDso d/ nzefVnK dh ikDekoh, fJBQK d/FK dh T[ZBsh d/ okj ftu nkT[D tkbhnK o[ektNK
B{z ;[bMkT[D bJh nfjw o'b oZydh j?.
13H tgkohnK bJh T[ g :' r h
T[gG'r ns/ fBt/F ftu nkT[D tkbhnK spdhbhnK dk e[Zb wzr, e[Zb g{osh ns/ ehwsK d/
;kXkoD gZXo T[Zs/ wjZstg{oB gqGkt g?_dk j?. fJBQK rZbK dh ikDekoh Bkb tgko tor th mhe
GftZypkDh eo e/ bkG T[mk ;edk j?.
;zy/g ftu n;h_ efj ;ed/ jK fe okFNoh nkwdB d/ nzeV/ ;kB{z f;XKse d/ tgoe y/soK ftu
wjZstg{oB wkor-doFe ;kps j' ;ed/ jB. nftef;s d/FK bJh nzefVnK dk wjZst j'o th f}nkdk
j[zdk j?.
okFNoh nkwdB d/ uZeoh gqtkj d/ noE (Meaning of circular Flow of National
Income)
fit/_ fe n;h_ ikDd/ jK fe okFNoh nkwdB fJe gqtkj j?. jo ;kb pj[s ;kohnK t;s{nK
ns/ ;/tktK dk Gkt okFNoh nkwdB dk T[sgkdB j[zdk ofjzdk j?. fJj t;s{nK, cowK okjh_ T[sgkdB
d/ tZy-tZy ;kXBK dh ;jkfJsk s/ T[sgzB ehsh iKdhnK jB. T[sgkde fJBQK ;kXBK dhnK ;/tktK yohdd/
ofjzd/ jB. fJ; soQK ;kXBK dh ;/tktK dk gqtkj cowK tZb j[zdk ofjzdk j?. fJBQK ;/tktK d/ o{g ftu
cowK fJBQK B{z t;s{nK iK w[dok fdzdh j?. fJ; soQK t;s{nK iK w[dok dk gqtkj ;kXBK tZb j[zdk
ofjzdk j?. ;kXBK B{z w[dok d/ o{g ftu cowK s'_ i' gqshcb gqkgs jz[dk j?. T[j T[;dk T[g:'r cowK
s'_ t;s{nK yohdD bJh eod/ jB. fJ; soQK w'fdqe nkwdB dk gqtkj ;kXBK s'_ cowK tZb j'D brdk
j?. fJ; soQK okFNoh nkwdB dh fJj gqfeqnk fBozso ubdh ofjzdh j?. fJ; dk BK sK e'Jh nkozG
j? ns/ Bk jh e'Jh nzs j?. fJ; bJh okFNoh nkwdB d/ gqtkj B{z uZeoh gqtkj fejk iKdk j?.
1. R. D. Gupta : Keynesian and Post-Keynesian Economics.
2. M.C. Vaish : Macro Economic Theory.
3. M. L. Jhingan : Macro Economic Theory.
4. Partap Singh : Macro Economics (in Punjabi)
1H okFNoh nkwdB s'_ eh Gkt j? < okFNoh nkwdB dhnK ftXhnK dk toDB eo'.
2H okFNoh nkwdB dh rDBk ftu nkT[D tkbhnK efmBkJhnK dk toDB eo' .
3H okFNoh nkwdB dhnK tZy-tZy gfoGkFktK dZ;'. okFNoh nkwdB dh wjZssk eh j? <
phH ekw Gkr gfjbk phH ;hH 206
fgq z ; hgbia nkca fp}B; fJeBkfwe;
o' }rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs ns/ ;/ } f;XKs

1H3H1 G {f we k
1H3H2 ebk;heb wkvb d/ w[ Zy nkXko sZs
1H3H3 ;BksBh E' V -fuoh wkvb
1H3H4 ;/ dk pk}ko fB:w
1H3H5 ;/ d/ pk}ko fB:w dh wkBsktK
1H3H6 ;/ d/ pk}ko fB:w dh ftnkfynk
1H3H7 ;/ d/ pk}ko fB:w dh nkX[ f Be ftnkfynk
1H3H1 G {f we k
gqf;ZX noE-Fk;soh v/ftv foekov' (David Ricardo) s'_ uZb/ nk oj/ noE Fk;so d/
g[okD/ fB:wK B{z e/B} B/ ebk;heb iK gozgoktkdh noE Fk;so dk BK fdZsk j?. ;w/_ d/ Bkb fJBQK
fB:wK dk ;zF'XB ns/ gfoF'XB ehsk iKdk j? ns/ fJ; soQK fB:wK dh fwnkd seohpB ;' ;kb ojh.
:kd oZyD tkbh tZb fJj j? fe ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK B/ o'}rko dk e'Jh f;bf;b/tko
(systematic) f;XKs Bjh_ fdZsk. ;w/_-;w/_ s/ ebk;heb Fk;sohnK B/ i' ftuko gqrN ehs/, T[BQK dh
;jkfJsk Bkb o'}rko d/ gozgoktkdh iK ;BksBh f;XKs dk fBowkD ehsk ik ;edk j?. fJE/ fJj
dZ;Dk th Y[etK ikgdk j? fe e/B} s'_ gfjbK dhnK ;kohnK fbysK B{z nkw s"o s/ ebk;heb noE
Fk;soh ns/ 20th_ ;dh d/ w?eo' nkofEe fbykohnK B{z Bt-ebk;heb noE Fk;soh fejk iKdk j?.
Bt-ebk;heb noE Fk;sohnK ftu n?vw ;fwE, foekov', i/H n?;H fwZb, NhH nkoH wkoFb ns/ i/w
fwZb d/ BK dk f}eo nkT[_dk j?. e/B} s'_ gfjbK dhnK ;kohnK ftnkfynktK ns/ XkoBktK (Concept)
p[fBnkdh s"o s/, ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK dh jh d/D ;B id'_ fe Bt-ebk;heb noE Fk;sohnK B/
Bk f;oc T[BQK B{z ;"fXnk ;r'_ T[BQK dh tos'_ B{z j'o nZr/ th tXkJhnk.
o'}rko d/ gozgokJh f;XKs nB[;ko, jo/e noE ftt;Ek ftu ;dk g{oD o'}rko dh ;fEsh
ftdwkB ofjzdh j? ns/ i' e'Jh noE ftt;Ek, g{oD o'}rko dh ;fEsh, ftu s'_ y[zM ikt/, sK fJj f;oc
E[VQ-fuoh rZb j[zdh j? ns/ noE ftt;Ek dh o[uh g{oD o'}rko gqkgs eoB dh j[zdh j?. i/ edh g{oB
o'}rko ftdwkB Bjh_ j[zdh, sK fJ; dk ekoB, ;oekoh dyb-nzdk}h j[zdk j?. fJ; soQK T[j ;kohnK
wzvhnK ftu g{oD w[ekpb/ dh ;fEsh B{z wzB e/ ubd/ ;B ns/ T[BQK dh ftnkfynk nzfFe ;ws'b s/
nkXkfos ;h. fJ; s'_ fJbktk, T[j fe;/ th ;wZf;nk d/ jZb bJh bzw/ ;w/_ T[Zs/ }'o fdzd/ ;B. fit/_
fe gfjbK dZf;nk j?, gozgokJh f;XKs nB[;ko, p/ekoh dh ;wZf;nk, T[BQK dk w[Zy ftFk ;h. fJ; soQK
noE ftt;Ek ftu g{oD o'}rko B{z wzB e/ gozgoktkdh f;XKs w[Zy s"o s/ nfij/ ;tkbK d/ i[nkp Bkb
;zpzfXs fojk fijV/ fJj fBoXkos eod/ jB fe L
34
(T) fdZs/ j'J/ ;kXBK Bkb, noE ftt;Ek ftu fejVhnK tZy' tZy, t;sK s/ ;/tktK g?dk
ehshnK ikDrhnK <
(n) tZy'-tZy w[ekpb/ tkbhnK t;s{nK ftu, ;kXBK B{z fe; soQK tzfvnk ikt/ <
(J) tZy'-tZy t;sK$;/tktK ns/ T[sgkdB ;kXBK dhnK ;ky/ge ehwsK eh j'DrhnK <
(;) T[sgkdB d/ ;kXBK d[nkok g?dk j'Jh nkwdB, T[sgkdB ;kXBK ftu, fet/_ tzfvnk j't/,
nkfd.
fJE/ fJj dZ;Dk th }o{oh j? fe gozgokJh noE Fk;soh, g{oB o'}rko s'_ Gkt fJj Bjh_ ;B
b?_d/ fe noE ftt;Ek ftu p/ekoh fpbe[b j[zdh jh Bjh_, ;r'_ g{oD o'}rko d/ j[zd/ j'J/ th e[M fJZSe
p/ekoh (Voluntary inemployment) dh j'_d B{z T[j wzBd/ ;B. fJ; s'_ fJbktk, T[j fJj th wzBd/
;B fe eJh tko wFhBK yokp j' ikD ekoB iK eZuk wkb gqkgs Bk j'D ekoD iK xZN ikD eoe/
p/o'}rkoh j' iKdh j?, fJ; B{z T[j nkofEesk ;kc Bk uZbD eoe/ p/o'}rkoh (Frictional
unemployment) efjzd/ ;B. fJ; soQK g{oD o'}rkoh d/ Bkb-Bkb noE ftt;Ek ftu fJZSe w}d{oh
d/ do s/ w}d{o ezw eoB B{z fsnko Bjh_ jz[d/. ;zy/g ftu, g{oD o'}rko s'_ T[BQK dk Gkt ;h fe
noE ftt;Ek ftu nDfJZSe p/ekoh fpbe[b Bjh_ j[zdh. noEks i' b'e ezw eoBk ukjz[d/ jB, T[BQK
B{z ukb{ w}d{oh dh do s/ ezw T[gbpX j[zdk j?. ;koKF o{g ftu ;BksBh f;XKs B{z j/m fdZs/ wkvb
d[nkok ;gZFN ehsk ik ;edk j?. go fJ; s'_ gfjbK fJ; wkvb d/ w[Zy nkXko sZs dZ;D/ }o{oh jB.
1H3H2 ebk;heb wkvb d/ w[Zy nkXko sZs (Main Postulates of Classical Model)
o[}rko ns/ nkwdB s/ ebk;heb wkvb d/ w[Zy nkXko sZs j/m fby/ jB L
1H jo/e noE ftt;Ek ftu g{oD o[}rko dh ;fEsh ftdwkB ofjzdh j?.(Full employment
is a normal features)
2H nDfJS[e p/o[}rkoh dh g{oD xkN j[zdh j?.(Involuntary unemployment is
conspicuous by its absence)
3H g{oD gqsh:'rsk dh jkbs ftu w}d{oh dh dodh gfotosBFhbsk jo/e noE ftt;Ek
ftu g{oD o[}rko dh ;Ekfgs eoB dh goftosh oZydh j?. (Under condition of
perfect competition complete flexibility of wages has the tendency to
establish full-employment)
4H w}d{oh dh do ftu eN"sh eo e/ p/ekoh B{z d{o ehsk ik ;edk j?. (Wage cuts can
remove unemployment)
5H ;oeko B{z noE ftt;Ek ftu fe;/ fe;w dk dyb Bjh_ d/Dk ukjhdk. (Government
should follow laissez-fair policy)
6H b'e nkgDh ;koh nkwdB B{z you fdzd/ jB. (The entire income is spent)
7H ftnki dh do ftu gfotosBFhbsk pus ns/ fBt/F ftu ;wkBsko ;Ekfgs eo fdzdh
j?. (Flexibility in the rate of interest establishes equality betwween saving
and investment)
1H3H3 ;BksBh E'VQ-fuoh wkvb (Short-Run Classical Model)
;BksBh b'eK dk o'}rko pko/ E'VQ-fuok wkvb j/m fbyhnK ;zpzXK ns/ wB"sK s/ nkXkfos ;h.
1H w}d{oK dh g{osh, n;b w}d{oh dhnK doK Bkb f;ZXK ;zpzX oydh j? noEks T[uh
n;b w}d{oh dh do s/ w}d{o f}nkdk ezw eoB B{z fsnko j[zd/ jB.
2H T[uh n;b w}d{oh dh do s/ w}d{oK dh wzr xZN j[zdh j? ns/ Bhth_ do s/ T[BQK
dh wzr tZX jz[dh j?.
3H w}d{oh wzvh ftu, fe;/ fe;w dhnK ng{oDsktK iK ;z;Ekswe o[ektNK Bjh_ j[zdhnK,
noEks w}d{oK ftu g{oB rshFhbsk j[zdh j?.
4H t;sK ns/ ;/tktK bJh e[Zb wzr T[jh ofjzdh j? ns/ fe;/ spdhbh dh ;zGktBk Bjh_
j[zdh.
5H iB-;zfynk ;[nkd ns/ seBhe dk gZXo T[jh j[zdk j?.
fJBQK T[go'es ;zpzXK ns/ wB'sK dk o/yk fuZso d/ o{g ftu nB[tkd j/m fdZs/ nB[;ko j?.
n;h_ t/yd/ jK fe id'_ n;b ftu w}d{oh dh do W/P1 j? sK noE ftt;Ek n;zs[bB dh
jkbs ftu j[zdh j?, fJ; jkbs ftu j[zdh j?, fJ; jkbs ftu w}d{oK ftu w[ekpbk j'D ekoB w}d{oh
dh do xND ekoB, n;b w}d{oh (W/P)0 w}d{oh dh do ;Ekfgs j'D Bkb ysw j' iKdh j?. i/
w}d{o (W/P)0 w}d{oh T[Zs/ ezw eoB B[z fsnko Bjh_ j[zd/, T[BQK B{z fJZSe p/eko fejk iKdk j?. fJ;
soQK n;h_ d/yd/ jK fe ;ws'b dh jkbs D(w/p)–S (w/p) = 0 ns/ N = No j[zdk j?. fJ; soQK ;BksBh
noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko, ;ws'b ns/ p/ekoh d't/_ fJeZm/ Bjh_ ub ;ed/. w}d{oh dh do s/ buedko
j'D ekoB ns/ ;/ d/ fB:w nB[;ko, e[b g{osh e[b wzr d/ ;dk pokpo j'D ekoB nkgD/ nkg
;wk:'iB j'D tkbh gqDkbh ekoB, noE ftt;Ek ftu g{oB o'}rko ;ws'b dh ;fEsh ;dhth ofjD tkbh
j[zdh j?.
o/ yk fuZso BzH 1
w?eo' noE Fk;so d/ ;ko/ wkvbK dh soQK ;BksBh wkvb th g{oB o[}rko ns/ nkofEe
ftek; dh ;wZf;nk pko/ ;tkb g/F eodk j?. nkofEe ftek; dk gsk okFNoh T[sgkdB ftu nkJhnK
spdhbhnK s'_ gsk ubdk j?. okFNoh T[sgkdB ns/ o'}rko d/ ;ws'b gZXo ftu nkT[D tkbhnK
spdhbhnK j/m fdZs/ p[fBnkdh cbBK (functions) d[nkok fBoXkfos j[zdhnK jB, i' bzw/ ;w/_ ftu
pdbd/ jB ns/ T[j fJj jB L
1H noE ftt;Ek dk T[sgkdB cbB (Production function) fi; d[nkok w}d{oK dk wzr
teo fBoXkfos j[zdk j?, ns/
2H w}d{oK dh g{osh dk teo.
o'}rko ns/ T[sgkdB d/ ;ws'b gZXo ftu nkT[D tkbh spdhbh dh feqnk dk nfXn?B e[M
p[fBnkdh ns/ fJBQK T[go'es d' cbBK ftu'_ fBeb/ cbBK d[nkok ehsk ik ;edk j? fi; nfXn?B bJh
n;h_ ;BksBh wkvb B{z j/m fdZs/ d' sohfenK Bkb gVQKr/ L
1H pZus ns/ fBt/F s'_ fpBK
2H pZus ns/ fBt/F Bkb.
pZus ns/ fBt/F s'_ fpBK ;BksBh wkvb.
fit/_ fe gfjbK ftnfynk frnk j?, ;BksBh gqDkbh ftu, o'}rko d/ gZXo w}d{oK dh wzr ns/
g{osh d[nkok fBoXkfos j[zdk j?. T[sgkdB dk gZXo (T[sgkdB cbB d/ T[jh ofjD s/), o'}rko d/
gZXo, T[s/ fBoGo eodk j?. ehwsK dk gZXo w[dok dh g{osh (MV) T[s/ fBoGo eodk j? (fJj n;h_
w[dok d/ wksok f;XKs s/ f;Zfynk j?) fJBQK uoK ftub/ nzso ;zpzXK dh ftnkfynk j/m fdZs/ o/yk fuZso
s'_ ;kc fdZ;dh j?.
pZus ns/ fBt/F s'_ fpBK ;BksBh wkvb (o/yk fuZso BzH 2)
T[go'es o/yk fuZso dk Gkt (a) Gkr, d' teoK d/ nkg; ftu eZND ekoB Ne T[s/ g{oB
o'}rko d/ ;ws'b gZXo dk fBoXkoD ftykT[_dk j?. g{oB o'}rko d/ gZXo jk;b eoB bJh (W/P)0
n;b w}d{oh j'Dk }o{oh j?. o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (b) s'_ fd;dk j? fe fet/_ g{oB o'}rko dk gZXo
ns/ Ne ns/ (W/P), T[sgkdB d/ Y gZXo s/ fBoXkos eod/ jB. o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (c) ftu n;h_
t/yd/ jK fe MV ns/ Y d/ fdZs/ j'D s/ ehwsK gZXo P ;Ekfgs jz[dk j?. Gkr (d) ;ws'b d/ ;Ekfgs
j'D bJh w[doe w}d{oh d/ }o{oh ;wk:'iB B{z dZ;dk j?. o/yk fuZso d' Gkr (c) ftu ;Ekfgs j'J/
Pe ehws gZXo T[s/ b'Vh_dh w[doe w}d{oh, o/yk fuZso d/ (d) Gkr ftu o[e s/ ;Ekgs j[zdh j?. i/
w[doe w}d{oh do o[e s'_ T[uh j[zdh j?, sK w}d{oK ftu nkg;h w[ekpb/ ekoB ns/ p/ekoh ekoB Bed
w}d{oh dh do T[BQK fuo sZe fvZrdh ikt/rh id'_ se noE ftt;Ek ftu fco d[pkok o[e w}d{oh d/
do s/ g{oB o'}rko ;ws'b ;Ekgs Bjh_ j' iKdk. fJZE/ fJj dZ;Dk th }o{oh ikgdk j? fe MV ftu
j'fJnk tkXk noE ftt;Ek d/ n;b gZy T[Zs/ e'Jh n;o Bjh_ eodk ns/ f;oc w[doe gZy T[s/ jh
n;o g?_dk j?.
fJ; soQK fJ; ;kXkoD ;BksBh wkvb s'_ ;kB{z ;ws'b d/ g{oB w[ZbK d/ g{oB r[ZN (set) dk
gsk ubdk j?, ns/ fJj jB o'}rko (Net), T[sgkdB (Y), ehws gZXo (Pe) ns/ w[doe w}d{oh (W).
i/ T[sgkdB fJj T[go'es dZ;/ w[ZbK d/ ;?N ftu ;w/_ Bkb th e'Jh spdhbh Bjh_ nkJ/rh. gozs{ n;b
ftu fJBQK sZEK iK fBoXkoeK ftu ;w/_ Bkb spdhbh nk iKdh j? ns/ nfijh jo/e spdhbh Bkb
(;BksBh gqDkbh ftu) Bt/_ ;ws'b ;Ekgs j' iKd/ jB. fJBQK fBoXkoeK ftu spdhbh fbnk e/ ;BksBh
o'}rko d/ f;XKs dh ftnkfynk ehsh ik ;edh j?, fe fJj fet/_ ezw eodk j?. fJE/ fJj dZ;Dk th
Y[etK j' fe fJ; ;BksBh wkvb ftu d' jh ;tszso uo jB fiBQK ftu pkjob/ (Exogenous) ekoBK
eoe/ pod;s spdhbh j[zdh j? ns/ T[j jB w[dok dh g{osh ns/ T[sgkdB cbB ftu spdhbh. fJBQK
;tszso uoK ftu spdhbh ekoB i' n;b ;ws'b w[ZbK T[s/ g?_dk j? T[j nZr/ o/yk fuZso s'_ ;wfMnk
ik ;edk j?.
T[s gkdB cbB ftu spdhbh
T[sgkdB cbB ftu j'D tkbh spdhbh ;wkB nzso iK Bk-;wkB nzso fe;w dh j' ;edh j?.
d{ih fe;w dh spdhbh, w}d{oh dh n";s ;hwKse T[gi d'jK ftu spdhbh fbnkT[_dh j?. gozs{ i/
T[sgkdB cbB ftu j'D tkbh spdhbh ;wkB nzso j't/ sK w}d{o dh f;oc n"';s T[sgkfdesk jh
pdbdh j?. gfjbK n;h_ T[sgkdB cbB ftu r?o ;wkB nzso Yzr dh spdhbh dh uouk eoKr/.
T[sgkdB cbB ftu r?o ;wkB-nzso spdhbh ns/ ;BksBh wkvb.
o/yk fuZso 3b ftu n;h_ T[sgkdB cbB ftu j'Jh r?o-;wkB nzso spdhbh t/yd/ jK. fJ;
soQK dh spdhbh Bkb w}d{o dh T[sgkfdesk tZX iKdh j? ns/ fJ; soQK w}d{oK dh wzr tX e/ Ndi
j' iKdh j?.
fuZso BzH 3
n;h_ ikDd/ jK fe w}d{oK bJh wzr teo T[sgkdB cbB s'_ eZfYnk iKdk j?. T[sgkdB cbB
ftu j'D tkbh spdhbh w}d{oK bJh wzr teo (Demand Curve for labour) ftu spdhbh dk ekoB
pDdh j? feT[_fe w}d{oK dh g{osh T[jh j[zdh j?, cowK B{z T[Zuh n;b w}d{oh (w/p) d/Dh g?_dh j?
sK fe tkX{ w}d{oK (N) B{z ezw T[Zs/ bkT[D bJh T[e;kfJnk ik ;e/. fit/_ fe o/yk fuZso 3 d/ Gkr
(b) s'_ ;gZFN j?, f}nkdk o'}rko fwbD s/ jh T[sgkdB Bjh_ tXdk, ;r'_ fJ; eoe/ th tXdk j? fe
w}d{oK dh T[sgkfdesk tX rJh j?. fJ; soQK T[sgkd cbB dk tX e/ Ye, Yi j' ikD ekoB ehws
gZXo fvZr e/ Pi j' iKdk j?. feT[_fe w[dfoe wzvh ftu e'Jh spdhbh Bjh_ j'Jh, fJ; soQK tkX{
T[sgkdB xN ehwsK T[s/ jh fte ;edk j?. o/yk fuZso (b) s'_ ;gZFN j? fe tkX{ w}d{oK (fit/_ fe
o/yk fuZso 'a' ftu fdZ;dk j?) B{z ezw T[s/ brkT[D bJh n;b w}d{oh tXDh ukjhdh j?, t/yD tkbh
rZb fJj j? fe o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (d) ftu w[doe w}d{oh th tXdh j?. w[doe w}d{oh d/ tXD
s/ ns/ ehwsK d/ fvZrD s/ n;b w}d{oh tXdh j?. go n;h w}d{oh sK ehwsK fvZrD s/ ns/ w[doe
w}d{oh d/ T[jh ofjD s/ tXdh j?.
T[ sgkdB cbB ftu ;wkB nzso spdhbh
nfijh seBheh spdhbh fi; Bkb T[sgkdB cbB ftu ;wkB-nzso spdhbh j[zdh j?, w}d{o
dh n";s T[sgkfdesk sK pdbdh j? gozs{ ;hwKs T[sgkdesk T[j' ofjzdh j?. fJ; ;wkB nzso spdhbh
d/ f;ZN/, w}d{oK bJh wzr teo ftu spdhbh Bjh_ j[zdh. fBwB o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (b) s'_ fdZ;dk j?
fe id'_ T[sgkdB cbB ;wkB nzso spdhbh d/ f;ZN/ ti'_ Y s'_ Y j' iKdk j? sK T[sgkdB Y, s'_ Y,
j' iKdk j?. fi; soQK T[sgkdB d/ tXD Bkb i/ MV T[jh oj/ sK ehwsK dk gZXo fvZr e/ P s/ gj[zu
iKdk j? fit/_ fe o/yk fuZso 4 d/ Gkt C s'_ fd;dk j? ns/ n;h_ n;b w}d{oh tX e/ (W/p) j' iKdh
j?. fJj tXh j'Jh n;b w}d{oh, i/ fJ; soQK jh oj/, sK p/ekoh dh ;wZf;nk yVQh j' iKdh j? fe
fJ; o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr a s'_ Rs d/ pokpo B}o nkT[_dh j?.
fit/_ fe gfjbK dZf;nk frnk j? ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko, p/eko w}d{oK ftu w[ekpbk
j'D ekoB w[dfoe w}d{oh dh do xN e/ W1, s/ gjz[u iKdh j? ns/ p/ekoh d{o j' iKdh j? ns/
T[j g[okDh n;b w}d{oh We ;Ekfgs j' iKdh j?.
T[ s gkdB cbB ftu ;wkB-nzs o spdhbh
o/ yk fuZso BzH 4
d/yD tkbh rZb fJj j? fe fJj xNdh j'Jh iK w[doe w}d{oh dh do w}d{oK B{z bzw/ ;w/_
sZe ;ykT[_dh Bjh_, feT[_fe w}d{oK T[s/ w[dok Gqwsk (money illusion) B{z f}nkdk n;o j[zdk j?.
Gkt/_ ftnkfynk ftu ehwsK d/ fvZrD Bkb n;h_ t/yd/ jK fe n;b gqDkbh nB[;ko, p/o'}rkoh j'
ikt/rh gozs{ ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK dh wBs sK g{oD w[ekpb/ dh jkbs nXhB p/o'}rkoh dh do
EZb/ ikD bJh em'o (rigid) Bjh_ j' ;edh. f;ZN/ ti'_ n;h_ fJj nky ;ed/ jK fe ;BksBh gqDkbh ftu,
i/ r?o-w[ekpb/ dh jkbs B{z wzB e/ uZbhJ/, sK em'o (rigid) w}d{oh dh do p/ekoh dk ekoB pDdh
j? ns/ nfijh p/ekoh }o{oh s"o s/ fJZSe p/ekoh ejh ik ;edh j?.
o/ yk fuZso BzH 5
j[D n;h_ t/yKr/ fe w[dok dh g{osh ftu spdhbh j'D Bkb nkofEe gqDkbh fet/_ gqGkfts j[zdh
j?.
w[d ok dh g{ osh ftu spdhbh
j/mK fdZs/ o/yk fuZso BzH 5 (c) ftu n;h_ t/yd/ jK fe w[dok dh ;zukbB rsh (V) d/ T[jh
ofjD s/ id'_ w[dok dh wksok (M) ftu e'Jh tkXk jz[dk j?, sK MV d/ ftu th T[; nB[gks Bkb
tkXk j[zdk j?. ;wsk ;wheoD (Identity equations) MV = PO dZ;dh j? fe w[dok dh e[Zb g{osh
(MV) ftu fdZs/ j'J/ tkX/ B{z e[Zb w[dok you (PO) ftu th T[BQK jh tkXk fbnkT[Dk ukjhdk j?. i/
(V) ns/ g{oD o'}rko d/ gZXo dk T[sgkdB O T[jh eo/ sK w[dok dh g{osh ftu spdhbh ti'_ e[Zb
wzr ftu nkJh spdhbh, ehws gZXo ftu T[;/ nB[gks Bkb spdhbh fbnkJ/rh, fit/_ fe o/yk fuZso
5 d/ Gkr C s'_ ;gZFN j?.
fJ; soQK ;/ dk fB:w, w[dok dh wksok f;XKs ns/ buedko w}d{oh ehws YKuk nkfd ;zdK
dh tos'_ eoe/ ;BksBh noE Fk;soh fJj rZb efjzd/ ;B fe bzw/ ;w/_ ftu ;dk jh noE ftt;Ek
ftu g{oB o'}rko ;ws'b d/ j'D dh gqftosh j[zdh j?. ;/ d/ fB:w dh soQK ;BksBh noE Fk;soh
XB ;zuD (hoarding) fJe p/-;wMh (irriational) tkbh feqnk ;wMd/ ;B.
2H pZus ns/ fBt/F Bkb ;BksBh wkvb
;BksBh wkvb, fijVk n;h_ j[D sZe gfVQnk j?, T[j pj[s jh ;kXkoD s/ ;"yk ;h, feT[_fe T[;
ftu pZus ns/ fBt/F B{z Fkwb ehsk frnk ns/ rZb B{z fXnkB ftu Bjh_ ;h fbnk frnk fe e[b wzr,
T[gG'r gdkoEK ns/ fBt/F gdkoEK dh wzr dk i'V j[zdh j?.
;BksBh wkvb ftu j[D sZe n;h_ gfVQnk j? fe j/m fdZs/ p[fBnkdh ;[nkb i' w?eo' noE
Fk;so Bkb ;zpzfXs jB T[BQK dk i[nkp j?.
noEks T[sgkdB,o'}rko, pZus, T[gG'r, fBt/F ehws ns/ w}d{oh dk gZXo nkfd B[z e'D
fBoXkos eodk j?. nZr/ fdZs/ fuZso 6 fJBQK ;tkbK (Propositions) d/ nzso-;zpzXK B{z pZus ns/
fBt/F ;w/s dZ;dk j?.
o/yk fuZso 6 d/ Gkr (b) ftu n;h_ t/yd/ jK fe w}d{oK dh g{osh (SL) ns/ wzr (DL) teoK
d/ eZND Bkb, n;b w}d{oh (W/P)e ns/ o'}rko dk gZXo (Ne) T[s/ fBoXkos j[zdk j?.
fJ; o/yk fuZso d/ (a) Gkr s'_ ;gZFN j? fe T[sgkdB dhnK seBheK T[jh ofjD sK E'VQh ;w/_
ftu T[sgkdB, o'}rko dk cbB j[zdk j?.
Gkr (c) s'_ gsk ubdk j? fe T[sgkdB Oe dh ehws Pe fwZEh iKdh j?, id'_ w[dok dh g{osh
ns/ T[; dh ;zukbB rsh (V) T[jh oj/, noEks P, MV T[s/ fBoGo eodk j?. w}d{oh dk ;ws'b gZXo
fit/_ fe o/yk fuZso d/ (b) Gkr s'_ ;gZFN j?, (W/Pe) ns/ ehws gZXo (Pe) i' fe Gkr (c) s'_
fBoXkos j[zdk j. w[doe w}d{oh dh b'Vh_dh do o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (d) ftu fBoXkos j[zdh j?. i'
fe o[e j?. o/yk fuZso d/ Gkr (C) ftu n;h_ d/yd/ jK fe ftnki dh do y[d, pZus ns/ fBt/F d/
teoK d/ eZND s'_ fwZEh iKdh j?. fJE'_ fJj gsk bZrdk j? fet/_ n;b nkwdB pZus ns/ T[gG'r
(Y = C = I) ftu tzfvnk iKdk j?. fJ; bJh t/yd/ jK fe (S = I), ;BksBh f;XKs ftu th e/B}h gqDkbh
tKr jh fJe w"fbe pokpoh j?. coe f;oc fJzBk j? fe ;BksBh wkvb ftu, i' fJBQK ftu (S ns/
I ftu) e'Jh r?o pokpoh j' ikt/ sK ftnki dh do d[nkok jh pokpo nkT[_dh j?, id'_ fe e/B}h
gqDkbh ftu fJj pokpoh, nkwdB d/ pdbd/ gZXo fbnkT[_d/ jB.
;BksBh wkvb d/ fBeb/ f;ZN/ dk ;koKF fJt/_ j? fe wzvhnK ftu g{oB w[ekpb/ dh ;fEsh ftu
w}d{ohnK, ehwsK ns/ ftnk} doK buedko j'D eoe/ e[Zb wzr jw/FK o'}rko d/ gZXo s/ j'D tkb/
T[sgkdB d/ pokpo j[zdh j?. noE ftt;Ek ftu fwbD tkbhnK em'osktK (rigidities) Gkt/_ f;ZfNnK
B{z sK pdb ;edhnK jB, go nkofEe gqDkbh d/ eko ftjko pko/ w"fbe rZbK B{z Bjh_ pdb ;edhnK.
gqf;ZX ;BksBh noEFk;soh wkbE; (Malthus) B/ jh ;BksBh f;XKs dh nkb'uBk gqkozG eo
fdZsh ;h. T[jBK B/ fJj df;nk fe noE-ftt;Ek ftu e[Zb wzr, e[b g{osh dh s[bBk ftu xZN j'
;edh j?. fJ;d/ cb;o{g p/o[}rkoh g?dk j't/rh. e/B} B/ o[}rko d/ nkX[fBe f;XKs dk fBo{gD eoe/
;BksBh f;XKs s/ nkyoh ;ZN wkoh. e/B} d/ nB[;ko, ##o[}arko dk ;BksBh f;XKs soeg{oD fdqFNh
s'_ sK T[fus j?, go ntk;sfte wkBsktK s/ nkXkfos j'D ekoD fJj f;XKs ihtB dhnK tk;sfte
;wZf;nktK B{z ;[bMkT[D ftu n;woE j?. e/B} d/ o[}rko d/ ;BksBh f;XKs dhnK w[Zy nkb'uBktK j/m
fbyhnK jB L
1H #;/* d/ pk}ko fB:w dhnK ewi'aohnK L e/B} B/ ;BksBh o[}rko f;XKs d/ w[Zy nkXko
#;/* d/ pk}ko dh eoVh nkb'uBk eod/ j'J/ dZf;nk j? fe fJ; fB:w dh wkBsk ntk;sfte j? fe
g{osh nkgDh wzr dk fBowkD nkg eo b?_dh j?.
2H Bed w}d{oh dh do ftu eN'sh eod/ o[}rko B{z Bjh_ tXkfJnk ik ;edk L o[}rko
d/ ;BksBh f;XKs nB[;ko Bed w}d{oh dh do ftu eN'sh eoe/ p/o[}rkoh B{z d{o ehsk ik ;edk
j?, Gkt fJ;d/ bkrs ns/ nkwdB d/ gZy jB. go fJj XkoBk n;b ftu rbs j?. w}d{oh dh do
ftu eN"sh n;b ftu d'Xkoh sbtko j?. e/B} d/ nB[;ko ;BksBh noE Fk;soh B/ w}d{oh d/ f;oc
bkrs gZy B{z jh wjZssk fdZsh j?. T[BQK B/ w}d{oh d/ nkwdB B{z B}o nzdk} ehsk j?. w}d{oh i/eo
fJe gk;/ fe;/ t;s{ dh T[sgkdB bkrs dk fjZ;k j? sK d{i/ gk;/ T[j feoshnK dh nkwdB th j?.
w}d{oh ftu eN"sh eoB d/ cb;o{g feoshnK dh nkwdB xZN j't/rh fi; Bkb gqGktg{oB wzr xZN
j'D ekoD p/o[}rkoh xZN j'D dh pikJ/ tZX ikt/rh.
3H nbg-o[}rko ;zs[bB dh ;zGktBk L e/B} d/ nB[;ko joe/ noE ftt;Ek ftu nDfJZSe
p/o[}rkoh gkJh iKdh j? ns/ ;zs[bB dh jkbs ftu th p/o[}rkoh gkJh ik ;edh j?. fJ; soQk nbg
o[}rko ;zs[bB noE ftt;Ek dh ;kXkoB jkbs j?. fJ; jkbs ftu eJh ekoDK eoe/ fit/_ gqGktg{oB
wzr dk xZN j'Dk, tX/o/ pZus ns/ xZN T[sgkdB nkfd fe;/ ekoB fe;/ Bk fe;/ jZd sZe p/o[}rkoh
gkJh iKdh j?.
4H d]b Bkb d/D dh Bhsh dh ngqtkBrh L e/B} d/ nB[;ko o[}rko d/ ;BksBh f;XKs dh
fJj wkBsk n;b Bjh_ j? fe g{zihtkdh noE ftt;Ek ftu fpBK ;oekoh dyb d/ nkofEe skesK nkgD/
nkg jh p/o[}rkoh B{z d{o eoB ftu ;cb j'DrhnK. n;b ihtB ftu sK p/o[}rkoh B{z d{o eoB bJh
;oekoh d]b }o{oh j?. ;oeko p/o[}rkoh d{o eoB bJh e[b wzr ftu eJh soQK Bkb tkXk eo ;edh
j?. T[j nkgDh w'fdqe, okie'Fh ns/ ehws Bhsh okjh_ fBt/F ns/ T[gG'r you ftu tkXk eoe/ e[b
wzr B{z tXk e/ p/o[}rkoh d{o eoB ftu ;jkJh j' ;edh j?.
5H nbgekbhB ;wZf;nktK d/ nfXn?B B{z B}onzdki eoBk L e/B} d/ nB[;o o[}rko dhnK
nbgekbh ;wZf;nktK dh dhoxekbh ;wZf;nktK Bkb'_ tX/o/ wjZssk j?. id'_ se ;kB{z nbgekbh
;wZf;nktK dh ikDekoh Bjh_ j't/rh, n;h_ p/o[}rkoh d/ d[yK s'_ Bjh_ pZu ;eKr/. fJ; bJh o[}rko
d/ :EkoEtkdh f;XKs bJh fJj }o{oh j? fe T[; ftu nbgekbh ;wZf;nktK dk nfXn?B ehsk ikt/.
1H3H4 #;/* dk pk}ko fB:w (Say's Law of Markets)
gqf;ZX noE Fk;soh i/H phH ;/H (Jean Baptiste Say) B/ pk}ko ;zpzXh fJe ;zy/g fB:w B{z
iBw fdZsk j?. fJ; fB:w B{z ;/ dk pk}ko fB:w (Say's Law of Market) fejk iKdk j?. fJ; fB:w
nB[;ko g{osh nkgDh wzr dk nkg fBowkD eodh j?.(Supply creates its own demand) .
e'Jh th wB[Zy fe;/ t;s{ dk T[sgkdB d' T[d/FK bJh eo/rk iK sK T[j T[; t;s{ dk nkg
T[g:'r eo/rk iK T[j T[; t;s{ d/ pdb/ ftu d{ihnK t;s{nK dh wzr eo/rk. fJ; soQK jo/e wB[Zy
pk}ko ftu fisBh g{osh eodk j?, T[Bh jh wzr eodk j?. fJ; soQK wzr ns/ g{osh jo t/b/ fJe
d{i/ d/ ;wkB ofjzd/ jB. fJ; B{z T[dkjoD okjh_ ;gZFN ehsk ik ;edk j?. wzB bU, s[;h_ fJe w'No
eko dk fBowkD eod/ j'. fJ; dh g{osh eoB bJh s[;h_ T[sgkdB d/ tZy-tZy ;kXBK B{z eko dh ehws
d/ pokpo T[; dhnK ;/tktK d/ pdb/ ftu ftnk}, w}d{oh brkB ns/ bkG nkfd dk G[rskB ehsk j?.
fJ; soQK eko dh g{osh Bkb jh eko dh ehws d/ pokpo yohd Fesh tZX iKdh j?. fJ; soQK eko
dh g{osh jh eko dh wzr B{z tXkT[D dk ekoD pD iKdh j?.
gfoGkFk (Definitions)
i/H phH ;/ nB[;ko, ##g{osh nkgDh wzr dk nkg fBowkD eodh j?.** (Supply creates its
own demand - J.B. Say)
;/ d/ pk}ko fB:w dhnK wkBsktK (Assumptions of Say's Law of Market)
1H3H5 #;/* d/ pk}ko fB:w dh wkBsktK (Assumptions)
1H g{oB w[ekpbk noE ftt;Ek L fJ; fB:w dh fJj wkBsk j? fe pkikao ftu g{oB
gqsh:'frsk gkJh iKdh j?. g{oB w[ekpb/ dh jkbs ftu i/eo ;kXBK ns/ t;s{nK dh wzr ns/ T[jBK
g{osh fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo Bjh_ sK ehwsK ftu nkg jh fJ; soQK dk gfotosB j' ikt/rk fe e[b wzr
ns/ e[b g{osh fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo j' ikD.
2H buedko ehwsK L fJ; fB:w dh fJe wkBsk j? fJj th j? fe ehwsK, w}d{oh ns/ ftnk}
dh do ftu buesk j'Dh ukjhdh j?. i/eo wzr, g{osh s'_ xZN j? sK ehws xZN j' ikt/rh ns/ wzr
tZX e/ g{osh d/ pokpo j' ikt/rh. i/eo d/F ftu p/o[}rkoh j? sK w}d{oh xZN j' ikt/rh ns/ o[}rko
dh wksok ftu tkXk j't/rk. i/eo fBt/F ns/ pus ftu ;zs[bB Bjh_ j? sK ftnk} dh do ftu fJ;
soQK gfotosB j' ikDr/ fiBQK Bkb fJBQK ftu ;zs[bB ekfJw j' ikt/.
3H XzB Gzvko Bk j'Dk L fJe wkBsk fJj th j? fe ;koh dh ;koh w[dok you eo fdZsh iKdh
j? Gkt fe;/ fe;w dk Gzvko Bjh_ ehsk iKdk. w[dok B{z iK sK T[gG'r gdkoEK s/ you eo fdZsk
iKdk j? iK g{zih gdkoEK s/. fJjh ekoB j? fe pus ns/ fBt/F fJe pokpo j' iKd/ jB.
4H oki d/ fBogZy j'D dh Bhsh L #;/* dk pk}ko fB:w fJ; XkoBk s/ nkXkfos j? fe
nkofEe y/so ftu oki tb'_ fe;/ fe;w dh dyb-nzdk}h Bjh_ j't/rh. noE ftt;Ek ftu wzr ns/
g{osh dhnK feqnktK okjh_ nkg jh ;zs[bB ekfJw j' iKdk j?. Gkt noE-ftt;Ek ftu ;t? ;[w/b j'
iKdk j?.
5H feos ns/ g{zih bJh tX/o/ w"e/ L ;/ dk fB:w fJ; wkBsk s/ th nkXkfos j? fe noE
ftt;Ek ftu feos ns/ g{osh g{oh soQK buedko j[zdh j?. Gkt jo/e T[dw ftu g{zih ns/ feos dh
wksok B{z tXkfJnk ik ;edk j?.
6H dhoxekb L ;/ dk fB:w dhoxekbhB g{oB o[}rko dh wkBsk s/ nkXkfos j?. nbgekb ftu
fe;/ yk; t;s{ dk nfs T[sgkdB ;zGt j' ;edk j?, i' fe dhoxekbhB ftu nkgD/ nkg ysw j' iKdk
j?.
1H3H6 ;/ d/ pk}ko dh ftnkfynk (Explanation of Say's Law of Market)
;/ dk pk}ko fB:w dh ftnkfynk d' soQK jkbsK ftu ehsh iKdh j?.
1H t;s{ tNKdok noEftt;Ek ftu ;/ dk fB:w (Say's Law and Barter Economy) : ;/
dk fB:w t;s{ tNKdok noE-ftt;Ek ftu }o{o bkr{ j[zdk j?. jo/e T[sgkde t;s{nK B{z pk}ko ftu
t/uD bJh fbnkT[_dk j?. Gkt g{osh dk fBowkD eodk j?, T[j nfijk fJ; bJh eodh j? sK fe T[j
T[jBK d/ pdb/ ftu d{ihnK t;s{nK gqkgs eo ;e/ ns/ wzr g?dk eo bt/. fJ; d/ f;ZN/ ti'_ T[sgkdB
dh joe/ fdFk fe;/ d{ih t;s{ bJh ehsh wzr B{z gqrN eodh j?. fJ;dk ekoD fJj j? fe e'Jh wB[Zy
t;s{nK dk T[sgkdB iK nkgd/ fBih T[g:'r bJh eo/rk iK T[;d/ pdb/ ftu d{ihnK t;s{nK yohdD
bJh eo/rk. fJ; dk f;ZNk fJj j[zdk j? fe t;s{ tNKdok noEftt;Ek ftu fe;/ t;s{ dh g{osh jo
t/b/ jh d{ihnK t;s{nK bJh ehsh ikD tkbh wzr dk gqshe j[zdh j?. nfijh noEftt;Ek ftu jo/e
fteq/sk }o{oh o{g ftu yohddko th j[zdk j?.
2H w" fdq e noE-ftt;Ek ftu ;/ dk fB:w (Say's Law and Monetary Economy) :
gqzgoktkdh noEkFk;soh ;/ d/ fB:w B{z w"fdqe noE-ftt;Ek ftu th bkr{ eod/ jB. T[jBK nB[;ko
w[dok f;co tNKdo/ d/ wkfXnw dk ekoi eodh j?. fJ; bJh id'_ fJe T[sgkde nkgD/ T[sgkdB B{z
t/u e/ w[dok d/ o{g ftu nkwdB gqkgs eo/rk. T[j T[; w[dok B{z d{ihnK t;s{nK ns/ ;/tktK yohdD
bJh you eo d/t/rk. fJ; soQK wzr dk fBowkD j't/rk ns/ T[j e[Zb g{osh d/ pokpo j' ikt/rh.
FIRST YEAR
Production Income Expenditure Demand Production

Rs. 100  Rs. 100  Rs. 100  Rs. 100  Rs. 100
Crores Crores Crores Crores Crores
WORKING SAY'S LAW OF MARKET

fuZso s'_ gsk ubdk j? fe fJe d/F ftu fJe ;kb ftu 100 eo'V o[gJ/ dk T[sgkdB (e[Zb
g{osh) j[zdk j?. fJ; d/ cb;o{g T[sgkdB ;kXBK dh nkwdB ftu 100 eo'V o[gJ/ dk tkXk j't/rk.
T[j 100 eo'V o[gJ/ dh nkwdB B{z e[Zb t;s{K dh g{osh yohdD bJh you d/Dr/. fJ; soQK e[Zb wzr
g{osh nkgDh wzr dk nkg fBowkD eo bt/rh. e[Zb wzr d/ ekoB okFNoh nkwdB fco s'_ T[sgkdeK
e'b gj[zu ikt/rh ns/ T[j d{i/ ;kbK 100 eo'V dk T[sgkdB eo ;eDr/. fJ; soQK fJj uZeoh gqtkj
ubdk oj/rk.
1H3H7 ;/ d/ pk}ko fB;w dh nkX[ f Be ftnkfynk
(Modern Statement of Say's Law of Markets)
#;/* d/ fB:w dk nk;eo bkr/ okjh_ fBo{gB (Formulation of Say's Law by Law
of Markets)
nk;eo bkr/ okjh_ ;/ d/ fB:wK dk fBo{gB fJe ;wo{g ;wheoD T[j ;wheoD j? i' nfij/
d' ftebgK B{z gqrN eodh j? i' T[jBK dh gfoGkFk d/ nkXko s/ iK jo/e fdqFNhe'D s'_ fpBK fe;/
Fos s/ fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo j[zd/ jB. fJ; soQK ;wheoD B{z (&) fszB ;wkBnzso o/yktK okjh_ gqrN
ehsk iKdk j?. nk;eo bkr/ nB[;ko fJe noEftt;Ek dhnK t;s{nK ns/ ;/tktK B{z, e[Zb wksok B{z,
ehws gZXo B{z r[Dk eoB s/ e[Zb w"fdqe wzr dk nB[gks brkfJnk iKdk j?. fJ;/ soQK t;s{nK ns/
;/tktK dh e[Zb g{osh B{z ehws gZXo Bkb r[Dk eoB s/ e[Zb w'fdqe g{osh dk nB[wkB brkfJnk ik
;edk j?. fJ; soQK
P1D1 = P1S1
e[b you ( P1D1) jo t/b/ g{osh you ( P1S1) d/ ;wo{g ( ) fBFkB Summation
nytkT[_dk j?, fJ; dk noE j? i'V ns/ - fuzB (Identity) nytkT[_dk j?. fJ; ;wheoD s'_ gsk ubdk
j? fe e[Zb wzr joe/ jkbs ftu e[Zb g{osh d/ pokpo j[zdh j?.
2H ; / d/ fB: w dk gq'H ghr { okj h_ fBo{gD (Formulation of Say's Law by Pigou) : gq'H
ghr{ okjh_ ;/ d/ fB:w dk fBog{D fJe ;wkBsk (Edulity) d/ o{g ftu ehsk iKdk j?. ;wkBsk ;wheoD
T[j ;wheoD j? i' nfij/ d' ftebgK B{z gqrN eodk j?.i' e[M FosK d/ g{ok j'D dh jkbs ftu jh
fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo j[zd/ jB. fJ; soQK d/ ;wheoD B[z (&) d' ;wkBnzso o/yktK okjh_ gqrN ehsk
iKdk j?. g'qH ghr{ d/ nB[;ko ;/ dk fB:w e[M FosK d/ nkXko s/ jh bkr{ j[zdk j?. nkw s"o s/
fJj fB:w sK jh bkr{ j[zdk j?, id'_ feos pk}ko ftu w}d{oh dh do ns/ w[dok pk}ko ns/ ftnk}
dh do g{oh soQK b'udko j[zdh j?. fJ; jkbs ftu e[b wzr e[b g{osh d/ pokpo j't/rh.
P1D1 = P1S1
e[b wzr you ( P1D1) e[b g{osh you ( P1S1) d/ pokpo j't/rk.
r?bpfoE (Galbraith) d/ fJFko/ nB[;ko, 1930 sZe nwoheB noE ftt;Ek B[z ed/ th xDh
ns/ bzw/ ;w/_ sZe dh wzdh ftu'_ ftuoBk fgnk ns/ nwoheB noE ftt;Ek B/ ;BksBh f;XKs dh ;ukJh
ns/ fJ; ftu'_ fBeb/ f;ZN/ dk fe g{oB o'}rko fJe nkw jkbs j[zdh j?, B{z fdqVQsk Bkb wzfBnk. go
1931 s'_ pknd ns/ 1940 s/ F[o{ sZe, T[E/ dh noE fttt;Ek B{z 10 ;kbK sZe fGnkBe wzdh B{z
;kXkoD jkbs d/ s"o s/ t/yDk fgnk. fJ; Bkb T[BQK d/ ;BksBh f;XKs pko/ :ehB B{z Gkoh XZek bZrk
feT[_fe ;BksBh f;XKs T[BQK jkbsK dk jZb Bjh_ ;h bZG ;edk ns/ T[; dh EK e/B} d[nkok fdZs/
rJ/ f;XKs Bz{ f}nkdk ;theko ehsk ikD bZrk. fJ; soQK e/B} B/ ;BksBh wkvb d/ w"fbe sZsK dh
j/m fdZs/ nkXkoK s/ gVu'b ehsh.
1H 1930 dh wjK wzdh B/, ;BksBh noE Fk;so dhnK ntk;sfte (unrealistic) wB'sK
B{z Gkoh ;ZN wkoh. Gkoh p/ekoh ftueko b'eK B{z fJj ftFtk; eoBk n"yk j' frnk fe ;BksBh b'eK
dk fJj ftuko, fe g{oB o[}rko fJe ;kXkoD ;fEsh j?, ;Zu j?. n;b ftu pj[s/ b'e, p/ekoh dh
;fEsh B{z ;kXkoD ;fEsh wfj;{; eoB bZr/. e/B} th fJj' rZb efjzdk ;h fe ;kXBK dh p/ekoh,
g{zihtkdh noE ftt;Ek dh nkw ftF/Fsk j? ns/ fJ; soQK nkw s"o s/ g{oB o'}rko s'_ Bht/_ gZXo
s/ jh o'}rko ;ws'b ;Ekfgs j[zdk j?.
2H 20th_ ;dh ftu, g{oB w[ekpb/ dh wB's T[s/ nkXkfos f;XKs, ng{oB w[ekpb/ tkbhnK
wzvhnK d/ :[Zr ftu fJe skohyh G[Zb (anachronism) j?. ;r'_ g{oB w[ekpb/ s'_ d{o j' e/, ;oekoh
dh ndkekoh pbFkbh o{g ftu ;kjwD/ nkJh j? fi; B/ ;BksBh f;XKs B{z ngqwkfDe mfjok fdZsk j?.
3H ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko, p/ekoh dk ekoB w[doe w}d{oh dh em'osk
(rigidity) j?. fJ; d/ T[bN e/B} B/ fejk fe p/ekoh dk ekoB e[Zb gqGkth wzr dh ewh j? fi; dk
ekoB you dh n;fEosk, nwho noE ftt;Ek dh T[uh pZus gqftosh ns/ fBt/F d/ nBT[fus w"e/ jB.
fJ; s'_ fJbktk pdb/ j'J/ jkbsK ftu id'_ w}d{o ;zxK dk }'o j?, w}d{o dh do xZN j'Dk
fttjkoe th Bjh_ ikgdk. w[doe Bhsh fijVh ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko ehwsK B{z tXk e/ ns/
w}d{oh dh n;b do B{z xZN eoe/ d/F ftu o'}rko d/ gZXo B{z tXkT[D ftu ;jkfJe j[zdh j?, dh
EK s/ e/B} B/ okie'Fh Bhsh dh ;zdK dh tZX s'_ tZX tos'_ dk ;[Mkn fdZsk, fi; Bkb e[Zb wzr d/
gZXo B{z tXk e/, p/ekoh B[z d{o ehsk ik ;edk j?.
4H fJj e/B} jh ;h fi; B/ o'}rko ns/ nkwdB f;XKsK B{z w[dok Bkb i'fVnk. T[;B/
;BksBh f;XKs B{z i' f;oc fJ; B{z w[Zb ns/ tzv dh nzfFe ftnkfynk d/ s"o s/ jh dZ;dk ;h, oZd
ehsk. T[; B/ ;BksBh noE Fk;soh d/ fJ; fynkb dh fe w[dok f;oc fJe godk iK tNKdo/ dk
;kXB jh j?, dh p[oh soQK gVu'b ehsh ns/ e/B} B/ dZf;nk fe w[dok toswkB ns/ GftZy B{z i'VB
bJh fJe eVh dk ezw eodh j?. fJ; ekoB w[dok d/ w[Zb B{z iwQK eoB tkb/ ezw (Store of value
function) B{z e/B} B/ f;o/ dh wjkBsk fdZsh.
5H ;/ dk wzvhnK dk fB:w fi; T[Zs/ ;BksBh o'}rko f;XKs yVQk j?, dh fto'Xsk d/ ;zpzX
ftu e/B} B/ dZf;nk fe ;koh nkwdB nkgD/ nkg jh you Bjh_ j' iKdh ns/ fJ; dk e[M fjZ;k puk
fbnk iKdk j?. T[j fjZ;k fijVk pu iKdk j? p/ekoh bJh f;ZX/ s"o s/ f}zw/tko j[zdk j?. e/B} B/,
;/ d/ fB:w ghr{ d[nkok gqshgkdB B{z th rbs dZ;fdnK fejk j? fe w}d{oh eN"sh Bkb p/ekoh d{o
iK ysw Bjh_ j' ;edh, feT[_fe fJ; Bkb gqGkt wzr xN iKdh j?, fi; dk xN j'Dk p/o[}rkoh dk
p[fBnkdh ekoB j?.
6H ;BksBh b'eK dk fJj ftFtk; ;h fe pus ns/ fBt/F g{oD o'}rko d/ gZXo T[Zs/
pokpo j[zd/ jB ns/ i/ ed/ fJBQ ftu e'Jh r?o-pokpoh nk ikt/ sK ftnki dh do dk Bjh_ fJj
nkwdB dk cbB j?. fJ;/ soQK noE-Fk;sohnK d/ T[bN i' pZus ns/ fBt/F B{z ftnk} dh do
dk cbB efjzd/ jB, e/B} B/ fJBQK B{z nkwdB gZXo ftu nkT[D tkbhnK spdhbhnK dk cbB
dZf ;nk.
7H ;BksBh noE Fk;sohnK d/ T[bN i' nkgD/ nkg ;wk:'iB j'D tkb/, bzw/ ;w/_ ftu j'D
tkb/ g{oB o'}rko ;ws'b ftu ftFtk; oZyd/ ;B, e/B} B/ bzw/ ;w/_ B{z T[vheD s'_ p/;poh ikfjo ehsh
ns/ dZf;nk fe bzw/ ;w/_ ftu sK n;h_ ;ko/ wo u[e/ j'tKr/. fit/_ FzghNo B/ dZf;nk j? fe T[; dh
(e/B} dh) ihtB gqsh ;'uDh E'VQ fuoh ;'uDh j?. T[; dh ftnkfynk E'VQ/ ;w/_ Bkb ;zpzfXs j?. ;BksBh
noE Fk;sohnK d/ T[bN T[j ;[nkd, nkdsK, T[sgkdB dhnK ftXhnK, w}d{oK dh g{osh B{z E'VQ/ ;w/_
ftu T[jh (Constant) wzBdk j?, ns/ fJ; soQK fJBQK d/ bzw/ ;w/_ ftu wzr T[Zs/ g?D tkb/ n;o B{z
nZy'_ T[jb/ eodk j?. T[gG'r wzr B{z T[jh (Constant) wzB e/ p/ekoh B{z d{o eoB bJh fBt/F B{z
tXkT[D T[Zs/ }'o fdzdk j? ns/ fJj th dZ;dk j? fe fJ; soQK gqkgs j'D tkbk ;ws'b dk gZXo ng{oB
o'}rko dk gZXo j[zdk j? Bk fe g{oB o'}rko ;ws'b dk.
;/ d/ fB:w dh nkb'uBk L-
#;/* d/ fB:w B{z eJh noEFk;sohnK B/ n;theko ehsk j?. fJ; d/ nkb'uBk d/ w[Zy sZs jBL
(i) gqGktg{oB wzr ftu ewh dh ;zGktBk.
(ii) nfs T[sgkdB dh ;zGktBk.
(iii) ;kXkoD p/o'}rkoh dh ;zGktBk.
(iv) nbg o[}rko ;zs[bB
(v) w[dok e/tb tNKdo/ dk wkfXnw Bjh_.
f ;ZN k
Gkt/_ e/B} B/ Bt-;Bksh f;XKs B{z oZd eo fdZsk j? fco th n;h_ fJj efj ;ed/ jK fe T[;dh
nkgDh gqDkbh dhnK iVQK th ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh gqDkbh dh v{zxkJh ftu t/yhnK ik ;edhnK jB.
e/B} d[nkok bJhnK rJhnK ;tszso ns/ g{oB w[ekpb/ ns/ xZNd/ T[sgkdB d/ fB:wK dhnK wkBsktK,
n;b ftu ;BksBh ;[Gk (Nature) dhnK jh jB. e[b wzr B{z wkoFb dh ftneshrs wzr dk s'fVnk
j'fJnk (disaggregated) fuZso (image) fejk ik ;edk j?. fJ;/ soQK jh e[b g{osh B{z cow d/
fJFNsw (Optimum) T[sgkdB dk ft;sfos o{g fejk ik ;edk j?. ;ko o{g ftu, n;h_ efj ;ed/
jK fe e/Bi d/ f;XKs dk i/ soe ;zrs sZs t/fynk ikt/ sK fJt/_ ikgdk j? fe fit/_ fe T[; B/ e'Jh
eqKshekoh rZb Bjh_ ehsh ns/ ;BksBh wkvb dh Gkt/_ gVu'b ehsh rJh j? ns/ fttjkoesk ftu oZd
j'fJnk j?, fco th nkofEe ftukoXkok d/ fJfsjk; ftu fJ; B/ nkgDh EK pDkJh j'Jh j?.
1. R. D. Gupta : Keynesian and Post-Keynesian Economics.
2. M.C. Vaish : Macro Economic Theory
3. M. L. Jhingan : Macro Eonomic Theory
4. Partap Singh : Macro Economics (in Punjabi)
1H o'}rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs dk ft;sko ftu toDB eo'. ns/ T[;dk
nkb'uBkswe w[bKeD th eo'.
2H o'}rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs dZ;'.
3H o'}rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs nkb'uBkswe w[bKeD eo'.
phH ekw Gkr gfjbk phH phH 206
fgz q ; hgbia nkca fp}B; fJeBkfwe;
e/ B } dk nkwdB ns/ o[ } rko f;XKs

(Keynesian Theory of Income and Employment)
1H4H1 e/ B } d/ f;XKs dhnK wB' s K

1H4H2 ;w[Zu h wzr s/ ;w[ Zu h g{ o sh d[ n kok o[ }rko dk ;zs[ b B
1H4H3 e/ B } s/ ebk;heb f;XKs ftukb/ wZs G/ d
1H4H4 ;zs [ b B nkwdB s/ o[ } rko gZX o dk fBoXkoD
1H4H5 e/B } d/ f;XKs dh nkb' uBk
1H4H6 e/B } d/ f;XKs dh wjZssk
1H4H6H1 f;XKse wjZ s sk
1H4H6H2 fttjkoe wjZ s sk
1H4H7 ;wekbhB s/ e/ B } d/ o[} rko f;XKs ftu nzs o
e/B} dh g[;se o[}rko, ftnki ns/ w[dok dk nkw f;XKs, fijVh 1961 ftu gqekfFs j'Jh,
nkofEe ftukoXkok dh fJe wjkB ouBk pD u[Zeh j?. fJ; g[;se ftu e/B} B/ nkwdB s/ o'}rko
d/ f;XKs dh ftnkfynk ehsh j?. i/ n;h_ T[; ;w/_ tZb Mksh wko e/ t/yhJ/ sK ;kB{z gsk br/rk fe
T[d'_ ;ko/ d/FK ftu tZv/ g?wkB/ s/ p/o[}rkoh c?bh j'Jh ;h ns/ ;z;ko fJe rzGho wzdtkV/ dh ;fEsh
ftu'_ bzx fojk ;h. b'eK dh nkwdB Bhth_ gZXo s/ g[Zi u[Zeh ;h ns/ T[BQK B{z fJe wjkB fpgsk dk
;kjwDk eoBk g? fojk ;h. fJ; fuzskiBe d;ka B{z d/y e/ e/B} B/ nkwdB s/ o'}rko dh ;fEsh B{z
;[XkoB pko/ ftuko ehsk. T[j ;wM frnk fe i/ g[okD/ noE Fk;so d/ nkXko s/ jh BhshnK B{z
ngDkfJnk frnk sK T[; Bkb jkbs j'o ftrV ikt/rh. e/B} B? g[okD/ noE Fk;so d/ nkXko s/
jh BhshnK B{z ngDkfJnk frnk sK T[; Bkb jkbs j'o ftrV ikt/rh. e/B} B/ g[okD/ f;XKs dk yzvB
ehsk ns/ b'eK ;kjwD/ fJe BtK f;XKs oZfynk fi; B/ nkofEe f;XKs (Economic Theory) ftu fJe
gqeko dh eqksh (Revolution) fijh b? nKdh. e/B} B/ nkwdB s/ o[}rko dk f;XKs fJe soQK T[;
t/b/ dhnK jkbsK dk f;ZNk j?. e/B} B/ nkgD/ f;XKsK ftu nkwdB, T[sgkdB ns/ o[}rko (Income,
output and Employment) d/ fJj fszB Fpd fJe jh noE ftu tos/ jB feT[_fe id'_ tX/o/ nkdwh
o'}rko s/ bkJ/ ikDr/, tX/o/ T[sgkdB j't/rk ns/ tX/o/ okFNoh nkwdB j't/rh.
e/B} B/ fJe noE ftt;Ek d/ T[sgkdB B{z o'}rko d/ Bkb fwfDnk j?, feT[_fe T[sgkdB B{z
wkgD dk e'Jh j'o uzrk g?wkBk Bjh_ ;h. okFNoh T[sgkdB, gqGkth wzr (Effective Demand) s/
fBoGo eodk j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu, o'}rko gqGkth wzr s/ nkXkos j?. gqGkth wzr nZr/ d' sZsK s/,
noEks T[gG'r you (Consumption expenditure) ns/ fBt/F you (Investment expenditure)
s/ nkXkfos j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu gqGkth wzr T[gG'r ns/ fBt/F T[go j'J/ e[Zb you dk i'V j[zdh j?.
50
i/ n;h_ efjzd/ jk fe o'}rko gqGkth wzr T[Zs/ fBoGo j?, sK fJ; s'_ gsk brdk j? fe p/o[}rkoh,
gqGkth wzr dh ewh ekoD gkJh iKdh j?. fJ; s'_ gsk brdk j? fe T[E/ gqGkth wzr xZN j?. j[D ;tkb
T[mdk j? fe g{zihtkdh noE ftt;Ek ftu gqGkth wzr xZN feT[_ j[zdh j?. T[so ikfjo j? fe id'_ fe;/
noE ftt;Ek ftu nkwdBh tXdh j? sK okFNoh T[gG'r ftu tkXk T[sBh s/}h Bkb Bjh_ T[mdk ns/
fJBQK d'BK ftu fJe ftZE gkJh iKdh j?. fisBk fuo okFNoh nkwdB ns/ T[gG'r ftu ftZE B{z Bt/_
fBt/F Bkb Bk Gfonk ikJ/, Bshik p/o[}rkoh j't/rh. ;' ;kB{z p/o[}rkoh d{o eoB bJh gqGkth wzr
B{z fBt/F okjh_ tXkT[Dk gt/rk.
1H4H1 e/B} d/ f;XKs dhnK wB'sK (Assumption of Keynesian Model)
e/B} d/ xZN wzr f;XKs (Demand Deficiency Theory) dk ftFb/FD eoB s'_ gfjbK fJj
}o{oh j? fe T[BQK wB'sK dh uouk ehsh ikt/ fiBQK s/ fJj f;XKs nkXkfos j?. e/B} d/ o[}rko ns/
nkwdB f;XKs dhnK w[Zy wB'sK j/m fbyhnK jB L
1H nbgekbhB ftFb/FD (Short-run Analysis) : e/B} dk nkwdB ns/ o[}rko
f;XKs nbgekb Bk jh ;zpzfXs j?. e/B} d/ nB[;ko dhoxekb ftu n;h_ ;ko/ wo iKd/ jK fJ; bJh
nbgekbhB ftFb/FD tX/o/ T[g:'rh j?. fJ; wB's d/ nkXko s/ T[BQK dk efjDk ;h fe ;ko/ nkofEe
uo ;fEo ofjzd/ jB fi;d/ nB[sKfse ;zpzX ;Ekfgs j' iKdk j?. fJ; XkoBk B/ e/B} d/ f;XKs B{z
tX/o/ :EkoEe ftfrnkB pDk fdZsk j?.
2H d' y/soh noE ftt;Ek (Two Sector Economy) : fJ; ftFb/FD ftu e/tb d'
y/soh noE ftt;Ek bJh rJh j? fi; ftu eZb nzfwe T[sgkdB T[gG'r ns/ fBt/F you dk i'V j?.
3H pzd noE ftt;Ek (Closed Economy) : e/B} dk o[}rko ns/ nkwdB ftFb/FD
pzd noE-ftt;Ek ftu bkr{ j[zdk j?. nfijh noE ftt;Ek ftu pd/;ha tgko dh nDj'_d wzBh iKdh j?.
4H noE-ftt;Ek ftu ;oeko dh nDj'_d (No Govt. in the Economy) : fJ;
wkvb ftu fJj doi ehsk frnk j? fe ;oeko dh nDj'_d j? fi; ekoB NqK;co ndkfJrhnK Bjh_
jB ns/ okFNoh nwkdB, okFNoh T[sgkdB d/ pokpo j?.
5H nDtzvh bkGK dh nDj'_d (No undistributed profits) : noE-ftt;Ek ftu fBrw
cowK (Corporate firms) dk j'D ekoD nDtzv/ bkGk dh nDj'_d j[zdh j?. f;ZN/ ti'_ okFNoh nkwdB
ftneshrs nkwdB d/ pokpo j[zdh j?.
6H eoK ns/ ;oekoh you dh nDj'_d (No taxes and governmental Expenditure):
;oeko dh nDj'_d ekoB eoK ns/ ;oekoh you dh nDj'_d wzBh iKdh j?. feT[_fe ;oeko ns/ fBrw
y/so dh nDj'_d j?. fJ; bJh you eoB :'r ftneshrs nkwdB (Disposable Personal Income)
F[X okFNoh T[sgkdB (NNP) d/ pokpo j[zdh j?. you:'r ftneshrs nkwdB iK ftneshrs T[gG'r
s/ you eo fdZsh iKdh j? iK T[; B{z puk fbnk iKdk j?. ftneshrs pus, ftneshrs fBt/F d/
pokpo j[zdh j?.
7H g{oD o[}rko s'_ xZN jkbs (Less than full employment) : e/B} dk ftFb/FD
g{oD o[}rko s'_ xZN dh jkbs dh ftnkfynk eodk j? Gkt noE ftt;Ek ftu nbg-o[}rko ;zs[bB
(Under employment Equilibrium) j[zdk j?.
8H fJ; ftFb/FD dhnK fJj th wB'sK jB fe nkw ehws gZXo ns/ w[dok w}d[oh do
Bjh_ pdbdhnK (Constant general price and money wage rate)
9H ;fEo T[gG'r cbB (Stable Consumption Function) : fJ; f;XKs dh fJe j'o
wjZstg{oD wB's fJj j? fe T[gG'r cbB pko/ ;ko/ nkwdB gZXoK s/ ;fEo wzfBnk iKdk j?.
10H ;zs[so fBt/F (Autonomous Investment) : e/B} d/ o[}rko ns/ nkwdB
ftFb/FD ftu fBt/F ;[szso wzBh iKdh j?. i' bkG ewkT[D d/ T[d/F Bkb Bjh_ ehsh iKdh. fJ; dk
wzst ;otiBe fefonktK ftu tkXk eoe/ wkBth efbnkD tXkT[Dk j?.
e/B} nB[;ko gqGkth wzr fijV/ d' sZsK d/ fBoGo j? T[j e[Zb wzr cbB (Aggregate
Demand Functions) ns/ e[Zb g{osh cbB (Aggregate Supply Function). gqGkth wzr fJBQK d'jK
FeshnK d/ go;go ;zs[bB Bkb fBoXkos jz[dh j?.
(T) e[b wzr cbB (Aggregate Demand Function)
e[Zb wzr cbB w[dok dhnK T[BQK tZy tZy wksoktK dh ;koDh j? fijVhnK fe fJe noE
ftt;Ek ftu T[dw eos/, o'}rko d/ tZy tZy gZXoK T[Zs/ nkgDhnK t;s{nK dh fteoh s'_ jk;b eoB
dh nk; eod/ jB. (Aggregate demand function is a schedule of the various amounts of
money which the enterpreneurs in an economy expect from the sale of their output at
varying levels of employment).
(n) e[Zb g{osh cbB (Aggregates Supply Function)
e[Zb g{osh cbB, w[dok dhnK T[BQK tZy-tZy wksoktK dh ;koDh j? fijVhnK noE ftt;Ek ftu
T[sgkdeK B{z o'}rko d/ tZy tZy gZXoK T[s/ nkgDhnK tZy tZy t;s{nK dh fteoh s'_ }o{oh jk;b
j'DhnK ukjhdhnK jB. (Aggregate supply function is a schedule of the various amounts of
money which the enterpreneurs in an economy must receive from the sale of their output
at varying levels of employment).
fiE/ fe e[Zb cbB (ADF) nkwdB gZy B{z do;kT[_dk j?, fi; dh T[sgkde nkgDh fteoh s'_
nk; eod/ jB, T[E/ e[b g{osh cbB (A.S.F.) bkrs gZy B{z do;kT[_dk j?, fijVh fe T[sgkdeK B{z
T[BQK d/ T[sgkdB dh fteoh s/ }o{oh jk;b j' ikDh ukjhdh j?.
fisBk fuo nkwdB (receipts) bkrs (costs) f}nkdk j't/rh, T[sgkde j'o feoshnK B{z
o'}rko d/Jh ikDr/ ns/ T[E/ ik e/ o[eDr/ fiE/ fe nkwdB, bkrs d/ pokpo j' ikt/rh.
j[D, n;h_ ;koh rZb fco d[jokT[_d/ jK fe o'}rko, bkrs d/ pokpo j?, i' nZr'_ e[Zb wzr
cbB (A.D.F.) ns/ e[Zb g{osh cbB (A.S.F.) s/ nkXkfos j?. gqGkth wzr fJBQK d'jK FeshnK d/
;zs[bB Bkb fBoXkfos j[zdh j?. fJj n;h_ o/yk fuZso Bzpo 1 okjh_ do;kT[_d/ jK L-
fJ; o/yk fuZso Bzpo (1) ftu X–axis s/ n;h_ o'}rko b?_d/ jK ns/ Y–axis s/ nkwdB ns/
bkrsK B{z OD toe e[Zb wzr cbB dh teo ns/ OS toe e[Zb g{osh cbB dh teo j?. gqGkth wzr
T[j fpzd{ j? fiE/ fJj d't/_ toeK fJe d{i/ B{z eZNdhnK jB. ;zs[bB E fpzd{ s/ j[zdk j? feT[_fe fJe/
e[Zb wzr cbB e[Zb g{osh cbB d/ pokpo j?. e[Zb o'}rko OM j?. fisBk fuo e[Zb wzr cbB
(A.D.F.) e[Zb g{osh cbB (A.S.F.) Bkb'_ T[go j?, Gkt nkwdBh, bkrs Bkb'_ tX/o/ j?, T[sgkde
o[}rko d/Jh ikDr/ ns/ T[E/ ik e/ o[eDr/ fiE/ fJj d't/_ pokpo jB.
Gkt/_ E fpzd{ T[s/ ;zs[bB dh nt;Ek j? go fJ; dk Gkt fJj Bjh_ fe noE ftt;Ek ftu g{oB
o'}rko dh ;fEsh j?. (Equilibrium not necessarily at full employment level) . fJj rZb eJh
tko t/yD ftu nkT[_dh j? fe ;zs[bB T[; n;tEk ftu j' iKdk j? fiE/ ni/ th p/o[}rkoh gkJh iKdh
j?. fJj ;zs[bB g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh ftu fJe Fos s/ jh j' ;edk j? fe Bt/_ fBt/F dh do fJsBh
j?. fJj ;zs[bB g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh s/ okFNoh nkwdB ns/ okFNoh T[gG'r dh ftZE B{z fwNk d/t/.
go e/B} nB[;ko fBt/F dh fJsBh f}nkdk wksok Bjh_ j[zdh ns/ ;zs[bB, nkw eoe/ ng{oD o'}rko
dh ;fEsh ftu jh gkfJnk iKdk j?. (The equilibrium between A.D.F. and A.S.F. can and often
does take place at a point of less than full employment) . fJ; o/yk fuZso ftu jh n;h_ fJj
wzBd/ jK fe g{oD o'}rko dh ;fEsh OM j? ;' g{oB o[}rko fbnkT[D bJh ;kB{z e[Zb wzr teo
(A.D.F. Curve) B{z T[go fbikDk gt/rk. ;' E ;zs[bB fpzd{ g{oB o'}rko dh nt;Ek OM1 B{z
do;kT[_dk j?.
n;h_ fco d[jokT[_d/ jK fe e/B} dk noE ftfrnkB nbgekbhB noE ftfrnkB j?. nbgekb
ftu bkrsK ;fEo ofjzdhnK jB. ;' e/B} e[Zb g{osh cbB (A.S.C.) B{z ;fEo wzB e/ nkgDk ;kok
f;XKs e[Zb wzr cbB (A.D.C.) s/ nkXkfos eodk j?.
e[b wzr cbB nZr'_ d' w[Zy rZbK s/ fBoGo eodk j?. fJBQK ftu'_ fJe T[gG'r you
(Consumption expenditure) j?, ns/ d{ik fBt/F you (Investment expenditure). fiE/ se
T[gG'r t;sK dh wzr dk ;zpzX j?, fJj nkw s"o s/ ;fEo ofjzdh j? ns/ nkJ/ fdB pdbdh Bjh_.
fJ; dk tZvk ekoD fJj j? fe b'eK dhnK T[gG'r b'eK ns/ o[uhnK ftu S/sh Bkb gfotosB Bjh_
j[zdk. gqGkth wzr dk fBoXkoe fBt/F jh j? ns/ e/B} B/ fJ; rZb s/ }'o fdZsk j? fe o'}rko B{z
tXkT[D bJh fBt/'F B{z tXkT[Dk pj[s }o{oh j?. fBt/F wzr ftu tkX/ eoe/ o'}rko ftu tkXk j[zdk
j?. fJ; B{z ;wheoD o{g ftu th fby ;ed/ jK L-
gqGkth wzr & T[gG'r (;fEo ofjzdk j?) O fBt/F (o'}rko tXkT[_dk j?)
fBt/F nZr/ ftnki do ns/ g{zih dh ;hwKs ekoi e[Fbsk (Marginal Efficiency fo Capital)
s/ fBoGo eodk j?. fJBQK d'jK ftu ftnki do S/sh Bkb Bjh_ pdbdh. fJ; bJh g{zih dh ;hwKs
ekoi e[Fbsk jh fBt/F tXkT[_dh j?. id'_ g{zih dh ;hwKs e[Fbsk ftu tkXk j[zdk j? sK g{zih fBt/F
B{z T[sFkj fwbdk j?. g{zihgsh fBt/F ftu tkXk eod/ jB ns/ T[; d/ Bkb o[}rko ns/ nkwdB ftu
tkXk j[zdk j?. fJ; bJh i/ o[}rko tXkT[Dk j't/ sK ;kB{z fJj d/yDk ukjhdk j? fe g{zih dh ;hwKs
ekoi e[Fbsk ftu tkXk j't/.
g{zih dh ;hwKs ekoi e[Fbsk th d' w[Zy rZbK s/ nkXkfos j?. g{zihrs ok; d/ pbdD dh
bkrs, ns/ d{ik fBt/F eofsnK dhnK bkG bJh nk;K. fJBQK d'tK ftu'_ fBt/F eofsnK dhnK bkG
dhnK nk;K tX/o/ wjZstg{oB jB.fJ; dk wsbp fJj j'fJnk fe id'_ d/F nkgDh nkwdB ns/ o[}rko
ftu tkXk eoBk ukjz[dk j? sK T[; B{z nfij/ edw u[eD/ ukjhd/ jB fi; BK T[; d/F d/ tgkohnK,
ekoykB/dkoK ns/ T[dweofsnK d/ wBK ftu bkG dhnK nk;K tZX ikD.
1H4H2 ;w[ Zuh wzr ns/ ;w[ Zu h g{ o sh d[ n kok o[ } rko dk ;zs [ b B
nkofEe f;XKs dhnK d' p[fBnkdh FeshnK wzr ns/ g{osh jB. j[D n;K fJj t/yDk j? fe
nkwdB ns/ o[}rko dk ;zs[bB ikDB bJh ;kB{z ;w[Zuh wzr ns/ g{osh dk ;zs[bB fpzd{ gsk eoBk
gt/rk. fJj ;zs[bB T[; EK s/ j't/rk fiE/ ;w[Zuh wzr ns/ ;w[Zuh g{osh d/ teo fJe d{i/ B{z eZNDr/.
j/m fdZs/ o/yk fuZso s'_ fJj rZb ;gZFN j[zdh j? L-
T[go fdZs/ o/yk fuZso 2 ftu'_ X n?ef;} nkwdB B{z ns/ Y n?ef;} ns/ fBt/F s/ ehs/ you
gqrNkT[_d/ jB. 45° d/ e'D tkbh OEF o/yk okFNoh nkwdB dh pokpoh B{z do;kT[_dh j?. C T[gG'r
teo j? ns/ C + 1 ;w[Zuh wzr (T[gG'r wzr O fBt/F wzr) dh o/yk j?. ;w[Zuh wzr ns/ ;w[Zuh g{osh
d/ teo fJe d{i/ B{z E fpzd{ s/ eZNd/ jB. fJj ;zs[bB fpzd{ jh gqGkth wzr dk fpzd{ j?. nkwdB
dh ;zs[bB gZXo OY j?. T[gG'r iK fBt/F s/ you xND iK tXD Bkb nkwdB s/ o[}rko OY s'_
xZN tZX ;edh j?. you ftu e'Jh spdhbh ;zs[bB fpzd{ B{z pdb d/t/rh. fJ; gqeko fe;/ noE
ftt;Ek ftu nkwdB s/ o[}rko dk ;zs[bB fpzd{ T[E/ j't/rk fiE/ ;w[Zuh wzr ns/ g{osh nkg; ftu
pokpo j'DrhnK.
fJj }o{oh Bjh_ fe ;zs[bB g{oB o[}rko dh gZXo s/ jh j't/. ebk;heb noE ftfrnkBhnK
nB[;ko noE-ftt;Ek g{oB o[}rko ;zs[bB dh ;fEsh ftu ofjzdh j?. go e/B} ;zs[bB nkw s"o s/
ng{oB o[}rko dh ;fEsh ftu jh gkfJnk iKdk j?. i/ n;h_ wzB b?_d/ jK fe fpzd{ F, g{oB o[}rko
dh ;fEsh ftu j? sK fpzd{ E s/ ;zs[bB ng{oB o[}rko dk ;zs[bB j't/rk. fJ; jkbs ftu nkwdB
ns/ ;w[Zuh wzr ftu FK dk nzso j?. i/ n;h_ ukj[zd/ jK fe g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh j't/ sK ;kB{z
fBt/F ftu tkXk eoBk ukjhdk j?. fBt/F ftu tkX/ dh wksok FK d/ pokpo j'Dh ukjhdh j?. fBt/F
ftu tkX/ Bkb BtK ;zs[bB fpzd{ F j't/rh. n;K ;'uDk fJj j? fe noE^ftt;Ek ftu fJj nzso feT[_
nk iKdk j?. nkwdB ns/ T[gG'r d/ nzso B{z n;h_ pus nkyd/ jK. noE ftt;Ek ftu pZus eoB
tkb/ ns/ fBt/F eoB tkb/ tZyo/ nkdwh j[zd/ jB. pZus ns/ fBt/F d/ wB'oE th tZyo/ j[zd/ jB. pZus
tX/o/ ftF/F eoe/ nkwdB s/ fBoGo j[zdh j?l gozs{ fBt/F bkG dhnK nk;K iK g{zih d/ ;hwKs ekoi
e[Fbsk ns/ ftnki do s/ fBoGo eodh j?. fJ; bJh }o{oh Bjh_ fe jw/FK T[sBk jh j't/ fe g{oB
o'}ro dh ;fEsh pDh oj/. g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh fbnkT[D bJh ;kB{z ft;/aF edw u[ZeD/ g?_d/ jB.
f;XKs ;koDhpZX o{g (Tabular Form) ftu L nkwdB s/ o'}rko d/ fJ; f;XKs dh o{g o/yk
B{z nrb/ gzB/ s/ ;koDhpZX o{g ftu fdZsk frnk j?. fJ; B{z t/y e/ MZN gsk br iKdk j? fe nkwdB
s/ o'}rko fejV/ sZsK s/ nkXkfos j[zd/ jB.
1H4H3 e/B} ns/ ebk;heb f;XKs ftukb/ wZs G/d (Difference between Keynesian and
Classical Economics)
(i) ebk;heb noE ftfrnkBhnK nB[;ko, noE ftt;Ek jw/FK g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh
ftu ofjzdh j?. i/ fe;/ soQK ;w/_ bJh g{oB o'}rko dh ;fEsh th Bk oj/, sK T[BQK dk gZek ftFtk;
;h fe T[; jkbs ftu w}d{oh xZN j' ikt/rh ns/ fJ; soQK ehwsK xN ikDrhnK, ehwsK xND Bkb
fco g{oD o[}rko j' ikt/rh. go e/B} nB[;ko, ng{oD o[}rko dh ;fEsh nk; eoe/ ofjzdh j?
feT[_fe id'_ okFNoh nkwdB tXdh j?, okFNoh T[gG'r ftu tkXk T[Bsh s/ih Bkb Bjh_ j[zdk ns/ fJBQK
d'tK ftu fJe ftZE j' iKdh j?. fi; B{z GoB bJh fBt/F ftu tkXk eoBk }o{oh j?. gqGkth wzr,
nkwdB s/ o[}rko dh e[zih j?.
(ii) ebk;heb f;XKs fJe rshjhB f;XKs (Static Theory) j? ns/ fJ; d/ T[bN e/B}
dk f;XKs rshFhb (Dynamic) j?. e/B} nkgD/ f;XKs ftu Gkth nk;K s/ pb fdzdk j? ns/ pdbdhnK
nt;EktK dk ftFb/FD eodk j?. ebk;heb f;XKs ftu e/tb fJ;/ rZb dk jh ftFb/FD j? fe fe;/
;w/_ noE ftt;Ek ftu fet/_ tZy' tZyohnK FeshnK dk ;zs[bB j[zdk j?.
(iii) e/B} dk f;XKs o[}rko dh jo/e gZXo s/ ftuko eodk j?. e/B} d/ f;XKs dk wB'oE
fJj dZ;Dk j? fe fe;/ fwE/ o[}rko dh wksok fe; soQK fBFfus j[zdh j?, Gkt/_ fJj g{oD o[}rko
ft;fsqs p/o[}rkoh iK fe;/ j'o gZXo dh jh feT[_ Bk j't/. ebk;heb f;XKs e/tb g{oD o[}rko d/
ftF/ Bkb ;zpzfXs j?. e/B} nkgD/ f;XKs ftu ;kok i'o nk; Fpd s/ bkT[_dk j? ns/ T[j fJj
do;kT[D dk :sB eodk j? fe noE ftt;Ek ftu ;kXkoD ;fEsh tXdh-xNdh nkofEe feqnk dh j?.
(iv) e/B} nkgD/ f;XKs B{z w'fdqe f;XKs (Money Theory) nkydk j?. T[; B/ w[dok B{z
ehws ns/ T[sgkdB d/ f;XKs Bkb fJefwe (integrate) eo fdZsk j?. e/B} w[ZYbh T[wo ftu w[dok
f;XKs s/ Bhsh dk wkfjo ;h. id'_ T[; B/ nkw f;XKs s/ ftFkb y/so ftu gqt/F ehsk sK T[;B/ w[dok
B{z ;w[Zu/ nkofEe gqDkbh ftu o[}rko ns/ T[sgkdB fBFfus eoB dk ;G s'_ tZvk ;kXB dZf;nk.
ebk;heb noE ftfrnkBh fJBQK f;XKsK B{z fJe d{i/ s'_ tZy ;wMd/ oj/ jB ns/ fJBQK dh ftnkfynk
th tZy' tZyoh eod/ oj/.
(v) ebk;heb f;XKs :EkoEtkdh Bjh_ gqzs{ e/B} dk f;XKs fttjkfoe ns/ :EkoEtkdh j?.
(vi) ebk;heb noE-ftfrnkBhnK nB[;ko, id'_ th w[dok dh wksok ftu tkXk ehsk ikt/rk
sK ehwsK dh gZXo T[uh j' ikt/rh. fJ; d/ T[bN e/B} dk ftuko fJj j? fe id'_ sZe g{oB o[}rko
dh ;fEsh Bk j't/, w[dok dh wksok tXD Bkb T[sgkdB tX/rk ns/ ehwsK T[s/ ftF/F gqGkt Bjh_
gt/rk. e/B} nB[;ko w[dok ;chsh (inflation) g{oD o[}rko dh gZXo s'_ jh nkozG j[zdh j?.
(vii) ebk;heb noE ftfrnkBh ;zs[fbs piN (Balanced Budget) Bhsh s/ ;woEe jB.
fJ; d/ T[bN e/B} d/ ftuko fJj ;h fe piN ftt;Ek dh dFk nB[;ko j'Dk ukjhdk j?. id'_ d/F
ftu p/o[}rkoh j't/ sK xkN/ dk piN (Deficti Budget) jh bkj/tzd ofjzdk j?.
(viii) ebk;heb noE-ftfrnkBhnK, ft;/aF eoe/ ghr{ dk fJj ftuko ;h fe fe;/ th ;w/_
Bed w}d{oh dh do B{z xZN eoe/ g{oD o[}rko dh ;fEsh ekfJw oZyh ik ;edh j?. fJ; d/ T[bN
e/B} B/ f;ZX ehsk j? fe fJ; soQK eoBk f;XKse ns/ fttjkoe fdqFNh d'jK s'_ jh fJe Gkoh G[Zb
j?. w}d{oh bJh f;oc bkrs jh Bjh_, ;r'_ w}d{o dh nkwdB th j?. fJ; d/ xND Bkb gqGkt;kabh
wzr xZN iKdh j? ns/ o[}rko th xNdk j?.
(ix) e/B} d/ nB[;ko ftnki do, Bedh bJh soihj ns/ w[dok g{osh s/ go;go ;zpzX
okjh_ fB:s j[zdh j?. id'_ ebk;heb noE-ftfrnkBhnK nB[;ko, fJj pZus ns/ fBt/F dh go;go feqnk
okjh_ fB:s j[zdh j?.
nkwdB ns/ o[}rko
gqGkth wzr
fBt/F T[gG'r
ftnki do g{zih dh ;hwKs nkwdB dh wksqk T[gG'rh gqftqsh

ekoi e[Fbsk
w[dok dh wksqk Bedh bJh soihj g{zihrs ok; d/ GkJh nk;K

g[Bo;EkgB dh bkrs
ftjkoe wB'oE fJjfsnksh wB'oE ;ZNk wB'oE
Income and Empolyment
Effective Demand
Consumption Investment
Level of Income Propensity to Rate of Interest Marginal

consume efficiency of capital
Replace of Cost Prospective Yield
Liquidity Preference Supply of Money
Transactional Motive Precautionary Motive Speculative Motive

1H4H4 nkwdB ns/ o[}rko gZXo dk fBoXkoD (Determination of Equilibrium Level of
Income and Employment) :
g{oB gqsh:'rsk dh jkbs ftu o[}rko dk fBoXkoD e[Zb wzr d/ T[; gZXo s/ j't/rk, fi;
s/ T[j e[Z
b g{osh d/ pokpo j [zd h j ?
. fJ; gZ
Xo B{z ; zs [b B dk gZ
Xo i K gqGkt g{oB wzr (Effective
Demand) fejk iKdk j?. e/B} d/ nB[;ko #o[}rko dk gZXo T[E/ sfj j[zdk j?, fiE/ e[Zb wzr czeFB
ns/ e[Zb g{osh czeFB ftu d{i/ B{z eZNd/ jB.** (The volume of employment is given by the
point of intersection between the aggregate demand function and aggregate supply function
- Keynes)
nbgekb ftu e[Zb g{osh ;fEo ofjzdh j?, fJ; bJh e[Zb wzr ftu gfotosB eoe/ gqGktg{oB
wzr ns/ o[}rko d/ gZXo B{z tXkfJnk ik ;edk j?. gqGktg{oB wzr fBt/F ns/ T[gG'r s/ fBoGo eodh
j?. fJe fBt/F eoB tkbk fBt/F eod/ ;w/_ ftnki dh do ns/ g{zih dh ;hwKs T[sgkdesk dh s[bBk
eodk iKdk j?. id'_ g{zih dh ;hwKs T[sgkdesk dh s[bBk do s'_ tX/o/ j[zdh j? sK T[j fBt/F eodk
j?. fJ; bJh e/B} d/ ;kXkoB f;XKs d/ nB[;ko i/eo fe;/ d/F ftu p/o[}rkoh j? sK fJ; B{z d{o
eoB bJh gqGktg{oB wzr B{z tXkT[Dk ukjhdk j?. gqGktg{oB wzr B{z tXkT[D bJh e[Zb wzr ftu tkXk
ehsk ikDk ukjhdk j?. e[Zb wzr ftu tkXk eoB bJh T[gG'r ns/ fBt/F ftu tkXk ehsk ikDk ukjhdk
j? go nbgekb ftu T[gG'r ;fEo ofjzdk j?. fJ; bJh fJ; ftu tkXk eoB s/ jh e[Zb wzr B{z
tXkfJnk ik ;edk j?. fJ; d/ cb;o{g o[}rko ftu tkXk j't/rk. e/B} dk fJj th ftuko ;h fe
fBt/F ftu tkXk, j'D ekoD r[DKe gqGkt d/ ekoD nkwdB ns/ o[}rko ftu eJh r[Dk tX/o/ tkXk
j't/rk. ;zy/g ftu gqGktg{oB wzr Gkt fBt/F B{z tXk e/ p/o[}rkoh B{z d{o eoe/ g{oB o[}rko d/ Nhu/
B{z gqkgs ehsk ik ;edk j?.
Table 1 : o[}rko dk fBoXkoD (Determination of Employment)
Employment Aggretate supply Aggregate Demand Trends in

(N) in Lakhs (Rs. Crore) (Rs. Crore) Employment
0 0 60 Rise
10 60 100 Rise
20 90 120 Rise
30 120 140 Rise
40 150 160 Rise
50 180 180 Equilibrium
60 210 190 Fall
70 240 200 Fall
;koDh s'_ gsk ubdk j? fe id'_ o[}rko dh wksok f;\o j? sK e[Zb wzr 60 eo'V o[gJ/ j?
ns/ e[Zb g{osh }ho' j?. fJ; dk ekoD fJj j? fe p/o[}rko wB[Zy T[gG'r s/ e[M Bk e[M }o{o you
eodk j?. o[}rko dh 50 bZy ;zfynk s/ e[Zb g{osh e[Zb wzr d/ pokpo j? noEks 180 eo'V o[gJ/
jB. fJj ;zs[bB dh jkbs j't/rh. noE ftt;Ek ftu o[}rko s/ ;zs[bB dh wksok fJE/ jh fBoXkfos
j't/rh. go fJ; noE ftt;Ek ftu 70 bZy feosh ezw gqkgs eoBk ukj[zd/ jB. fJ; bJh ;zs[bB dh
fJ; jkbs ftu 20 bZy wB[Zy p/o[}rko ofj ikDr/.
fuZso BzH 3
fuZso ftu OX o/yk s/ o[}rko ns/ OY o/yk s/ nB[wkfBs gqkgshnK B{z gqrN ehsk frnk j?.
AS e[Zb g{osh teo j?. AD e[Zb wzr teo j?. fJ; o/yk fuZso d/ E fpzd{ s'_ gsk ubdk j? fe
o[}rko dh 50 bZy ;zfynk s/ e[Zb g{osh ns/ e[Zb wzr teo fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo jB. fJ; bJh fpzd{
E ;zs[bB fpzd{ j?. go i/eo o[}rko dh frDsh xNk e/ 40 bZy j' iKdh j? ns/ sK e[Zb wzr 160
eo'V j't/rh ns/ e[Zb g{osh 150 eo'V j' ikt/rh ns/ o[}rko dh frDsh tZX e/ 50 s'_ 60 bZy j[zdh
j? sK T[; ;w/_ th e[Zb g{osh s/ e[b g{osh s/ e[Zb wzr fJe d{i/ d/ pokpo Bjh_ j't/rh. fJ; soQK
e[Zb wzr fJ; ;w/_ 190 eo'V ns/ e[Zb g{osh 210 eo'V j't/rh. Gkt e[Zb wzr, e[Zb g{osh s'_ xZN j't/rh
ns/ T[sgkdeK B{z jkBh j't/rh. T[j T[sgkdB xZN eoBr/. T[sgkdB xZN j'D d/ cb;o{g o[}rko xZN
j't/rk. o[}rko d/ gZXo okjh_ ;zs[bB gZXo Gkt 50 bZy s/ gj[zu ikt/rk.
1H4H5 e/B } d/ f;XKs dh nkb' uBk
fiE/ e/B} d/ f;XKs dk fJsBk wjZst j?, T[E/ eJh noE ftfrnkBhnK B/ fJ; dh nkb'uBk
th ehsh j?. fJ; ;zpzX ftu fJ; f;XKs dhnK e[ZM e[ so[ZNhnK j/m fdzd/ jK L
(i) fJj f;XKs ftef;s d/FK B{z ;kjwD/ oZy e/ g/F ehsk frnk j?. T[ZBs d/FK dh w[Zy
;wZf;nk T[BQK dh nkofEe n;fEosk j?. fJ; d/ T[bN xZN ftef;s d/FK dh w[Zy ;wZf;nk nkofEe
ftek; j?. p/o[}rkoh B{z d{o eoB bJh fijV/ T[gkn e/B} B/ dZ;/ jB Gkos tor/ xZN ftef;s d/FK
bJh ;jkfJe Bjh_ j' ;ed/. ;kvh p/o[}rkoh nfijh Bjh_ fe noE ftt;Ek d/ T[sko uVQk Bkb fJ;
ftu th xkNk tkXk j[zdk oj/. fJj sK dhoxekbhB ns/ g[okDh fpwkoh tkr{ ubh nk ojh j?.
(ii) e/B} B/ nkgDk f;XKs e/tb ;gZFNhGkt-nkswe (Macro) fdqFNhe'D s'_ jh g/F ehsk
j? ns/ ftnFNhGkt-nkswe (Micro) fdqFNhe'D B{z T[Zek jh T[jb/ eo fdZsk j?. nkofEe ftFb/FD ftu
;kv/ bJh fJj }o{oh j? fe d'jK fdqFNhe'DK B{z ngDkfJnk ikt/. i/ n;h_ e/tb fJe gk;/ tZb jh fXnkB
fdnKr/ sK ;kvk ftFb/FD nX{ok ofj ikt/rk.
(iii) tgko-uZeoK dk nkX[fBe f;XKs dZ;dk j? fe fJBQK s/ r[De (Multiplier) ns/ stoe
(Accelerator) d'jK dh go;go feqnk dk gqGkt g?_dk j?. e/B} B/ nkgD/ f;XKs ftu e/tb r[De d/
wjZst oZyd/ jB.
(iv) e/B} dk f;XKs ftef;s g{zihtkd noE ftt;Ek s/ jh bkr{ jz[dk j? ns/ fJ;
;wkitkdh noE-ftt;Ek s/ bkr{ Bjh_ j[zdk. ;wkitkdh noE ftt;Ek ftu fBt/F ;oeko d/ jZEK ftu
j[zdk j?. T[j T[; B{z b'V nB[;ko tXkT[_dh iK xNkT[_dh ofjzdh j?. ;wkitkdh d/F ftu ekb-uZeoh
p/o[}rkoh (Cyclical unemployment) sK j[zdh jh Bjh_.
(v) e/B} dk f;XKs g{zihtkdh d/FK s/ th g{oh soQK bkr{ Bjh_ j[zdk. e/B} B/ nkgD/ f;XKs
ftu g{oB gqsh:'rsk (Perfect Competition) dh wB's oZyh j?. tk;st ftu g{zihtkdh noE ftt;Ek
ftu g{oD gqsh:'rsk dh nt;Ek Bjh_ j[zdh.
(vi) e/B} nkgD/ ftFb/FD ftu ;wK ftbzp (time lag) B{z e'Jh wjZssk Bjh_ fdzdk. T[;
d/ f;XKs ftu fJj wzB fbnk iKdk j? fe i/eo nkwdB nZi tZXdh j? sK T[gG'r th nZi jh tZX
ikt/rh. nkwdB d/ tZXD s/ T[; d/ cb;o{g T[gG'r d/ tZXD ftu ;w/_ ftbzp (time lag) B{z fXnkB
ftu oZfynk ikDk ukjhdk j?. T[; d/ f;XKs ftu fJj fJe tZvh so[ZNh j?.
(vii) e/B} dk f;XKs nbg-ekbhB (short-term) f;XKs j? ns/ dhox-ekbhB (long-term)
xNBktK s/ ftuko Bjh_ eodk. e/B} nkgD/ ftFb/FD ftu ngb-ekb B{z wzB e/ nZr/ ubdk j?.
(viii) pzd noE ftt;Ek L e/B} dh fJ; noE ftt;Ek dh wkBsk B{z jh nb'ueK B/
n;theko eo fdZsk. nb'ueK nB[;ko tgko Bkb d/F ftu fBt/F tZXdk j? i' fe o'}rko nB[e{b gqGkt
gkT[_dk j?.
T[gobh nkb'uBk s'_ gsk brdk j? fe e/B} d/ f;XKs ftu fijVhnK so[ZNhnK dk toDB ehsk
frnk j?, fJj so[ZNhnK e'Jh ftF/aF wjZst tkbhnK jB.
1H4H6 e/B} d/ f;XKs dh wjZssk L e/B} dk ##nkwdB dk o[}rko** dk f;XKs f;XKse ns/
fttjkfoe d'jK gZyK s'_ pVh wjZssk oZydk j?.
1H4H6HT f;XKse wjZssk (Theoretical Importance)
(i) e/B} B/ ebk;heb noE ftfrnkBhnK dh g{oB o[}rko-;zs[bB dh XkoBk B{z oZd eoe/
ng{oD o'}rko ;zs[bB dh XkoBk g/F ehsh j?. d{i/ FpdK ftu e/B} B/ f;XKse ftFb/FD d[nkok f;ZX
eo fdZsk j? fe g{zihtkdh d/FK ftu nkwdB s/ o[}rko dk ;zs[bB, ng{oD o'}rko dh gZXo s/ j[zdk
j? ns/ fBt/F tXk e/ o[}rko ns/ nkwdB B{z tXkfJnk ik ;edk j?.
(ii) e/B} B/ noE ftfrnkB ftu ;gZFNh nkswe (Macro) fdqFNhe'D (approach)
ngDkfJnk j? ns/ fJ; d/ nkXko s/ nkwdB ns/ o[}rko dk f;XKs g/F ehsk j?. e/B} s'_ gfjbK
ftnFNhGkt-nkswe (Micro) fdqFNhe'D s/ }'o fdZsk iKdk ;h. fJ; fdqFNhe'D nB[;ko fe;/ fJe t;s{
dh ehwsK iK ftneshrs cow dk ;zs[bB iK fJe T[gG'rh dh ;zs[FNh s/ ftuko ehsk iKdh j?. e/Bi
B/ noE ftt;Ek ;w[Zu/ o{g dk ftFb/FD ehsk ns/ fJ; rZb dh ftnkfynk ehsh fe fe;/ d/F dh ;w[Zuh
g{osh, e[Zb o[}rko e[b T[gG'r, e[Zb fBt/F ns/ nkw ehwsK dk gZXo fet/_ fBoXkfos ehs/ iKd/ jB.
fJ; gqeko T[; B? noE-ftfrnkB B{z fJe Bt/_ fdqFNhe'D s'_ ftukfonk.
(iii) e/B} B/ noE ftfrnkB d/ ftFb/FD bJh Bt/_ jfEnkoK B{z ngDkfJnk. e/B} dhnK
ftef;s ehshnK XkoBktK T[BQK gq:'r se jh ;hws Bjh_ jB fiBQK bjh T[BQK B{z xfVnk frnk ;h ;r'_
fJj j'oBK wB'oEK bJh th bkGdkfJe f;ZX j'JhnK jB. T[dkjoD ti'_ e/B} B/ Bedh bJh soihj
(Liquidity Preference), r[De (multiplier), T[gG'r cbB (Consumption function) fBt/F cbB
(investment function) torhnK XkoBktK noE-ftfrnkBhnK d/ ;kjwD/ oZyhnK.
(iv) e/B} B/ w[dfoe noE-ftt;Ek tZb fXnkB fdZsk ns/ fJ; soQK w[dok f;XKs B{z ehws
ns/ T[gi d/ f;XKs Bkb fJefwe eo fdZsk.
(v) e/B} d/ nkofEe f;XKs B{z rshFhb (Dynamic) pDk fdZsk. fBt/F d/ ftFb/FD ftu
Gkth nk;K B{z e/B} B/ pVh wjZssk fdZsh. fJj noE-ftfrnkB d/ ftek; ftu fJe tZvk edw ;h.
(vi) e/B} dk f;XKs fJe ftF/F dhnK jZdK B{z s'V e/ nkw f;XKs dhnK y[bQhnK jZdK sZe
g[Zi frnk. fJj nkw f;XKs (General Theory) noE ftt;Ek dhnK ;kohnK ;fEshnK s/ bkr{ j[zdk
j?.
(vii) e/B} B/ ;kB{z dZf;nk j? fe fBt/F fe;/ d/F d/ o[}rko dk wjZstg{oB fBoXkoe j?.
fJ; gqeko d/ ;ko/ ftFb/FD B[z T[; B/ pVk ;ob ns/ ;gZFN pDk fdZsk.
(viii) ;chsh-nzso (Inflationary Gap) ns/ n;chsh-nzso (Deflationary Gap) fJj d'
nfijhnK XkoBktK jB, fiBQK pko/ e/B} B/ pVh ;gZFN ftnkfynk ehsh. fJBQK XkoBktK B{z g/F eoe/
e/B} B/ noE ftt;Ek B{z ;fEo gZXo s/ oZyD bJh T[fus Bhsh fBoXkoD eoBk nk;kB pDk fdZsk j?.
1H4H6H(n) fttjkoe wjZssk (Practical Importance)
(i) e/B} B/ nkgD/ f;XKs d/ nkXko s/ fJj dZf;nk fe tZy'-tZyohnK go;fEshnK ftu
fejVh w[dok Bhsh (Monetary Policy) bkGdkfJe j't/rh. nZiebQ ;oeko gk; fJj jfEnko fJe pVk
ezw nkT[D tkbk jfEnko j? ns/ fJ; nB[;ko nkofEe BhshnK B{z Ykfbnk iKdk j?.
(ii) ;oeko dh piN Bhsh iK okie'Fh Bhsh (Fiscal Policy) dk nkXko th e/B} dk
f;XKs jh j?. id'_ fe;/ d/F ftu wzdtkVk nk e/ fpgsk dk ekoD pDdk j? sK okie'Fh Bhsh dk ;jkok
fbnk iKdk j?. wzdtkV/ bJh ;oekoh fBowkD :'iBktK bkGdkfJe f;ZX j[zdhnK jB.
(iii) e/B} B/ p/o[}rkoh B{z e[ZM jZd se jZb eoB bJh xkN/ dh Bhsh ngBkT[D dh okJ/
fdZsh j?. fJj Bhsh eJh jkbsK ftu pVh bkGdkfJe f;ZX j'Jh j?.
(iv) e/B} d/ f;XKs d/ nkXko s/ ;wkfie b/y/ (Social accounting) dk fotki gquZbs
j' frnk j?. ;oeko ns/ noE-ftfrnkBhnK B{z ;wkie b/yk fsnko eoB, T[; B{z ;wMD ns/ T[; d/
nkXko s/ nkofEe BhshnK pDkT[D dh gq/oDk fwbh j?.
(v) e/B} B/ ebk;heb noE-ftfrnkBhnK dh ;zs[fbs piN dh gozgok B{z rbs ;kps ehsk
ns/ dZf;nk fe noE-ftt;Ek dh ;fEsh nB[;ko jh piN B{z Ykfbnk ikt/. ;w/_ nB[;ko jo gqeko dk
piN bkGdkfJe f;ZX j' ;edk j?. b'V nB[;ko ;zs[fbs piN (Balanced Budget) s'_ fJbktk xkN/
dk piN (Deficit Budget) ns/ tkX/ dk piN (Surplus Budget) th ;w/_ ;w/_ ngBkT[D/ ukjhd/ jB.
(vi) e/B} d/ f;XKs dh fJe tZvh fttjkoe wjZssk fJj j? fe T[; B/ w[es-T[dwtkbh
noE-ftt;Ek (Free enterprise economy) dh EK ;oekoh dj?b-nzdk}h (State interference)
tkbh noE-ftt;Ek B{z uzrk dZf;nk. g{oD o'}rko bJh fJj }o{oh j? fe gqGkth wzr B{z tXkfJnk ikt/.
gqGkth wzr ;oeko dh ;jkfJsk fpBK tZX Bjh_ ;edh.
1H4H7 ;wekbhB ns/ e/B} d/ o[} rko f;XKs ftu nzso L
1H p/o[}rkoh dh XkoBk L ;wekbhB noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko nDfJSe o{g Bkb p/o[}rko
wB[Zy T[j j? i' Bed w}d{oh dh toswkB do s/ ezw eoB bJh fsnko j't/rk. fJ; d/ T[bN e/B}
d/ nB[;ko fJe nDfJZSe p/o[}rko wB[Zy T[j j? i' n;b w}d{oh dh toswkB do s/ ezw eoB dk
fJZSe j't/rk Gkt/_ T[j Bed w}d{oh dh toswkB do s/ ezw eoB B{z fsnko j't/ iK Bk j't/. fJ;
soQK bZyK jh nfij/ p/o[}rko wB[Zy jB i' nD-fJZSe p/o[}rko dh ;wekbhB XkoBk d/ nzsors Bjh_
nkT[_d/.
2H ;zs[bB dh XkoBk L ;wekbhB noEFk;sohnK nB[;ko ;zs[bB dh jkbs T[j jkbs j? fi;d/
nzsors fe;/ t;s{ dh e[b wzr g{osh d/ pokpo j[zdh j?. fJ; bJh ;zs[bB dh jkbs ftu g{oB
o[}rko dh jkbs j[zdh j?. fJ; d/ T[bN, e/B} d/ nB[;ko ;zs[bB T[j jkbs j? fi; ftu gfotosB
dh e'Jh gqftosh Bjh_ gkJh iKdh. ;zs[bB dh jkbs ftu g{oB o[}rko dk j'Dk }o{oh Bjh_ j?. fJ;
bJh e/B} d/ nB[;ko ng{oB p/o[}rkoh dh jkbs ftu th ;zs[bB dh jkbs gkJh ik ;edh j?.
3H wzr ns/ g{osh dk ;ky/g wjZst L ;wekbh noE Fk;sohnK B/ nkwdB ns/ o[}rko
fBoXkoD d/ ;zpzX ftu e[b g{osh B{z tZX wjZst fdZsk j?. T[BQK nB[;ko g{osh nkg nkgDh wzr dk
fBowkD eoe/ noE ftt;Ek ftu ;zs[bB dh jkbs ekfJw eodh j?. fJ; d/ T[bN, e/B} B/ nkwdB
ns/ o[}rko d/ fBowkD ftu e[b wzr B{z tZX wjZst fdZsk j?. T[BQK B/ e[b g{osh B{z ;fEo wzB fbnk
j?.
4H w[dok dk ezw L ;wekbh f;XKs nB[;ko, w[dok dk ezw f;oc tNKdo/ d/ ;kXB d/ o{g ftu
ezw eoBk j?. fJ; d/ T[bN e/B} nB[;ko tNKdo/ d/ ;kXB d/ Bkb Bkb w[dok w[Zb dk Gzvko dk
ezw th eodh j?. b'e w[dok dh wzr T[; B{z Bedh d/ o{g ftu oZyD bJh eod/ jB. b'e Bedh
d/ o{g ftu nkgDh ;zgsh B{z fszBK T[d/FK Bkb oZyDk ukj[zd/ jB. L (1) eko'pkoh T[d/F, (2) ;ktXkBh
T[d/F ns/ (3) ;ZNk T[d/F.
5H ftnk} dh do L ;wekbh noE Fk;sohnK nB[;ko ftnki dh do tk;sfte sZsK okjh_
fBoXkos j[zdh j?. fJ; d/ T[bN, e/B} d/ nB[;ko ftnki dh do w'fdqe sZsK okjh_ fBoXkos j[zdh
j?. ;wekbh noE Fk;soh fJj wzBd/ jB fe ftnki dh do T[; gZXo s/ fBoXkos j't/rh fi; s/
pus ns/ fBt/F pokpo j'Dr/. fJ; d/ T[bN e/B} dk fJj ftuko ;h fe ftnki dh do T[; gZXo
s/ fBoXkos j't/rh fi; s/ w[dok dh wzr ns/ g{osh pokpo j'DrhnK. ;wekbh noE Fk;sohnK dk
fJj ftuko ;h fe ftnki dh do fe;/ th ;hwk sZe xZN iK tZX ;edh j?. go e/B} d/ nB[;ko ftnki
dh do fJe fBFfus ;hwk wro'_ xZN Bjh_ j't/rk. fJ; ;hwk B{z sobsk pZX ehsk frnk j?.
1. R. D. Gupta : Keynesian and Post-Keynesian Economics
2. M. C. Vaish : Macro Economic Theory
3. J. M. Keynes : The General Theory of Employment, Interest
and Money
4. Gardner Ackley : Macro Theory
5. K. E. Boulding : A Re-construction of Economics
6. P. A. Samuelson : Economics
7. Dernburg T.F. and D.M.
MacDougall
8. A. H. Hansrn : Macro Economics
9. D. Dillard : A Guide 1.c. Keynes
10. Shapiro, E : Macro Economic Analysis
11. Partap Singh : Macro Economics (1.c. Punjabi)
1.5
(Consumption Function)
I. (Introduction)
II. (Objectives of the Lesson)
III. (Subject-Matter)
IV. (Summary)
V. (Key Concepts)
VI.
VII. (Suggested Books)
I.
II.
1
(To know about Consumption Function)
2
(To have knowledge about Types of Consumption Function)
3
(Relationship between Average Propensity (APC) and Marginal
Propensity to Consume (MPC))
4 (Factors Affecting
Consumption Function)
5 (Measures to Increase the Propensity
to Consume)
1 (Consumption Function)
2 (Average Consumption Function)
62
63
3 (Marginal Consumption Function)

4
5
(i) (Subjective Factors)
(ii) (Objective Factors)
6 (Measures to Increase the
Propensity to Consume)
1
(The
satisfaction obtained by consumers from the use of goods and services is called
consumption)
(Aggregate level)
(final)
(Disposal)
19
(dependent)
(Consumption function is a
statement of general relationship between dependent variables, consumption
expenditure, and the number of independent variables which determine
consumption like current disposable income and income from previous periods)
(Propensity to consume)
(The fraction of income spent on consumption and

other necessities falls as income rises.)
(Propensity to consume is simply the relationship between income and

consumption)
64
(Other things remaining equal, the consumption function describes

what changes can be expected in consumption from a given change in income.)
C = f(Y)
C (consumption),
Y = (income)
f = (functional)
1
Y = C + S Y C S
S=Y-C
2 (i)
(Average Propensity to Consme)
(Average Propensity to consume (APC) is that part

of his total income which he consumes at any level of income–Stonier and Hague)
(APC)
(At an economy level average

propensity to consume is the proportion of total income that people spend on
consumption)
APC = Aggregate Consumption

Aggregate Income
700 1000
APC = =0.7
65
(Rs. Crore)
Y C S
0 100 -- -100
200 160 0.8 40
400 260 0.65 140
600 300 0.50 300
800 320 0.40 480
1000 33 7 0.34 66 3
1200 35 2 0.29 84 8
100
Consumption
400 260
1 1 T
66
c 260
APC =  = 0.65 65
y 400
c'c' (Shape)
(Keynesian
Psychological Law of Consumption Function)
2 ob
OY o b intercept
b
C = b + aY
b a
c'c' (Slope)
2 (ii) (Marginal Propensity to Consume) :
(MPC)
(“Marginal
Propensity to consume is the additional amount consumed, as a fraction of
additional disposal income”- P. Wonnacott and R. Wonnacott)
C
MPC 
Y

(Small/marginal)
(MPC) (Y)
MPC (MPC < 1)
67
2
(Rs. Crores)
Income Consumption Change in Change in MPC
(Rs.) (Rs.) Income (Rs.) Consumption (Rs.)
 C 
Y C Y C  
 Y 
800 570 -- -- --
1000 690 200 120 0.6
1200 790 200 100 0.5
1400 870 200 80 0.4
1600 930 200 60 0.3
2 (Y) 200
120
 C 
 
 Y  0 6 200
100 MPC 05
 C 
 
 Y 
(aggregate)
68
3 C
Y
(Rate)
Y 200
C 120
2
C 120 6
MPC    06
Y 200 10
(Importance) :
(MPC)
3 (APC) (MPC)
(Relationship Between APC and MPC)
(a)
MPC APC
(b) (Functional)
69
APC MPC
Y C
(c) C (higher)
(APC)
(d) MPC
(Linear) (straight)
2 45°
(e) (Level)
(slope)
4
(Factors Affecting Consumption Function)
(determinant)
(Subjective) (Objective)
4 i (Subjective Factors) :
70
(Relative)
4 ii (Objective Factors) :
(a)
(community)
(The
psychology of the community is such that when aggregate real income is
increased, aggregate consumption is also increased, but not by so much as
income-Keynes).
(b) (Future Expectations)
(c) (Distribution of Income) :
(insignificant)
(decline)
(d) (Windfall Gains or Losses) :
(e) (Wage Rate) :

71
(f) (Easy Availability of

Credit for Consumer Goods) :
(g) (Changes in the Fiscal Policy) :

(Taxes)
(Regressive) (Indirect)
(Progressive)
(h) (Changes in the Rate of Interest) :
(i) (Demonstration or Conspicuous Effect) :
(j) (Liquid Assets) :

72
(Bonds),
(Measures to Stimulate Consumption Function) :

(Importance) :
(unsold)
(i) (Reducing the Unequal Distribution in

Income) :
(ii) (Increase in Social Security) :
(iii) (Increase in Wages) :

73
(iv) (Low Interest and Easy Credit

Facilities) :
(v) (Advertisement) :
(vi) (By Improving the

Information and Transport System) :
IV. (Summary)
(Psychological Law of Consumption Function)
(APC)
(Ratio)
MPC APC
MPC, APC
(conspicuous)
V. (Key Concepts)
(Consumption) :
(The satisfaction obtained by consumers from the
use of goods and services is called to consumption)
74
(Consumption Function) : (Disposable)

19
(Dependent) (variables)
(Independent)
(Propensity to Consume)
(Average Propensity to Consume) :
(Marginal Propensity to Consume) :
(Disposal)
(MPC)
(Keynesian Psychological Law

of Consumption Function) :
(Propositions)
75
VI.
(i)
1
2
3
(ii)
1
2 APC
3
4 (APC) (MPC)
5
VII. (Suggested Books)
(i) Stonier, A.W. and D.C. Hague, A Text Book of Economic Theory.
(ii) Shapiro, E., Macro Economic Analysis.
(iii)
(iv) Partap Singh, Macro Economics (in Punjabi)
(v) Vaish, M.C., Macro Economic Theory
1.6
(Multiplier)
I. (Introduction)
II. (Objectives)
IV. (Summary)
V. (Key Concepts)
VI.
VII.
I.
(Investment)
II.
1 (To know about the concept of Multiplier)
2 (To know about the
types of Multiplier alongwith their functioning.
3 (Assumptions and limitations of
Multiplier)
4 (To get knowledge about the
importance of Multiplier)
5 (To be acquainted with the
Application of Multiplier in Third World (Poor) Countries).
76
77
III. (Subject-matter)
1 (Meaning of the Concept of Multiplier and
its Evolution)
2
(i) (Static Multiplier)
(ii) (Dynamic Multiplier)
(iii) (Assumptions)
3 (Leakages of Multiplier)
4 (Limitations of Multiplier)
5 (Importance of Multiplier)
6 (criticism)
III.1
‘Income, Employment and Money’

20
(Wicksell) ‘Interest and Prices’
1903 1913
(R.F. Kahn)
Economic Journal 1931
(Expansionary Process)
(Employment Multiplier)
(Investment Multiplier)
(Investment Multiplier)
Y = C+I (Effective Demand)
(K)
(“Investment multiplier is the ratio of increase in income to given increase in

investment”) D.W. Pearce
78
(“The ratio of change in income to the initial change in expenditure that

brought it about.”).
(Multiplier is the ratio of the final
change in income to the initial change in investment)
Y KI
Y I  (Delta) K
Y
K
I
(K)
I 20 Y 40
(K) (value) 2
40
K 2
20
0 5 (½)
(MPC) (Zero)
(K) 1 (ifinity)
1
(K) 0 < K < 1
79
1 1
K  1
C 1  MPC K 1-MPC = MPS
1 MPS
Y
MPS (S)
(value)
1
(MPC) (K)
 C 
 
 Y 
0 1
1
(.5) 2
2
3
(.75) 4
4
4
(.80) 5
5
1 (1)  (Infinity)
1 1
1
1
1
(Infinity)
1
1
05
2
2
1
K
C
1
Y
80
1
K 2
1.5
3
(.75) 4
4
 3
 
 4
1
K 4
1.75
1-0.75
2(i)
(Working of the Multiplier)
(MPC)
2
1
05
2
2
(Round) (Increase in (Increase In (Increase in (Increase in

Investment) Income) Consumption) Savings)
I Y C S
0 – – – –
1 200 200 100 100
2 – 100 50 50
3 – 50 25 25
4 – 25 12.50 12.50
5 – 12.5 6.25 6.25
6 – ' ' '
' ' '
200 400 200 200

81
2 200 I
200
100 100
100 50
50 2
2 200
200 100
2 100 100
200 400
1 CC
1
05 05
2
45° (Aggregate Supply) CC
C+I (C+I)
E
OY
(I) C+I+I
E' OY
OY' Y I
05
(Period of Time)
82
2(i-a): (Backward Operation of Multiplier)
10 20
05 2
(MPC)
(MPC)
1
C+I+I
C+I E' E
OY' OY
(OY' OY) (I)
1
5
2
(infinite)
83
2.(ii) (Dynamic Multiplier)
(Ackley)
(time-lags)
(t-1)
(Time-period)
MPC 05
2
2
I C Y
0 0 0 0
t+1 200 0 200
t+2 200 100 200+100
t+3 200 50 200+50
t+4 200 25 200+25
t+5 200 12.5 200+12.5
' ' ' '
' ' ' '
' ' ' '
t+n 200 200 400
(t+1)
200 (t+3) 100
(t+2)
50 (t+4) 25
84
(I) (C)
(Y)
2 OX OY
(C), (I) (S) C
C+I 45°
(C+I) (45°
E (I)
C+I+I En
En E En
E E1
E2, E3... En
(I)
1
(Y0 Yn) MPC (0.5)
2
(Y0 Y1, Y1 Y2, Y2...Yn)
85
2.(iii) (Assumptions of the Multiplier) :
(i) (Time-lag)
(ii)
(iii) (Induced Investment)
(iv)
(subsidy),
(v) (responsive)
(vi) (closed)
(vii) (Higher)
(adjustment)
(viii)
(ix) (Excess capacity)
(x)
3. (Leakages of Multiplier) :
(Income-stream)
(i) (Savings) :
(ii) (Imports) : (Exports)
(iii) (Purchase of Old Stocks and

86
Securities) :
(iv) (Debt Cancellation) :
(v) (Hoarding) :
(Liquid
money)
(vi) (Increase in Prices) :
(Real consumption)
4. (Limitations)
(Ideal)
(empirically)
(i) (Maintenance of Investment) :
(ii) (Availability of Consumer Goods) :
(iii) (Multiplier Period) :

87
(Time lag)
(iv) (Full Employment) :
(v) (Direction of Net Investment) :
(vi) (Effect of Induced Investment on

Consumption) :
(vii) (Constant Prices) :
5. (Importance of Multiplier)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
88
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(Autonomous)
(vii) (Control of Inflation) :
(Public)
6.
(Criticism of the Concept of Multiplier)
(Fifth Wheel)
(i) (time-period)
(ii) (empirical)
89
(iii) (verified)
(Hypothesis)
(obsevations)
(iv) (MPC not constant) :
MPC
(v) (Relation between
Consumption and Income not so simple) :
MPC
(Linear)
(current)
(Expected)
(complex)
(i) Stonier, A.W. and D.C. Hague, A Text Book of Economic Theory.
(ii) Shapiro, E., Macro Economic Analysis.
(iii)
(iv) Partap Singh, Macro Economics (in Punjabi)
(v) Vaish, M.C., Macro Economic Theory

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g/go L phH ;hH 206 (fgqz;hgbia nkca fpiB; fJeBkfwe; ^ II)

1H1 L w?eo' noE-FkFso dh G{fwek

1H6 L r[De (Multiplier)

Department website : www.pbidde.org

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w? e o' noE-Fk;so dh G{ f wek

gkm BzH 1H2 b/ye L vkH gqskg f;zx

nkXko ;kb ;{ue nze

gkm BzH 1H3 b/ye L vkH gqskg f;zx

o' }rko dk ;BksBh ns/ Bt-;BksBh f;XKs ns/ ;/ } f;XKs

Production Income Expenditure Demand Production

WORKING SAY'S LAW OF MARKET

gkm BzH 1H4 b/ye L vkH gqskg f;zx

e/ B } dk nkwdB ns/ o[ } rko f;XKs

1H4H1 e/ B } d/ f;XKs dhnK wB' s K

nkwdB ns/ o[}rko

ftnki do g{zih dh ;hwKs nkwdB dh wksqk T[gG'rh gqftqsh

w[dok dh wksqk Bedh bJh soihj g{zihrs ok; d/ GkJh nk;K

ftjkoe wB'oE fJjfsnksh wB'oE ;ZNk wB'oE

Income and Empolyment

Level of Income Propensity to Rate of Interest Marginal

Replace of Cost Prospective Yield

Liquidity Preference Supply of Money

Transactional Motive Precautionary Motive Speculative Motive

Employment Aggretate supply Aggregate Demand Trends in

3 (Marginal Consumption Function)

(The fraction of income spent on consumption and

(Propensity to consume is simply the relationship between income and

(Other things remaining equal, the consumption function describes

(Average Propensity to consume (APC) is that part

(At an economy level average

APC = Aggregate Consumption

2 (ii) (Marginal Propensity to Consume) :

1000 690 200 120 0.6

1200 790 200 100 0.5

1400 870 200 80 0.4

1600 930 200 60 0.3

(c) (Distribution of Income) :

(d) (Windfall Gains or Losses) :

(e) (Wage Rate) :

(f) (Easy Availability of

(g) (Changes in the Fiscal Policy) :

(h) (Changes in the Rate of Interest) :

(i) (Demonstration or Conspicuous Effect) :

(j) (Liquid Assets) :

(Measures to Stimulate Consumption Function) :

(i) (Reducing the Unequal Distribution in

(ii) (Increase in Social Security) :

(iii) (Increase in Wages) :

(iv) (Low Interest and Easy Credit

(vi) (By Improving the

(Psychological Law of Consumption Function)

(Consumption Function) : (Disposable)

(Average Propensity to Consume) :

(Marginal Propensity to Consume) :

(Keynesian Psychological Law

‘Income, Employment and Money’

Y = C+I (Effective Demand)