Bucher - Vacuum Tubes in Wireless Communication

BBS
1ST
MMUNICfflON
CHER
Mech. dept.
VACUUM TUBES
IN
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
OTHER BOOKS BY
THE SAME AUTHOR
PRACTICAL WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY
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VACUUM TUBES
IN
A PRACTICAL TEXTBOOK FOR
OPERATORS AND EXPERIMENTERS
BY
ELMER E. BUCHER
V\
Instructing Engineer, Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America

Member Institute of Radio Engineers. Director of Instruction, Marconi Institute
Author of Practical Wireless Telegraphy"
This volume shows over 100 different circuits for the practical use of Vacuum
Tubes as Detectors, Radio or Audio Frequency Amplifiers, Regenerative
Receivers, Beat Receivers, and Generators of Radio Frequency Currents.
A series ofgraphic charts in the appendix reveals the functioning of the

vacuum tube in an elementary manner. The technical introduction reviews
the problems of continuous and discontinuous wave transmitters and receivers.
FULLY ILLUSTRATED
Engineering
Library
COPYRIGHT, 1918
BY
WIRELESS PRESS, INC.
AUTHOR'S NOTE
In preparing the text of this book, the author had two principal ob-
jects in view: (1) to provide the Government and commercial wireless
operator with a brief and simple explanation of the functioning of the
circuits of the vacuum tube, (2) to lay before the experimenter and the
practical operator the numerous circuits employed from time to time in
the laboratory and in commercial practice.
Outside of its obvious commercial value, the perfected vacuum tube
affords the experimenter a most fascinating field of research. This is
well evidenced by the fact that a single bulb with associated tuning
apparatus connected to a four wire aerial 200 feet in length permits
wireless signals to be received over distances of 2,500 to 4,000 miles in
daylight, and up to 6,000 miles in darkness. Any experimenter may

prove this statement by adopting one of the circuits disclosed in this
volume.
TO THE STUDENT AND EXPERIMENTER

Many of the circuits shown in this book are not employed in either
Government or commercial wireless communication. Some will be found
to be duplicates in so far as their mode of operation is concerned, the
various parts of the receiving apparatus being re-arranged or re-grouped.
The diagrams represent, however, the connections disclosed from time
to time and in order that the student may review step by step the pro-
gress in the application of the vacuum tubes, it was thought best to place
before him the use of the tube in all its phases.
The connections most suitable for different conditions of wireless
service suggest themselves, once the fundamental operating principle of
the vacuum tube is understood.
It will very probably develop that some of the explanations of work-
ing given herein both for the fundamental arrangements and for sys-
tems which are extensions of the simple or fundamental circuits sho~vn
in the first three chapters, will not stand the test of further research,
but in general it may be said that the use of the vacuum valve as a
detector, amplifier, and generator of radio frequency currents is well

understood.
The systems described in Chapters III to VII inclusive, are exten-
sions of the fundamental circuits shown in Chapters I, II, and III.
Hence, to understand fully the mode of operation of the more compli-
cated apparatus, the experimenter should read the preliminary chapters.
Any seeming omissions in the advanced chapters will probably be found
covered in the preliminary text.
New York. E.E.B.
v
382934
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. Audio and Radio Frequency Currents. 2. Damped and Undamped Oscilla-
tions: (a) The Use of Rectifiers, (b) The Detection of Continuous Oscilla-
tions, (c) Distinction Between Continuous and Discontinuous Wave
Systems.
3. Receiver Circuits: (a) The Necessity for Tuning, (b) Tuning in Practice.
4. The Telephone Receiver.
PART I
THE OSCILLATION VALVE IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY

5.Foreword. 6. What Is an Electron? 7. How May Electrons Be Set in
Motion? 8. Fleming's Discovery. 9. The Oscillation Valve. 10. Demonstra-
tion of Rectifying Properties. 11. Non-Uniform Conductivity of the Valve.
12. Howthe Valve Becomes Saturated.
PART II
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE OSCILLATION VALVE

13. In General. 14. Action of the Simple Valve. 15. The Practical Oscillation
Valve Circuit in Radio: (a) Fleming Valve Circuits in Simple Form, (b)
Other Circuits for the Vacuum Valve. 16. The Three-electrode Valve, (a)
Characteristic Curve of Three-Electrode Valve. (b) Valve Terminology.
17. The Three-electrode Valve as an Electron Relay and Rectifier: (a) The
Valve as an Electron Relay (without Grid Condenser), (b) Functioning of
the Valve as Explained from the Characteristic Curve, (c) Relaying Action,
(d) Use of the Three-Electrode Valve with Grid Condenser, (e) Radio and
Audio Frequency Component of the Plate Current, (f) Summary of the
Phenomena of the Characteristic Curve. 18. The Tuned Plate Circuit.
PART III
CASCADE AMPLIFICATION BY THE VACUUM VALVE
19. In General. 20. Cascade Radio Frequency Amplifier: (a) Curves of the
Cascade Amplifier. 21. Cascade Audio Frequency Amplifier. 22. Combined
Radio and Audio Frequency Cascade Amplifier.
PART IV
THE REGENERATIVE VACUUM VALVE AMPLIFIER
23. In General. 24. Preliminary Considerations. 25. The Principle of Regen-
eration. 26. Radio Frequency Regenerative Circuit: (a) Phenomena of Re-
generation, (b) Adjustment of Regenerative Amplifier. 27. Tuned Plate
Circuits. 28. Audio Frequency Regenerative System. 29. Combined Audio
and Radio Frequency Regenerative System. 30. Electrostatic and Direct
Magnetic Coupling. 31. The "Reaction" Circuits of Franklin and Marconi.
32. Simple Regenerative Circuit.
vii
PARTY
COMBINED REGENERATIVE AND CASCADE AMPLIFICA-
TION SYSTEMS
33. In General. 34. Regenerative Cascade Systems. 35. Audio Frequency Re-
generative and Cascade Systems.
PART VI
THE VACUUM TUBE AS A DETECTOR OF CONTINUOUS
WAVES. AUDIO FREQUENCY TUNING CIRCUITS.
SPECIAL CIRCUITS FOR THE VACUUM TUBE.
36. Reception of Continuous Oscillations. 37. The Theory of the Beat Receiver:
(a) Phenomenon of Beats. 38. The Simple Heterodyne: (a) Curves of the Beat
Receiver in Radio. 39. Selectivity by the Heterodyne. 40. Heterodyne with
the Vacuum Valve as a Detector. 41. The Vacuum Valve as a Generator of
Radio Frequency Oscillations. 42. The Regenerative Beat Receiver: (a) How
the Valve Is Set Into Self-Oscillation: (b) The Phenomena of the Self-
Heterodyne. 43. Audio Frequency Tuning. 44. The Weagant Undamped Wave
Receiver. 45. Modified Weagant Beat Receiver. 46. Reception of Continuous
Waves by the Valve Without Beats. 47. Cascade Amplification. 48. Cascade
Regenerative Systems for Beat Reception. 49. Beat Reception from Damped
Wave Transmitters. 50. Special Circuits for the Vacuum Valve: (a) The
Use of a Rotary Condenser for the Reception of Continuous Oscillations.
51. "Open Circuit" Oscillators for the Vacuum Valve: (a) Modified Open Cir-
cuit Oscillators. 52. Amplification by the Heterodyne System. 53. Kenotron
and Pliotron Vacuum Tubes: (a) The Connections of the Pliotron for the
Generation of Radio Frequencies at High Current Values, (b) The Pliotron
as a Generator of High Voltages at Radio Frequencies.
PART VII
WIRELESS TELEPHONY
54. In General: (a) Fundamental Circuits of the Three-Electrode Tube as a
Radiophone Transmitter. (b) Rounds' Wireless Telephone System.
55. Hund's Method of Radio Frequency Modulation. 56. Englund's Wireless
Telephone System. 57. Carson's Proposed Wireless Telephone System.
58. Espenschied's Duplex Wireless Telephone System. 59. Englund's Duplex
Radio Telephone and Radio Telegraph System.
PART VIII
THE DYNATRON DETECTOR AND OSCILLATOR
60. The Dynatron. 61. The Dynatron as an Oscillator. 62. The Dynatron as
a Detector of Electrical Oscillations. 63. The Dynatron as a Compensator for
Circuit Losses. 64. The Pliodynatron. 65. The Pliodynatron. as a Detector.
66. The Pliodynatron in Radio Telephony.
APPENDIX
Diagrams Illustrating Certain Fundamental Actions of the Vacuum Tube as an
Oscillation Detector in Radio Telegraphy.
viii -.*
VACUUM TUBES
IN
INTRODUCTION
Before entering into an explanation of the functioning of the vacuum
tube, a brief review of certain facts bearing on wireless transmitting and
receiving systems will be given.
1. AUDIO AND RADIO FREQUENCY CURRENTS. It is

well knownthat vibrations above 20,000 per second are practically in-
audible to the human ear. This fact has an important bearing on the
reception of radio telegraphic signals by the usual telephone receiver.
For example, if a 20,000 cycle current flows through the telephone wind-
ings, the diaphragm will vibrate at the upper limits of audibility. If the
frequency of the applied current is progressively decreased, the vibrations
of the diaphragm become more and more audible, until some value is
reached where the maximum deflection of the diaphragm is secured for
a given E.M.F.
Considering the foregoing phenomena, a distinction has been drawn
between currents within the range of frequencies employed to radiate
electric waves in wireless telegraphy and those of lower frequencies,
which it is believed are not capable of setting into motion electric waves
(this has not been proven), but which are audible in the telephone re-
ceiver. A figure of 10,000 cycles has been arbitrarily adopted as a divi-
ding line. The following definition is therefore of immediate importance :
(1) Currents of frequency above cycles

10,000 per second are
termed currents of radio frequency.
(2) Currents of frequency below 10,000 cycles per second are
termed currents of audio frequency.
Now, to explain more clearly what the foregoing remarks have to
do with the problems of radio telegraphy we must remember that the
V A " ''
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2 Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication
electricwaves for the dispatch of wireless messages from ship to ship

and from ship to shore are generated by extremely high frequency cur-
rents of the order of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 cycles per second. For
long distance communication much lower frequencies of the order of
100,000 cycles down to 20,000 cycles per second are employed. Currents
of similar frequency are induced in the receiver circuits. But in all cases
the frequency of the current is above audition; hence we see that the
telephone receiver cannot be employed as an indicator of the passage of
such currents.
Keeping in mind that an audio frequency current of from 200 to
1000 impulses per second gives audible response with a minimum of
current*, and because the telephone is almost invariably employed as a
current translator in radio, we see that the problem of detection in wire-
less reception, simply resolves itself into one of converting radio fre-
quency currents into audio frequency currents such as will give the
best response in a telephone."^
These audio frequency currents are not necessarily simple alternating
currents. They may consist of groups of direct current pulses or they
may be complex audio frequency currents of various wave forms ;
what-
ever their nature, so long as the telephone diaphragm is impulsed from
say 200 to 1,000 times per second, the best response will be secured from
a given E.M.F.
Devices which effect this conversion are termed oscillation detectors,
of which there are many types. The functioning of certain detectors
will be briefly reviewed further on.
2. DAMPED AND UNDAMPED OSCILLATIONS. There

are two general systems of radio transmission: the discontinuous wave
system, and the continuous wave system. The currents by which these
waves are set into motion are known as damped and undamped oscilla-
tions respectively. In the discontinuous system, the radio frequency
currents are generated in audio frequency groups of 120 to 1,000 per
second. Such currents are obtained by the charge and discharge of a
condenser through a circuit containing an inductance.
Continuous oscillations are generated by

(1) the radio frequency alternator;
(2) the direct current arc generator;
(3) the vacuum tube oscillator;
(4) by overlapping trains of damped oscillations.
*TMs statement applies to a sinusoidal E.M.F.

tThis, of course, is not true when a measuring instrument
is employed to
detect the incoming oscillations instead of a telephone.
Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication 3
Several groups of discontinuous oscillations are shown in Figure 1.

Continuous oscillations are indicated in figure 2. Certain fundamental
distinctions in the two systems of radio transmission, particularly in
regard to the receiving apparatus, are to be noted.
Let it be understood that the successive groups of radio frequency
oscillations shown in figure 1 are generated by condenser discharges
occurring at audio frequency. Currents of similar frequency flow in the

transmitter aerial, part of the energy being detached in the form of elec-
SEC>
1.000,000
Figure 1
Discontinuous or damped oscillations such as generated by the
periodic chargeand discharge of a condenser across a spark gap.
tromagnetic waves. These waves generate in the receiver aerial cur-

rents of the frequency of the transmitter which in turn are impressed
upon a local detector circuit. The frequency of the individual cycles
1, 2, 3, 4, per group are above audibility and cannot be detected
directly in a telephone, but by various means these groups may be

modified to a form suitable to actuate the telephone diaphragm as will
be explained in the paragraph following.
(a) The Use of Rectifiers. Audible response in a telephone may

be obtained from group frequency (damped wave) transmitters by what
is known as a rectifier of alternating currents. If such a device is con-
nected in series with the telephone and an oscillating E.M.F. is impressed
upon the circuit, one half of the incoming cycle will pass the rectifier
but the other half will be practically suppressed. Then, for each group
of incoming oscillations (set up in the receiver aerial by the distant
transmitter) a group of decaying direct current pulses will flow through
the telephone, the average effect of three groups being illustrated by the
graphs A, B, C, Figure 3.
Among the crystalline elements possessing the ability to rectify high

frequency currents may be mentioned carborundum, galena, silicon,
molybdenite, iron pyrites, zincite-bornite.
Rectification also may be obtained by using the one-way conduc-
Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication
tivity between a hot lamp filament and a metallic element inserted in a

vacuum, i.e., the vacuum tube; or we may partially rectify radio fre-
quency currents mechanically as, for example, by driving a Goldschmidt
tone wheel out of synchronism with the incoming oscillations. In detec-
tors used with a local battery and having suitable operating character-
istics, the rectification may be accompanied by a relaying action and
SEC
1,000,000
Figure 2
Oscillations of constant amplitude
.
(continuous or undamped oscil-
lations).
amplification of signals may thus be secured. This is particularly true

of vacuum valve detectors.
Oscillation detectors suitable for the reception of damped oscilla-
tions but now chiefly of historical interest are the coherer, and the micro-
phone detector, both indicating by virtue of a change in their resistance,
the passage of radio frequency currents. The microphone possessed the
advantage over the coherer, in that its sensitiveness was automatically re-
stored after the reception of a signal; the coherer required a tapper to
place the tube in operating condition after the passage of each signal.
This made it particularly sluggish in action.
The Marconi magnetic detector takes as its basis of operation the
change wrought in the magnetization of a moving band of iron (possibly
due to magnetic hysteresis), by the magnetic field generated by the in-
coming radio frequency oscillations. This change in flux in turn induces
an audio frequency current in a small coil of wire, in inductive relation
to the iron band, to which is connected a telephone of about 75 ohms
resistance.
In this method of reception as with the crystal rectifiers, the tele-

phone diaphragm is impulsed once for each spark at the transmitter.
(b) The Detection of Continuous Oscillations. If we connect a

rectifier and a telephone in series with a radio frequency circuit in
which flow the continuous oscillations shown in Figure 2, it is clear that
the telephones will pass a pulsating direct current of continuous ampli-
tude. The individual pulses occur at frequencies above audibility and
no sound will therefore be produced except at the opening and closing

of the circuit. It is necessary then, to modify further the resultant cur-
rent in order to secure audible response, as will be seen further on.
Among the many methods through whichcontinuous radio frequency

oscillations may be converted to audio frequency currents, we may take
as an example the tikker, which is simply a mechanical circuit inter-
A A RECTIFIED
CURRENTS
A I1AAA
A
MA A
A
Figure 3
Graphs showing how incoming radio frequency
currents are converted to direct current pulses by an
oscillation detector.
rupter connected in some part of the receiving system to interrupt the

incoming oscillations 200 to 1,000 times per second. The resulting
groups (of radio frequency current) in turn energize an audio fre-
quency circuit consisting of a condenser with a telephone in shunt, or,
to improve the tone, a crystal rectifier is often inserted in series with the
tikker to rectify these groups.
By means of the slipping contact detector, continuous oscillations
are made audible by virtue of the periodic changes in resistance of some
part of the receiver circuit. Incoming radio frequency currents are thus
modulated to an audio frequency current which is fairly uniform.
A valuable method for producing an audio frequency current from
continuous oscillationsis the system which generates what are termed
beat currents. In brief, if two radio frequency currents of slightly dif-

ferent frequencies be impressed upon the same circuit, they successively
assist and oppose, going in and out of phase progressively. The result
isthe production of a third current called a beat current, which, if the
frequencies are properly selected, may occur at an audio frequency.
Now, one of these radio frequencies may be that of the incoming signal
and the other may be generated locally. By proper selection of the two
frequencies, beat currents occurring at an audible frequency suitable

for maximum response from the head telephone will be generated in
the receiving system. These, if they undergo rectification in some type
of oscillation detector, will actuate the telephone diaphragm.
(c) Between Continuous and Discontinuous Wave

Distinction
Systems. The principal points of difference between the damped and un-
0-3
0-4
Figure 4
Graphs showing the phenomena involved in the transmission and re-
ception of wireless signals in spark systems of radio telegraphy.
damped wave systems and particularly the problems involved in the

detection of currents in either system, at the receiving station, may be
explained graphically by the curves of Figures 4 and 5.
In Figure 4, the graphs 0-1 to 0-4 outline certain phenomena con-
cerning the transmission and detection of electric waves in the discon-
tinuous wave system. Graph 0-1* indicates one cycle of charging current
such as is impressed across the transmitter condenser by a high voltage
transformer. The frequency of the current is 500 cycles per second.

It is assumed that the condenser is charged twice for each cycle. There-
fore a 500-cycle generator (and transformer) will energize the condenser
circuit 1,000 times per second and 1,000 sparks will discharge across the
gap. The discharge, as is well known, gives rise to radio frequency

currents.
Each alternation of the charging current, therefore, releases in the

closed oscillation circuit one group of radio frequency oscillations which,
through a coupling coil are induced in the antenna circuit giving the
oscillations shown by graph 0-2. Currents of similar frequency are im-
pressed across the oscillation detector (rectifier) at the receiving station,
but their frequency is too high for direct response in the head tele-
phone. Now, if a rectifier is connected in the circuit converting these
currents into a series of semi-cycles as in the graph 0-3, no response
will be obtained in the telephone from the individual pulses, because
they occur at rates above audition, but since they flow in the same
direction, the diaphragm responds to an average effect as shown by the
graph 0-4. Each spark discharge at the transmitter therefore event-
ually sends a uni-directional current pulse through the receiver produc-
ing one click or sound.
We may contrast the foregoing with the problems involved in the
detection of continuous oscillations. In the continuous wave system the
transmitter aerial radiates a steady stream of waves shown by the graph
0-1, Figure 5, and a similar oscillating electromotive force is impressed
across the terminals of the oscillation detector at the receiving station.
But no response would be obtained in the head telephones, for, as
already explained, the frequency of the uni-directional pulses 0-3 is

above audition. This stream of oscillations may, however, be interrupted
*The student should compare the relative time periods of the graphs of
figure 4.For the audio frequency charging current of 0-1 the period of one
1
cycle is of a second; for the individual cycle of the current impressed
500
1 1
across the oscillation detector as in 0-2 from >
to of a second, the
25,000 1,000,000
periods vary in fact as the inductance and capacity of the oscillation circuit.
The frequency of the telephone current of 0-4 is 1,000 per second, but the dura-
1
tion of each pulse is not necessarily of a second, for obviously its duration
1,000
will vary as the number of cycles in each group of radio frequency currents.
(The actual number of cycles per spark depends upon the damping of the cir-
cuit. Nevertheless, the telephone will be energized 1,000 times per second),
at the receiving station say 1,000 times per second by some form of the
tikker as shown by graph 0-2. Groups of rectified currents will pass
through the telephone as indicated by the graph 0-3 and the resulting
telephone current will be that shown by graph 0-4.
It is evident that in the first case ( Figure 4), the radiated energy
is modulated to an audio frequency by the audio-frequency charging cur-
rent, but in the second case (Figure 5), this audio frequency variation is
effected at the receiver.
INCOMING
o-i -CONTINOUS
OSCILLATIONS
0-2 A RADIO
FREQUENCY
GROUPS
0-3
A A A A A A A A A A A
" YELEPHONt
CURRENT
0-4
Figure 5
illustrating how continuous oscillations
Graphs may be made audi-
ble in a receiving telephone.
3. RECEIVER CIRCUITS. In general, a modern radio receiv-

ing set comprises two fundamental circuits* :
(1) the open circuit;

(2) the closed or secondary circuit.
The open circuit embraces all apparatus from the antenna to the
earth connection including usually, an aerial tuning inductance, the
primary winding of a tuning transformer, and a series variable con-
denser.
*
Single circuit receiving systems have had some use but the "two circuit"
receiver is generally preferred. Three tuning circuits are recognized in con-
nection with the vacuum tubes, known as the primary, secondary and tertiary
circuits.
The secondary circuit contains the secondary coil, the shunt sec-
ondary condenser, and some form of oscillation detector for transform-
ing radio frequency currents into a wave form which will give maximum
response in the telephone.
A
representative circuit is shown in Figure 6. L-l is the primary
winding of a receiving transformer which acts inductively upon the
secondary winding L-2. L-3 is the antenna tuning inductance, and 0-3,
the short wave condenser. The winding L-2 is shunted by a condenser
0-1 of variable capacity, which consists of a number of interleaved plates
one set of which is stationary and the other movable.
The secondary system further includes the rectifier D, the telephone
P, and the shunt condenser C-2. If turns be added at coil L-l or L-3
C-l
Figure 6
Circuits of the inductively coupled or two circuit radio receiver.
(the aerial tuning inductance), the receiving aerial responds to longer

wave lengths, but if turns be subtracted at either this or the primary
inductance, Jr-1, the aerial responds to shorter wave lengths. Waves less
in length than the natural wave length of the aerial can be tuned to
resonance by inserting the condenser 0-3 in series with the aerial system.
When radio frequency currents flow through L-l, an alternating

magnetic field of similarfrequency cuts through L-2 and currents of
like frequency flow in circuit L-2, 0-1, which is tuned to resonance to
the incoming signal. An oscillating electromotive force is therefore im-
pressed across the detector D, producing a rectified current. The head
telephone P, then, is traversed by uni-directional currents.
The open and closed circuits in this diagram are inductively coupled.
Conductive or direct coupling may be employed as in Figure 7, or so-

called electrostatic coupling as in Figure 8. In Figure 7, coil P-l acts as
an auto transformer, but in Figure 8, coils L-l and L-2 are said to be
electrostatically coupled through condensers 0-1 and 0-2. An open cir-
cuit secondary may be employed as in Figure 9. This circuit is of par-
c-
Figure 7
Circuits of the conductively or direct mag-
netically coupled receiver. A single coil P-l is em-
ployed to transfer energy from the antenna to the
detector circuits.
ticular advantage for use with oscillation detectors whose response is

dependent upon the voltage impressed by a given group of oscillations.
As it is well known maximum potential is secured at the free end of L-2
for a given group of oscillations, by tuning the circuit L-l, L-2, D, P,
to the frequency of the incoming oscillations. Response is secured in
.fej
(a) The Necessity for Tuning. It is 'essential for best results in
any two open and closed oscillation

circuit receiving system, that the
circuits (or the antenna and detector circuits) be tuned to exact reso-
nance, for it is under this condition only, that the oscillating electro-
motive force impressed across the terminals of the detector reaches its
-=--<' Figure 9
Showing the use of open circuit oscillators in wireless receiving
systems. The circuit from detector D through coil L-2 and coil L-l to
E is tuned to the frequency of the incoming oscillations or adjusted
until maximum potential exists at the free end of L-2.
maximum value. If the energy consumption of the detector is large,
less exactness of tuning give good results, but approximate reso-

may
nance is required in all cases unless the distance is short or the received
energy very large.
To tune an oscillation circuit to a given impressed frequency, it is
necessary to reduce its reactance to zero for the frequency of the in-
coming signal. This is substantially what the operator at the receiving
station does when he adjusts the receiver for maximum strength of sig-
is, he makes the reactance of the capacity equal

nals, that to the react-
ance of the inductance for a given impressed frequency of oscillation.

The amplitude of the receiver current is then governed solely by the
impressed electromotive force and the total equivalent resistance of the
circuit (including all losses).
Such tuning is accomplished by variable inductances and variable

condensers. A variable condenser may be of the interleaved flat type
shown in Figure 10, or of the tubular type shown in Figure 11. The
majority have air dielectric. In one type the plates are separated by
thin sheets of rubber. The capacity of a variable condenser for receiv-
ing purposes rarely exceeds .01 microfarad, more common values being
.0005 to .005 microfarads.
Tuning inductances are generally of the single layer type varying

from one micro-henry to three or four milli-henries inductance. Multi-
layered coils have found some use, but their self-capacity between layers
Figure 9a
Diagrammatic sketch of the complete radio frequency circuits of the trans-
mitter and receiver in a wireless system. The closed oscillation circuit of a
transmitter is represented by the condenser C, the primary coil of the oscillation
transformer L-l, and the spark gap G. The secondary or antenna circuit com-
prises the aerial AI, the secondary coil L-2, the antenna loading inductance L-3,
the short wave condenser C-l, and the aerial ammeter A.
The circuit of the receiving apparatus is designated by the antenna wires
A", the antenna loading inductance L-4, the primary winding of the receiving
transformer L-5, and the short wave variable condenser C-2. The secondary
or closed circuit includes the secondary coil L-6, the shunt variable condenser
C-3, the rectifier D, the head telephone P, and the shunt telephone condenser C-4.
The condenser C of the transmitter is generally charged 1000 times per
second by a 500-cycle alternator and transformer. 1000 sparks discharge across
the gap G per second and 1000 groups of radio frequency oscillations are re-
leased in the closed circuit C, L-l, G. Coil L-l acts inductively upon coil L-2 and
groups of oscillations of similar frequency flow in the antenna circuit AI, L-3,
L-2, C-l, A, E, provided this circuit is tuned to resonance. As the transmitter
antenna oscillates, it radiates an electromagnetic wave motion which acts upon
the receiving antenna circuit A", L-4, L-5, C-2, E, which is carefully tuned to
resonance with the transmitter. The coil L-5 acts inductively upon L-6, the
circuit L-6, C-3 being tuned to resonance by means of condenser C-3. Oscillations
of the transmitter frequency flow in the closed circuit where they are rectified
by detector D, and made audible in the head telephone P.
This diagram is representative of wireless systems for the production of
damped oscillations. It is to be observed that four circuits require tuning,
namely, the closed and open circuits of the transmitter, and the closed and open
circuits of the receiver. All are tuned substantially to the same frequency
of oscillation.
isfound objectionable at the higher frequencies. They have, however,

been employed with good results at longer wave lengths.
It is now quite common to wind the primary and secondary coils of
a receiving tuner in two or more layers. A maximum of inductance is
STATIONARY
CONTROL KNOB
MOVA8LL PUTES
STATIONARY PUTES
Figure 10
A variable condenser of the multiple plate type as used in tuning
receiving circuits.
JNSULATION OUTER TUBE
POSITION OF MAXIMUM CAPACITY
Figure 11
A variable condenser of the tubular type.
thus obtained with a minimum A

multi-point inductance
of resistance.
for tuning purposes is shown in Figure 12. In this diagram, the switch
marked "Units" cuts in- single turns in the circuit, and the switch
marked "Tens" cuts in ten turns at each contact point.
(b) Tuning in Practice. To adjust a receiver for maximum response

from a given transmitter, the operator first tunes the. closed or secondary
circuit to the desired wave length, and then couples closely thereto the
antenna or primary coil. He then increases or decreases the inductance
or capacity or both simultaneously, in the antenna circuit until the
IpOOOOOpOOOOOOOOMOMOMjHMiMilfliM!"'
Figure 12
Showing how the inductance of a radio frequency coil may be varied
from one turn to maximum through the use of two multi-point switches.
In this diagram the switch marked "Units" cuts in single turns, and the
switch marked "Tens," ten turns in a group. For example, if one turn
is cut in at the "Units" switch and ten turns at the "Tens" switch, the
circuit will include eleven turns.
desired signal is heard. If the receiving apparatus has been calibrated

by a wave meter, all the necessary tuning can be done before the trans-
mitting station begins operation.
Selectivity in wireless receiving apparatus, that is, discrimination
between stations, is secured:
by loose coupling of the primary and secondary circuits;

(1)
by the use of large values of inductance at the base of the aerial
(2)
for a given wave length;
(3) by judicious use of the shunt secondary condenser.
The tuner may be adjusted for broad tuning (response from several
transmitters simultaneously) by closely .coupling the primary and second-
ary circuits. This increases the natural damping of the system and the
complete circuit will therefore respond over a range of frequencies with-
out requiring accurate adjustment. On the other hand, loose coupling
of the open and closed circuits permits sharp tuning, that is, the receiver
responds with vigor to oscillations of a single frequency, and the more
exact the resonance the better the signal.
4. THE TELEPHONE RECEIVER. The simple magnetic tele-
phone receiver universally employed to detect the currents induced

is
in the wireless receiving aerial by the distant transmitter. Certain

phenomena connected with its operation have been touched
upon in
paragraph 1, but will now be considered more in detail.
Figure 12a
Front view of the American Marconi Co.'s type 106 receiving tuner.
All tuning apparatus is mounted on the front of the panel board con-
venient to the operator.
This tuner is of the inductively coupled type and is fitted with a
carborundum detector. The wave length is variable between 200 and
3,500 meters.
END TURN" POTEMT10METER

SWITCH SECONDARY
PRIMARY
SUI1ER
SHORT WAVE
CONDENSER
Figure 12b
Rear view of the type 106 tuner, showing the tuning transformer,
variable condensers, potentiometer, and buzzer tester.
In the diagram of Figure 13, the bobbins of the telephone magnet

windings are indicated at B-l and B-2, the cores of which are perma-
nently magnetized by the horseshoe or ring magnet M.
If direct current flows between A
and B in one direction it strength-
ens the total magnetic field and D
is drawn down further, but if the
direction of the current is then reversed, the total field acting on is D

decreased and the diaphragm is released by an amount depending upon
the demagnetizing effect of the current.
A B
Figure 13
Showing the fundamental construction of the
telephone receiver.
If an alternating current passes through the receiver winding,

similar effects are observed, that is, a cycle of current will cause the
diaghragm to go through the movement outlined in the preceding para-
graph.
It is now quite clear that if we desire to set the diaphragm into
motion or produce sound, we must supply to the telephone a current
that varies in amplitude. This current may be a fluctuating direct cur-
rent, a sinusoidal alternating or a complex alternating current. It may
be said in general that the receiver diaphragm repeats the variations of
any variable E.M.F. but not always without distortion.
Beyond currents of a definite frequency will produce more
this,
sound with a given minimum E.M.F. than those of other frequencies.
The fact is that the diaphragm of a telephone receiver possesses a "natu-
' '
ral frequency of vibration, that is, if deflected to one side momentarily
and released, the diaphragm will vibrate at a rate determined by its
mass and elasticity.
If the receiver is actuated by an alternating current of sinusoidal
form, and of variable frequency, the diaphragm will vibrate most strongly
when the impressed frequency equals the natural frequency of the
diaphragm. This, for the average telephone used in wireless telegraphy
is near to 1000 cycles per second, but, of course, it varies with the con-
struction of the receiver.
CONTACT CONTACT
STUD5 SEGMENTS
BRUSHES
Figure 13a
Showing the end turn switch employed in the primary and second-
ary circuits of the Marconi type 106 tuner. This switch divides the
tuning coils into groups to eliminate end turn losses.
The important point to be brought out here is that when the fre-
quency of the applied current is such as to impulse the diaphragm more
than 1000 times per second, its motion as the frequency is increased
becomes less and less audible for a given E.M.F. until at frequencies
above 20,000 cycles per second no sound appreciable to the human ear
is obtained.
In the receiving circuits of commercial wireless telegraphy, as we
have already mentioned, alternating currents flow at various frequencies
between 20,000 and 1,000,000 cycles per second; hence, we see at once
the futility of using the telephone receiver as a sound indicator of radio
frequency oscillations.
Then we can obtain sound in the telephone from incoming radio
frequency currents only by employing a device which will convert such
currents into some form of an audio frequency current that will give
a response in the head telephone.
Just how this is accomplished in the Fleming oscillation valve will
be described in the chapter following.
PART 1
THE OSCILLATION VALVE IN RADIO

TELEGRAPHY
5. FOREWORD. The student about to take up the profession of
a commercial or government wireless operator often is confused by the
seeming complication of circuits encountered in connection with the
operation of the vacuum Moreover, he is confronted with a new
valve.
terminology and a glittering array of trade names for vacuum tubes of

different construction.
Although the oscillation valves employed in wireless telegraphy are

known in the art under various trade appellations, the author will employ
the terms "vacuum valve/' "vacuum bulb/' "vacuum tube," or
"vacuum tube detector" interchangeably.
purpose of this volume to discuss the relative merits

It is not the
of the various types of vacuum tubes, or to go deeply into their con-
struction, but an effort will be made to present in simple language the
conclusions arrived at by the inventor of the oscillation valve, Dr. J. A.
Fleming, and by various investigators of prominence, among whom may
be mentioned Captain Edwin H. Armstrong, Roy A. Weagant, and Dr.
Irving Langumuir. A further object is to show the radio operator the
circuits and functioning of the valve in practice.
In order to present the subject in a simple manner, the author has
deviated slightly from strict scientific terminology and mode of presenta-
tion, but now that the motive for doing is made known, due allowance
r
will be made by the expert engineer.

It would be well to keep in mind that the vacuum tube can be
employed passage of high frequency currents through the
to detect the
medium of a telephone, or it may act as a generator of radio frequency
currents for the purpose of wireless communication. Both uses will be
treated but the text will bear particularly on the use of the valve as an
oscillation detector in wireless telegraphy.
19
6. WHAT IS AN ELECTRO N?-The vacuum tube when used as

an oscillation detector in radio is frequently called an Electron Relay
and the term implies that electrons are useful agents in its operation;
hence the question naturally arises in the mind of the student, "What
isan electron?" Briefly, we may state that the electron is the smallest
subdivision of matter which mankind recognizes carrying the smallest
known charge of negative electricity.
It has been held by science for years that matter is built up of
distinct particles or unitstermed atoms and molecules. The molecule
first was assumed to be the smallest quantity of matter that can have a
separate existence or take part in chemical action, but more rigorous

research points to the fact that the molecule is made up of smaller ele-
ments which are termed atoms; that is, a molecule may be composed of
several atoms. The atom, then, was assumed to be the very smallest
quantity of an element that can exist, but latter day researches have
revealed that the atom may be further subdivided into corpuscles or
particles termed electrons.
The apparent mass of an electron is about one eighteen-hundredth
part of that of an atom of hydrogen, which is the smallest of the chemical
atoms.
According to the theory now in vogue concerning the ultimate nature

of matter, an atom consists of a definite number of electrons grouped
about a nucleus having a positive charge, and so long as none of the
component electrons are driven from the atom, the latter possess no
detectable electrical charge.
But let an electron be detached from the atom, then the atom be-
comes what isknown as a "positive ion" and it exhibits the properties
of a positively charged body.
On the other hand, if an electron is added to a normal uncharged
atom, the latter, in this state, possesses a negative charge and is termed
a "negative ion." In summary, the positive ion possesses a deficiency
and the negative ion an excess of electrons.
of electrons
Although a number of congregated electrons go ultimately to make
up particle of matter, we should not conceive of electrons in terms of
a
matter as we ordinarily understand this term in solids. Rather must
we think of electrons in terms of electricity, and in this way we can
comprehend in some measure the extreme mobility which they possess
as compared to "solid bodies."*
In the original sense of expressing "positive" and "negative"
*For an interesting article on modern conceptions of the electron see the

paper, "Modern Physics," Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers.
charges of electricity an electron constitutes a negative charge. In fact,

when a number of electrons are detached from any atom we say that
there has been a movement of negative electricity, and we should now
accept the statement that the flow of electricity is a movement of
electrons.
Electrons may act as carriers of electricity between two conductors
separated in vacuua. Some of the present theories as to how they are
made use of in the vacuum tube oscillation detectors of radio telegraphy
we shall describe and explain further on.
7. HOW MAY ELECTRONS BE SET INTO MOTION? We

we must disrupt
have stated in effect that in order to liberate electrons
an atom. Of the various methods for disrupting an atom the one em-
ployed in the vacuum valve tubes will be given consideration.
It has been known for many years that the space about a heated
metal is a conductor of electricity. It has been demonstrated more
recently that it is due to the release of electrons and that if an incan-
descent metal is placed in a bulb exhausted of air or gases, pure electrons
are liberated from the metal. This is the most convenient method for
driving electrons from a metallic body for use in connection with oscilla-
tion detectors, and as stated before, the other methods for doing this will
not be discussed.
For any useful result the vacuum employed must be of a high order,
approximating that of an incandescent lamp or better, as the presence
of any considerable quantity of gas either prevents or greatly interferes
with a useful action.
8. FLEMING'S DISCOVERY. The first to employ the emission

of electrons from heated metals, to rectify or to detect radio frequency
oscillations in a wireless telegraph receiving system, was Dr. J.A. Flem-
ing, of London, England. He named his product a glow lamp oscillation
detector or oscillation valve, the latter name being adopted because he
found that the lamp would conduct electricity better in one direction
than in the opposite direction. Hence, if the valve was connected in
series with a source of radio frequency oscillations, one-half of each cycle
was suppressed, the circuit being traversed by a pulsating direct current.
The flow of such currents could then be detected by a telephone receiver
or a sensitive direct current instrument such as the galvanometer. In
more scientific terms the glow lamp was found to possess unilateral con-
ductivity or assymetric resistance.

This discovery marked a most important step in the progress of the
radio art. Immediately the results of Fleming's investigations were
published, intense interest was aroused throughout the scientific world,
and simultaneously a steady commercial application of the vacuum valve

as a detector of electric waves took place.
9. THE OSCILLATION VALVE. One form of Fleming's oscil-

lation valve for use as an oscillation detector in wireless telegraphy is
shown in
Figure 14.
A carbon filament F brought to incandescence by a small storage
battery is surrounded by a metallic cylinder P such as copper or nickel.
Later types of Fleming's valves employed a tungsten filament and a
copper cylinder, or in place of the latter, a small metallic plate.
Figure 14
Fleming's oscillation valve in a ple form.
%
?':.
In order to secure the valve effect the terminals of the filament first
must be connected to a 4 or 6 volt battery, the degree of incandescence
being carefully adjusted by a series rheostat. The filament then emits
electrons. The current to be rectified, is next impressed upon the termi-
nals C, D, that is, C, D, are connected in series with the circuit in which
the valve effect is desired.
Certain phenomena bearing upon the action of the valve as an oscil-
summed up in the following statements

lation detector are :
(1) The filament F when heated emits electrons;

(2) These electrons can be drawn to the cylinder prplate P by charg-
ing the plate to a positive potential;
(3) When electrons are drawn to P, the vacuous space between the
filament and the plate is conductive in one direction only, i. e.,
a battery current, for instance, can flow from the plate P to
filament F, but not in the opposite direction;
(4) The amount of current that can be passed from the plate to fila-
ment is definitely limited for a given set of conditions.
The student should give this preliminary outline of action careful

study.
Now any
device which will pass a current of electricity in one direc-
tion and wholly or partially obstruct the flow in the opposite direc-
will
tion may be termed a
" " because if it is connected in the
rectifier, path
of an alternating current, it will suppress one-half of each cycle and
therefore the circuit will be traversed by a pulsating direct current.
A rectifier also is said to possess "unilateral conductivity," meaning,
of course, that it will conduct electricity in one direction only. Its ability
to rectify currents of extremely high frequency is one of the important
properties of the oscillation valve. The part which the rectifier plays in
the detection of wireless signals has been mentioned in paragraph 2, but
it will be treated more in detail in Part II. The electron current in the
valve will be given the first consideration.
10. DEMONSTRATION OF RECTIFYING PROPERTIES.

The rectifying properties of the vacuum tube can be demonstrated by
the apparatus indicated in the diagram of Figure 15. Here, filament F
is lit to incandescence by battery 5-1 of 4 to 12 volts. An E. M. F.
variable up to 100 volts or more is applied between F and P by battery
5-2. A milliammeter shown at A is connected in series with B-2. As
Figure 15
Apparatus for demonstrating the rectifying properties of the
two-electrode oscillation valve.
stated under (2), paragraph by thus charging plate P to a posi-

9, it is
tive potential that electrons are drawn over from the filament.
In this experiment, meter A will register only when the positive
terminal of battery B-2 is connected to the plate. If connected in the
opposite way, little or no current will flow. Hence, if an alternating
E. M. F. is impressed across F and P, current can flow from P to F only
when P is charged positively. The tube thus becomes a rectifier of

alternating currents, and will perform this function at any frequency
up to several million cycles per second.
Now, merely as a matter of illustration, we have represented (in
Figure 15) the passage of the electrons which are attracted to the plate
P from filament F by double pointed arrows and the current supplied
by battery B-2 which flows from plate P to filament F by single pointed
arrows. At first sight there may appear to be two forces acting against
each other, but the seeming contradiction can easily be explained.
The assumption that electricity flows from a point of positive poten-
tial to one of negative potential was made and accepted by scientists
many years before there was any knowledge as to what a flow of electricity
is, but since the introduction of the electron theory (keep in mind the
fact that electrons are negative charges of electricity) it is necessarily
assumed that the transfer of electricity takes place in the direction from
the negatively charged ~body to the positively charged body.
It will prevent confusion at the outset, then, if the student under-
stands that in conformation with the old theory electricity flows in the
direction opposite to the flow of the electrons.
Now, to withdraw electrons from the filament F to the plate, the
latter must be charged to a positive potenial. Thus, it is evident that
electrons flow from the filament to the plate by virtue of the electrostatic
field maintained by the battery B-2. The strength of this field, of course,
varies with the E. M. F. of B-2. If, on the other hand, P is charged
negatively, the electrons are driven back to the filament and the current
will be reduced to zero.
11. NON-UNIFORM CONDUCTIVITY OF THE VALVE.

The rectifying properties of the tube have been treated in the preceding
paragraph. With the connections of Figure 15, it can also be shown that
the conductivity of the space between P and F
is not a constant in the
direction in which it conducts more freely, i. e., the apparent resistance

varies with the applied E. M. F.
More clearly if the valve is placed in series with a source of current
the complete circuit will not obey Ohm's Law. Just as in the case of
the carborundum rectifier,* if battery B-2 of Figure 15 is shunted by a
potentiometer, and the voltage is steadily increased from a small value
to some upper limit of the battery, the readings of the meter A will not
accord with Ohm's Law.
During the first increase in voltage, the reading of the current will
be low, indicating a high value of resistance, and after a more or less
*See pages 137, 138, 139 author's "Practical Wireless Telegraphy."

critical point is passed, the current (in micro- or milli-amperes) will

rapidly increase, indicating a much lower resistance. The current- voltage
readings thus obtained can be plotted in the form of a curve as in Figure
16. Up to the point A on the curve an increase of E. M. F. of the bat-
5.5
o
cc
I
o
CM
E-l E-2 E-3 E-4 E-5

10 10 30 40 50 60 70
E. M. F. OF B-2
Figure 16
Characteristic curve of two-electrode Fleming valve, indicating the
strength of the electron current with different values of plate potential.
tery B-2 results only in a slight increase of current as shown by the

readings on the vertical axis. But if the voltage be increased from E-l
to E-3 or E-4, the current in the plate circuit rises very rapidly. From
point C on, there will be no further increase of current with increase
of the plate E. M. F. At this point the valve is said to be saturated.
If the data obtained in this experiment, plotted on cross-section
paper, gave a straight line instead of a curve, then Ohm's Law would
be obeyed, and the valve would possess uniform conductivity, but since
the curve shows that it does not obey Ohm's Law, the valve possesses
non-uniform conductivity.
The curve of Figure 16 is then called the "characteristic" curve of
the valve and the adjustment of the plate current to the so-called critical
point on the curve during the reception of signals renders it, through
the medium of a telephone, a sensitive indicator of feeble radio frequency
currents such as flow in the receiving circuits of a wireless telegraph
system.
The critical point on the curve is usually on the lower bend but
response can be secured at the upper bend as well or under certain con-
;
ditions, other points on the characteristic curve may be employed in radio

reception. This will be treated more in detail further on.
12. HOW THE VALVE BECOMES SATURATED. The

strength of the electron current flowing from F
to P is limited in two
ways: First, by the temperature limitation of the filament, and second,

by the so-called space charge. At point C in the curve of Figure 16, the
increase of current through the valve falls off rapidly. Any further
increase in E.M. F. of B-2 gives no further increase of current. At this
point the valve is saturated.
Itwould be well at this juncture for the student to understand that
the amount of current passed per second from plate to filament varies
directly with the supply of electrons. In fact, it is assumed that 10 19
electrons passing from F to P per second are the equivalent of one
ampere. As mentioned above, the first limitation is found in the supply
of electrons given off by the filament, which varies with the temperature.
Only the equivalent current of this supply of electrons can flow no mat-
ter how much we increase the E. M. F. of B-2.
Then, to increase the electronic emission, we must increase the tem-

perature of the filament provided the maximum permissible temperature
has not been reached. If the E. M. F. of B-2 be then increased a new
curve A, B, D (Figure 16) will be obtained, i. e., the electron current
from F to P will increase. Further increase of the E. M. F. of B-2 gives
another point of saturation D, and no matter how much the E.M.F.
of B-2 is raised no increase of current will result because all of the
electrons available have been drawn to the plate.
We might way by saying that the electrons are

state this in another
attracted to the plateby the electrostatic field (between the plate and
filament) maintained by battery B-2, and if the temperature of the fila-

ment is we need only increase the voltage of B-2 to that value neces-
fixed
sary to draw over all the electrons given off by the filament, if we want
the maximum current to flow. Further increase of the E. M. F. of B-2,
as stated before, will not increase the electron current because no more
Z
UJ
CC
at
<
a.
.25 .50 .75 1.0 I.Z5 1.50
FILAMENT CURRENT
Figure 17
Characteristic curve of two-electrode valve showing how the plate
current varies with different degrees of filament temperature, the po-
tential of the plate being held constant.
electrons are available. Thus we see that the plate current is limited
by the temperature of the filament.
In addition to the restricted plate current due to the filament tem-
perature limitation mentioned above, Dr. Langumuir declares* that the
plate current is limited for a given plate voltage by reason of the space
charge within the bulb. He remarks that the electrons flowing between
the filament and plate constitute a negative electric charge in space
which repels the electrons escaping from the filament, causing some of
them to return to the filament; that is, only a part of the electrons
emitted by the filament reach the plate, the remainder being repelled
by the electrons in space and they therefore return to their source.
More clearly, if the plate voltage is fixed and the filament tempera-
ture is steadily increased, a condition will be reached where an increase
of filament temperature will not result in an increase of the plate current
on account of the space charge. Then, to increase the plate current it
becomes necessary to increase the voltage of the plate battery.
The space charge can also be diminished by altering the construction
of the bulb, by bringing the plate and filament closer.
i. e. }
Another curve, Figure 17, will serve to make clear the relation be-
tween a progressive increase of current through the filament with a
definite value of E.M.F. at B-2 and the corresponding current in the plate
circuit.
If the temperature of the filament is progressively increased, then

a curve A, D, E, is obtained. The curve indicates that at point E, the
space charge tends to neutralize the electron current. In other words,
the plate current increases with increase of filament temperature from A
to G, but falls off rapidly from G to C.
If the filament temperature exceeds A, G, and the E.M.F. of B-2 is
increased, a new curve A, D, F, is obtained, which indicates the flow of

an increased current through the plate circuit. It is clear from Figure
17 that if the filament current is less than A, G, the current in the plate
circuit will not increase with increase of the E.M.F. of B-2, Figure 15.
^Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Sept., 1915, pages 268

and 274.
PART II
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE

OSCILLATION VALVE
13. IN GENERAL. We have established four important facts con-
cerning the vacuum tube and the telephone receiver:
(1) The tube is conductive in one direction and therefore may be

employed as a rectifier of alternating currents; i. e., it pos-
sesses assymetrical conductivity.
(2) A characteristic curve of the tube shows that it does not, in

respect to conduction, obey Ohm's law; i. e., its resistance
varies with the applied E. M. F.
(3) The telephone receiver will not give audible response to radio
frequency currents (currents in excess of 10,000 cycles per
second).
(4) By means of a rectifier, radio frequency currents occurring in audio
frequent groups (damped oscillations) can be converted to
decaying direct currents which, if they flow through the tele-
phone, will give audible response. (See paragraphs 2 and 9.)
These four statements will assist the student to understand how the
incoming radio frequency oscillations in a wireless receiving system are
translated into audio frequent currents to energize the head telephone.
It is the function of the oscillation valve to effect this conversion.
14. ACTION OF THE SIMPLE VALVE. In order to make

clear the functioning of the simple valve as a detector of radio frequency
currents, there is reproduced in Figure 18a, the characteristic curve

shown in Figure 16, and in Figure 18b, a circuit for demonstrating ex-
perimentally the '"valve action."
Af B, are the brushes of an alternating current generator. B-I is
a battery of 4 volts to incandesce the filament. B-2 is a second battery
to charge the plate P to draw electrons from the filament. The charge
on P is varied by potentiometer P-2. As in previous diagrams the cur-
29
rent of B-2 is represented by the single pointed arrows, and the electrons
emitted by the filament with double pointed arrows, and for this par-
ticular illustration a single alternation of current from generator A, B,
is shown by the three pointed arrows.
E-l E-2 E-4 E-5

10 ZO 30 40 50 60 70
E. M. F. OF B-2
Figure 18a
In harmony with statements in paragraph 13 under (1) current

generated by A, B, can flow from plate P to filament F, but not in the
opposite direction. Hence, from this action by itself, an alternating cur-
rent would be changed to a direct current.
But there is another important action here to have consideration.
Direct current from battery B-2 flows constantly from plate P to filament
F, and during the moment that this current and that of the generator
A, B, flow in the same direction there will be a large increase of current
through the telephone P-l. But if current from A, B, flows opposite to
that of the battery there will be a small decrease of current through
the telephone.
Just why the telephone current increases to a greater degree than
it decreases can be determined from the characteristic curve reproduced
in Figure 18a.
Point B on the curve corresponds to voltage E, E-2, and to current
a ;
but if the voltage is increased to E-3, the current increases to a 4
.
Figure 18b
Apparatus for demonstrating the non-uniform conductivity of the
vacuum valve.
From this we see that if the voltage of battery B-2 is adjusted to

.
value E-2 (whatever it may be) a small increase to E-3 will increase the
total current flowing through the circuit to some value in excess of 1 .
Conversely, wheî the E.M.F. of the alternator opposes the E.M.F.

of B-2, the total E. M. F. is less, hence the current as read from the
curve is slightly less than a x .
Now, if we
substitute for the alternator a radio receiving trans-
former, precisely the same action takes place, but in this case there
is impressed upon the valve a current of extremely high frequency. The
complete process by which such radio frequency oscillations are made

audible in the head telephone can be explained by the curves of Figure 19.
The decaying groups of oscillations on the lower horizontal line 0-1
represent those incoming at a given radio station and the group on the
line 0-2 represents the fluctuations or increase and decrease of the tele-
AVERAGE TELEPHONE
CURRENT
0-3
FLUCTUATING
TELEPHONE CURRENT
0-Z
INCOMING OSCILLATIONS
(MICRO- AMPS)
O-l
Figure 19
Showing the phenomenon involved in the detection of radio fre-
quency oscillations by the two-electrode vacuum tube. Graph O-l indi-
cates the incoming radio frequency oscillations; graph O-2, the fluctuat-
ing telephone current, and graph O-3, the average effect of the telephone
current upon the diaphragm.
phone current. But since the increase is much greater than the decrease
it amounts in effect to a uni-directional current which actuates the tele-
phone diaphragm at an audio frequency. The telephone diaphragm

responds to an average effect of the amplitudes in 0-2, which, roughly,
may be represented by the curves on line 0-3.
Beginning at the transmitter, the phenomena involved may be
summed up as follows:
For each spark at the transmitter the aerial radiates one group of
waves and each group induced in the receiving apparatus is rectified

by the valve so that a decaying uni-directional E. M. F. flows through
the head telephones, producing one "click" or sound. Therefore, 1,000
sparks at the sending station produce 1,000 clicks in the receiving tele-
phone.
The condenser C, in the diagram of Figure 18b, serves to store up
the rectified currents. It is generally assumed that it discharges through
the head telephone aperiodically.
15. THE PRACTICAL OSCILLATION VALVE CIRCUIT IN

RADIO. The two batteries for the Fleming valve shown in Figure 18b,
are not essential to operation in practice. The battery B-l may be
its
employed to render incandescent the filament and to attract the electrons
C-i
Figure 20
Circuit for the two-electrode vacuum tube as an oscillation detector
in radio telegraphy. Current is supplied to the plate circuit by the bat-
tery B-l, which also incandesces the filament.
from the filament to the plate. The circuit is shown in Figure 20. In
thisdiagram the alternating current generator (Figure 18b) with brushes
A, B, is replaced by the primary and secondary circuits of a standard
radio receiving system. The aerial or antenna is shown at A, the earth
connection at E, the primary winding of the receiving transformer at
L-l, the secondary winding at L-2, and the secondary tuning condenser
at (7-1. The telephones P-2 are shunted by the condenser C, and the
battery B-l by the potentiometer P-l, which is of 400 ohms resistance.
If the sliding contact of potentiometer P-l is placed to the right,

plate P
will be charged to a positive potential, the path of the plate cur-
rent being through telephones P-2 through the secondary winding L-2
to plate P back to the negative side of filament F. But if the contact
on P-l placed to the left, the potential of the plate
is P in respect to the
negative side of the filament will be reduced to zero.

The apparatus shown in this drawing functions like that in the

diagram of Figure 18b, but in this case, there is impressed across the
detector an oscillating E. M. F. occurring at a radio frequency. A half
cycle of the incoming oscillations flows freely from plate "P to filament
F, causing a large increase of current through telephone P. The remain-
ing half cycle flows oppositely to the plate current, causing a small
decrease in the telephone current. The net result is an increase of cur-
rent in one direction through the head telephone.
To comprehend this clearly, the student must keep in mind the

characteristic curve shown in Figure 18a, and note the deductions which
may be drawn therefrom. When the operator adjusts the potentiometer
P-l for the maximum strength of signals, he operates the valve on some
point of the characteristic curve where the addition of a slight antenna
E. M. F. produces either a large increase or a large decrease of current
through the head telephones.
Thusat point C (Figures 16 or 18a) the effect of a group of radio
frequency oscillations is evidently to cause a decrease in telephone cur-

rent, but at point Bthe reverse is the case.
Careful study of Figure 18 a, reveals the points on the curve to which

the plate current should be adjusted for maximum signals under different
values of oscillatory E. M. F. supplied by the antenna. If the incoming
signals are relatively strong, the plate voltage may be adjusted to a
point slightly below the bend of the curve B. This increases the tele-
phone current to a greater value than could be obtained further along
the curve. But if the incoming signals are relatively weak, the plate
potential must be adjusted to a point further along the bend in order
that the E.M.F. of the incoming signal may change the plate current
sufficiently so that the telephone current will increase to a greater ex-
tent than it decreases. The foregoing applies equally well to the upper
bend of the curve.
In the parlance of practice, the plate voltage that will give the
maximum strength of signals for strong incoming oscillations generally
is not the voltage that will give the best response to weak signals.
Itshould be mentioned here, that the resistance of the valve from

plate to filament is very high. Hence, the higher the potential produced
by a given group of incoming oscillations the stronger the response
obtained. Therefore, the secondary winding of the receiving tuner
should be designed to give the maximum possible voltage for a given
group of incoming oscillations. This requirement is met by a secondary
inductance which requires a very small shunt condenser for resonance
with the incoming signal. In general, the capacity of (7-1, Figure 20,
should not exceed .0001 microfarads when tuning for the ordinary com-
mercial wave length.
The valve of Figure 20 may be adjusted to the incoming radio sig-
nals as follows: The temperature of the filament F may be definitely
fixed by means of a small ammeter, followed by adjustment of the po-
tentiometer P-l until the maximum
strength of signals is obtained. In
event that an ammeter not provided, the operator must try various
is
degrees of incandescence with simultaneous adjustment of the poten-

tiometer P-l until maximum signals are obtained in the receiving tele-
phone.
(a) Fleming Valve Circuits in Simple Form. The Fleming valve

may be employed as an oscillation detector without the use of an aux-
iliary E. M. F. Very good results are often so obtained. The circuit
is shown in Figure 20a. Filament F is incandesced by battery B-l. One
L-i, ,.L-2
C-l
C-2
P-l
Figure 20a
Simple circuit for the two-electrode vacuum tube
as an oscillation detector in radio telegraphy.
terminal of the secondary winding L-2 is attached to the plate P and the
other to the negative side of the filament F. The action of the valve is
as follows When an oscillating E. M. F. is impressed upon the plate and
:
filament, the plate P

charged alternately to a positive and negative
is
potential. When
plate P
is charged to a positive potential electrons are
drawn over from the filament, which is equivalent to saying that a semi-
cycle flows from P to F. When P is charged negatively, no electrons
are drawn over to the plate and consequently no current passes the valve.
The condenser 0-2, therefore, receives a uni-directional charge over the
duration of a wave train and at the termination thereof discharges
through telephone P-l. For best results the telephone should have a re-
sistance of several thousand ohms.
(b) Other Circuits for the Vacuum Valve. In the circuit shown
in Figure 20b, two batteries are employed with the two-electrode valve.
The battery 5-1, as usual, renders incandescent the filament, and the
battery B-2 supplies the local telephone current. It is to be noted that
the terminals of the telephone circuit are attached to the plate P, and
the negative side of the filament F. In practice, the operator carefully
regulates the incandescence of the filament F, and adjusts the potential
of the battery B-2 until maximum response is secured in the head tele-
phones.
7F..C-1
Figure 20b
Modified circuit for the Fleming valve.
Figure 20c
_ P-i
Unipolar connection for the two-electrode valve.
The circuit in Figure 20c is somewhat similar to Figure 2 Ob,

shown
with the exception that the negative side of the filament F
is connected
to one terminal of the secondary circuit. Additional uni-polar connec-

tions for the vacuum tube will be shown in Part VI. The adjustment
of the apparatus in Figure 20c is similar to that in Figure 20b. The
tuned to
open and closed circuits of the receiving tuner are carefully
the and the
incoming signal, incandescence of the filament and the F
potential of the battery B-2 carefully regulated until maximum response

is secured.
The Fleming valve connected as in Figures 20 to 20c, constitutes

a sensitive and very stable oscillation detector in radio telegraphy and
has been much used in ship and shore stations.
TO BATTERY
Figure 21
The fundamental construction of the three-elec-
trode vacuum tube often called the electron relay.
16. THE THREE-ELECTRODE VALVE. A wider range of

circuits, and a greater ease of control of the vacuum valve as a detector
in radio is secured by interposing what is termed a grid element between
the filament and plate. The grid element valve as a detector in wireless
telegraphy is credited to Dr. Lee.DeForest. A valve so constructed is
shown in Figure 21. F

is usually a tantulum or tungsten filament; f O
the grid of tungsten, nickel or copper; and P, a nickel or aluminum plate.
The grid, filament, and plate may assume different shapes than herein
shown, and may differ in material and construction, but the metals just
mentioned are used in some types of valves. In one well-known type of
valve, the filament, grid, and plate are made of tungsten.
The immediate element can only be under-
effect of inserting the grid
stood by clearly comprehending the conditions which would exist in its
absence. Assuming the grid to be removed, the filament heated, and the
plate battery connected, it is clear that an electrostatic field is maintained
between the plate and filament, and that every point in this space will
have some potential between that of the plate and that of the filament.
It is this electrostatic field which causes the passage of electrons from
the filament to the plate.
When the grid is inserted into the space between the plate and fila-
ment, we should naturally expect the grid to have the potential which the
electrostatic field has at this point. This, however, is not the case, for
the grid captures electrons and thus has its potential lowered. It may
therefore finally become either positive or negative to the filament, but
it will always be negative as compared with the potential which the
space it occupies would have if it were removed. This has been experi-
mentally proven by Armstrong.
1.0
G-l
-IO -5 +5 + 10
GRID POTENTIAL
Figure 22
Grid potential plate current characteristic curve of the three-
electrode vacuum tube.
This lowered potential of the grid 0&sn/cs the flow of electrons so

that less escape to the plate. As in the two-electrode valve (in order
to withdraw electrons from the filament), the positive pole of a battery
B-2 is connected to the plate, but if the grid element is charged suffi-
ciently negatively by an external E.M.F., the electron current will be
completely cut off. Normal flow of current (from plate to filament) can
only be secured by charging the grid to a lower negative or to a positive
potential. The student may now obtain a hint how the variation of the
grid potential affects the strength of current in the plate circuit. For
example, the amount of current flowing from P to F
may be varied by
simply changing the potential of the grid element G. That is, the grid
may be employed to open and close the plate circuit or to change its
resistance.
Now, as already mentioned, the potential of the grid may be sev-

eral volts negative to the negative side of the filament, or it may be the
same as the negative side of the filament, or it may be positive with
respect to the field in the plane of the grid which would exist if the grid
were removed from the bulb ;* but itwill always be negative with respect
to the potential of the field in the plane of the grid which would exist
if the grid were removed from the bulb.
Just how variation of the grid potential by an external E.M.F.
effects the flow of the plate current will be readily understood by the
plot of a characteristic curve of the three-electrode tube. We have
already shown, in Figure 16, a characteristic curve of the two-electrode
valve.
(a) Characteristic Curve of Three-Electrode Valve. Since there

are three elements in this form of valve it is evident that several different
groups of characteristic curves may be taken. Thus there is a plate-
voltage to plate-current group of curves dependent on temperature of the
filament, and a grid- voltage to grid-current group dependent on the
temperature of the filament, and a grid-voltage to plate-current group
dependent upon the filament temperature and plate voltage. These are
all related in important but complex ways and, as in the case of the two-
element bulb, the operation is by no means completely understood. We

shall consider here only the grid voltage-plate current curve upon which
the most commonly accepted explanation of the tubes' operation are
usually based.
In the curve for the three-electrode valve shown in Figure 22, the
horizontal axis indicates the potential of the grid in respect to the fila-
ment, and the vertical axis, the plate current in milliamperes. The differ-
ence between the curve of Figure 22 and that of Figure 16, is that the
latter shows the volt-ampere relation in the plate circuit of the two-
electrode valve, whereas Figure 22 gives the values of the plate current
under different values of positive and negative grid potential.
The connections for the apparatus by which the data for this curve
were obtained appear in Figure 23. Here P-l is a potentiometer B-2, ;
the batteiy for the plate circuit, 45 to 200 volts, and A, a milliammeter.
The filament current regulated by the 10-ohm rheostat R. The grid
is
may be charged either positively or negatively by sliding the potentio-

meter contact P-3 towards B or A.
The data for Figure 22, was secured by holding the voltage of the
battery B-2 at some constant value while changing the potential of the
*See Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Sept., 1915, Vol. 3,

No, 3,
grid to a positive or negative value. It will be observed that the plate

current with this particular valve is maximum when
the grid is charged
to about three volts positive potential. With the grid at approximately
five volts negative potential, the current in the plate circuit is
nearly
zero. On the straight part of the curve A 1 to .B 1 the plate current is
directly proportional to the grid potential. Hence, if an alternating
E.M.F. of not too great value is impressed upon the grid and filament,
the plate current will rise and fall uniformly.
The curve of Figure 22 will repay careful study, for it is upon the
operating characteristics therein shown, that the at present accepted
explanations of the fundamental actions of the three-electrode vacuum
valve as a detector and amplifier in radio-telegraphy are based.
"
A'
Figure 23
Connections of the apparatus for obtaining the
characteristic curve of the three-electrode tube.
By way of illustration it is clear, from Figure 22, that if the grid

has been adjusted to a fairly high negative potential, for example, that
indicated by point A, a few volts decrease (of the grid potential) permits
a large mcrease of current in the plate circuit, as may be seen by fol-
lowing the dotted line from A 1
to the vertical axis. On the other hand, if
the grid potential is increased negatively by the same amount, the plate
current decreases by a relatively smaller amount. Hence, if the valve is
employed as a detector of radio frequency oscillations and the grid poten-
tial is adjusted to point A on the curve, Figure 22, the rise and fall
of the grid potential occasioned by the incoming oscillations produces
a current of similar frequency in the plate circuit, the amplitudes of the
increase exceeding those of the decrease. Hence, what amounts, in so far
as the telephone is concerned, to a uni-directional current charges the
telephone condenser which discharges through the telephone once for

each group of incoming oscillations. It is also clear that if the valve is
worked at the
upper bend of the curve, Figure 22, the foregoing actions
will be reversed, i.e., a group of incoming oscillations will cause the tele-
phone current to decrease rather than increase.

The curve will be discussed again in paragraph 17.
(b) Valve Terminology. In order to prevent confusion from this

point on, we shall refer to the circuit containing the plate, the local
battery, and the head telephone as the "plate circuit" and to the second-
ary circuit including the secondary tuning coils, condensers, potentio-
meter, battery, and grid as the "grid circuit."
Thus, in Figure 24, the grid circuit includes L-2, C-l, P-l, -3, 0-2,
G, to the negative side of F. The plate circuit embraces P, negative side

of F, B-2, P-2, and the vacuous space from P
to F. It is also customary to
call the grid circuit the input circuit, and the plate circuit the output
circuit.*
We shall frequently refer to the current of battery B-2 as the "plate

current" and the necessary changes of grid potential will be effected by
the "grid lattery" B-3.
We shall also speak of the audio frequency and radio frequency
"component" of the plate current. These terms will be explained in
detail further on.
17. THE THREE-ELECTRODE VALVE AS AN ELECTRON

RELAY AND RECTIFIER.
(a) The Valve
as an Electron Relay (without Grid Condenser).
As already mentioned, the only fundamental operating characteristic
of the vacuum valve as an oscillation detector of which we shall make
use is the graph of Figure 22. We shall show more in detail that the
three-electrode valve may be employed as a relay or as a combined recti-
fier and amplifier.

Acomplete circuit for taking advantage of the non-uniform char-
acteristic of the three-element tube is shown in Figure 24, where the
plate P as usual is charged positively by the battery B-2 in series with

which is the telephone P-2. Filament F is incandesced by battery J5-1
and the strength of the current regulated by rheostat R.
The potential of the grid to filament is definitely fixed by battery
J5-3 shunted by potentiometer P-l. Condenser 0-2 provides a path for
the radio frequency currents about the potentiometer P-l. The primary
winding of the usual receiving tuner is indicated at L-I and the second-
ary winding at L-2.
"The filament circuit including the lighting battery and the rheostat is often
termed the "A" circuit, and the plate circuit the "B" circuit,
Jj
,( 0000000
(b) Functioning of the Valve as Explained from the Character-

istic Curve. The manner in which the valve functions in Figure 24
has heen partially explained in a preceding paragraph. Reference
should again be made to Figure 22. Assume, for example, the potential
of the grid in respect to the filament is that corresponding to point B,
that is the grid and filament have the same potential; then a negative
charge applied to the grid produces a decrease in the plate current
and a positive charge imparted to the grid produces an increase in the
plate current.
Hence, if an alternating E.M.F. such as a group of incoming radio
frequency oscillations is impressed upon the filament and the grid, the
plate current will rise and fall at the frequency of the impressed
E.M.F., i.e.j the incoming radio frequency current will be repeated in
the plate circuit, but often, with increased amplitude owing to the
radio frequency amplifying action of the valve.
This current, however, will not be heard in the receiving telephone
because its frequency is above audition and the positive and negative
halves are of equal amplitude. But, as the curve of Figure 22 clearly

indicates, if the potential of the grid is adjusted by a potentiometer
to point A, a small decrease in the grid potential, (i.e., a change toward
zero) causes a comparatively large increase of the plate current; on
the other hand, an increase of the grid potential (in a negative sense)
causes a relatively small decrease of the plate current. Hence, if the
grid and filament are connected to the secondary terminals of a receiv-
ing tuner, what amounts to a rectified current will flow in the plate or
output circuit, that is, the average increase in current occasioned by the
positive halves of the incoming oscillations exceeds the average decrease
in current due to the negative halves of the incoming oscillations. This
current charges the telephone condenser 0-3, Figure 24, which dis-
charges through the telephone probably in one direction. As already
explained in connection with the two-electrode tube, if the grid potential
is adjusted to the upper bend of the curve, the foregoing action is
reversed. The effect of a group of incoming oscillations then is to
decrease the plate current.
Since each group of incoming oscillations causes a large increase
of current through the head of the telephone, the diaphragm will
produce one click for each spark discharge at the transmitter.
It isapparent from the characteristic curve that the repeated plate
current may have uniform increase or decrease, or it may assume the
nature of a rectified current depending upon the point on the char-
acteristic curve at which the valve is worked. Thus, near the upper
bend C, and the lower bend A, a rectified current will flow in the plate
circuit, but along the straight portion of the curve B, equal increase
and decrease of the plate current will be obtained. In the latter con-
dition, the valve is properly adjusted for amplification by a second
tube, i.e., cascade amplification at radio frequencies.
In the diagram of Figure 24, the grid battery is connected in
the grid circuit to take advantage of the non-uniform properties of the
INCOMING
OSCILLATIONS
o-i
GRID TO FILAMENT
POTENTIAL
0-2
RADIO FREQUENCY
COMPONENT- PLATE
CURRENT
0-3
TELEPHONE CURRENT
0-4
Figure 25
Curves showing how the vacuum valve used as an assymetrical
relay produces audible response in the receiving telephone.
tube, but it should be understood that the tube will function in the
same way without the grid battery; that is, if a good sample of a
valve is used, by careful adjustment of the filament temperature and
the plate current, the operator can obtain the best operating char-
acteristic for a given condition of service. In other words, he thus
locates the point on the curve which will give the loudest response in
the head telephone without employing a grid battery.
(c) Relaying Action. We

have shown that, owing to the relaying
action of the valve, a current of any wave form impressed upon the
grid circuit may be repeated with amplification in the plate circuit.
This relaying effect is obtained by reason of the phenomenon shown
by the characteristic curve, i.e., a fractional amount of energy impressed
upon the grid circuit causes a larger variation of current in the plate
circuit. Owing to the extreme mobility of electrons under the influence
p-i
Figure 26
The
circuit for the use of the valve as acombined rectifier and
amplifier. and stored up in the
Incoming oscillations are rectified
grid condenser, the charge and discharge of which varies the telephone
current at an audio frequency.
of positive and negative electrostatic fields, this relaying action may

be secured both at audio and at radio frequencies.
The result is analogous to that of an ordinary land line telegraph
relay in which feeble line currents energize a magnet winding of a
relatively great number of ampere turns. In front of the magnet
poles ismounted a light armature carrying a platinum point which, in
turn, makes contact with a stationary contact closing the circuit of a
more powerful battery including in its circuit a telegraph sounder;
greater volume of sound is secured from the sounder because of the
greater strength of the local battery current compared to the current
which flows through the windings of the relay.
Diagrammatically, the actions of the valve as a relay for reception

of signals in wireless telegraphy is shown in Figure 25. 0-1 represents
the incoming oscillations 0-2, the potential of the grid to filament 0-3,
; ;
the radio frequency fluctuations of the plate current, and 0-4, the ap-
proximate average telephone current. It is readily seen in graph 0-4
that the effect of a single group of incoming oscillations is to increase
the telephone current at an audio frequency. This is the action in the
region of the lower bend of the curve. At the upper bend the action
is reversed.
If the grid maintained at a negative potential by the grid bat-
is
tery, it
prevents the flow of a conduction current between the grid and
filament. Hence, the grid circuit absorbs no energy from the incoming
oscillations. This reduces the damping of the secondary circuit.
(d) Use of the Three-Electrode Valve with Grid Condenser. The

circuit shown in Figure 26, differs from that of Figure 22, in that it
employs the so-called grid condenser, C, connected between the grid
and the upper terminal of the secondary coil of the receiving tuner.
The function of the grid condenser is to store up the currents which
are rectified by the valve action between the grid and filament. As
will be explained further on, the charge and discharge of this con-
denser during the reception of damped oscillations in radio telegraphy
decreases and increases the plate current at an audio frequency.
The action is somewhat as follows: When the incoming- oscilla-

tions tend to charge the grid negatively no current flows from the grid
to the filament, but when
the grid is charged positively current passes
from the grid and the grid condenser therefore receives a
to filament,
uni-directional charge over the duration of a wave train. Therefore
a charge of increasing strength piles up in the grid condenser C, which
is negative on the grid side. This, as is clear from the fundamental
curve of Figure 22, obstructs more and more the passage of electrons
from the filament to the plate, causing a decrease in the plate current.
At the termination of a group of incoming oscillations, the charge in
the grid condenser leaks off either through the valve itself, or through
a special leak resistance of several thousand ohms shunting the grid
condenser. The grid then returns to normal potential and likewise the
plate current. It is evident that each spark at the transmitter eventually
reduces the telephone current at the receiver. In other words, the
telephone current varies as the spark frequency of the transmitter.
During the time that the incoming oscillations undergo rectification,

the potential of the grid fluctuates at a radio frequency and, just as in
the case of Figure 24, the plate current rises and falls at a radio fre-
quency, but this current is not heard in the head telephone. Although
this repeated radio frequency current is not heard in the head tele-
phone it is put to account in the regenerative and amplification circuits

described further on.
Reviewing the foregoing, it is seen that two results are obtained
simultaneously in the plate circuit. During the time that the rectified
oscillations* are building up a charge in the grid condenser, the cur-
rent in the plate circuit decreases, but when the charge leaks out the
INCOMING
OSCILLATIONS
10- 1
0-2
VARIATION OF
PLATE. CURRLNT
0-5
TELEPHONE CURRENT
0-4
Figure 27
Graphs showing the operating phenomena of the three-electrode
tube as an oscillation detector, with a series or grid condenser.
* Rectification occurs in the vacuum tube in the

following way the elec-
:
tronic emission of the filament is in the direction of the grid, and in terms
of the electronic theory, negative electricity can pass from the filament to the
grid but not in the opposite direction, which is the same as saying in terms of
the old theory, that current can pass from the grid to the filament but not in
the opposite direction. When a group of radio frequency oscillations are
impressed upon the grid circuit each succeeding half of the incoming wave train
tends to increase the charge in the grid condenser. The wave train is thus
rectified.
condenser, the plate current returns to normal value. This reduction

follows the spark at the transmitter. Meanwhile the incoming oscilla-
tions are repeated in the telephone circuit.
Diagrammatically, the actions of a three-electrode tube with a grid
condenser can be shown as in Figure 27, where graph 0-1 shows two
groups of incoming oscillations; graph 0-2, the potential of the grid in
respect to the filament; graph 0-3, the corresponding reduction of the
plate current and the superposed or repeated radio frequency current;
and graph 0-4, the approximate average telephone current.
(e) Radio- and Audio-Frequency Component of the Plate Cur-

rent. The student should give attention to the curve 0-3 of Figure 27.
Here the successive variations of the plate current in 0-3 are
those of the repeated radio frequency current and they are termed the
radio frequency component of the plate current. The large depression
A in the oscillogram 0-4, represents the reduction of the plate current
occasioned by the charge which accumulates in the grid condenser dur-
ing a group of incoming oscillations. This variation is termed the
audio frequency component of the plate current.
In order to prevent an extraordinary potential from piling up upon
the condenser C, a battery and potentiometer are often connected around
the grid condenser to control definitely the charge accumulating in it.
For instance, if the grid became charged to an excessive negative poten-
tial, the plate current would be reduced to zero and the valve rendered
inoperative.
The student will now observe that the apparatus in the diagrams,
Figures 24 and 26, functions in a manner similar to the diagram of
Figure 20.
With the connections of the diagram of Figure 24, it is desirable

that the potential of the grid be carefully regulated by the grid battery
in order that best advantage may be taken of the non-uniform con-
ducting properties of the valve, for at the points on the characteristic
curves where the plate current increases and decreases by unequal
amounts, the maximum sound will be obtained from the head telephone.
(f) Summary of the Phenomena of the Characteristic Curve. In

addition to the deductions which may be drawn from the characteristic
curve of Figure 22, some of which have been mentioned in preceding
paragraphs and here repeated, additional phenomena are presented.
As already stated, if the grid potential corresponds to that of point
A on the lower bend of the curve, the amplitude of the positive halves
of the plate current occasioned by the incoming oscillations exceeds the
amplitude of the negative halves. But if, on the other hand, the grid
potentialis adjusted to the upper bend or point (7, the former condition
will be reversed, that is, the amplitude of the negative halves of the
repeated radio frequency oscillations in the plate circuit will exceed

the amplitude of positive halves which is just opposite to that in the pre-
ceding case. At any point along the straight slope of the curve, such as
from A 1
B 1
approximately equal increases and decreases of the plate
to ,
current will be obtained provided the alternating E.M.F. impressed upon

the grid is not too great.
Again, if the valve is operated at point A and the voltage im-

pressed upon the grid by an oscillating E.M.F. of radio frequency is
but a small fraction of a volt, substantially equal increases and decreases
of the plate current will be secured, but no response will be obtained
in the head telephone for as already explained, the telephone will not
respond to radio frequencies.
If the valve is to be used as an amplifier, as will be described
further on, and it is desired that the plate current increase and decrease
I!
fix
,,
,-C-z
*
zSIS *
1
Figure 28
The three-electrode vacuum valve as an oscillation detector with
a tuned plate circuit.
by equal amounts, the valve may be worked at the upper or lower

bends (at point A or point (7), for small impressed E.M.F. 's. But, as
stated before, if the voltage impressed upon the grid is rather high,
then a distortionless current will be obtained in the plate circuit for
any given E.M.F. impressed upon the grid circuit, only along the slope
of the curve A 1 to B 1 This however is not true in all cases.
.
18. THE TUNED PLATE CIRCUIT. Further amplification of

incoming radio signals can be obtained by tuning the plate circuit of the
vacuum valve. Armstrong's method is shown in Figure 28, but since
this is essentially a regenerative system, it will be considered more in

detail in connection with other tuned plate circuits in Part IV.
In addition to the apparatus of previous diagrams, this circuit

includes a plate circuit inductance L-3 and a condenser, C-3. The coil
L-3, in conjunction with the electrostatic capacity of the valve (between
F and P) constitutes an oscillation circuit of variable frequency. The
condenser C-2 acts as a by-pass for the radio frequency component of
the plate current around the head telephone P-l and the battery B-2
Condenser C-2 may be of fixed capacity.
In incoming radio frequency oscillations are repeated
brief, as the
into the plate circuit, the counter E.M.F of coil L-3 either assists or
opposes the plate circuit battery according to whether the latter de-
creases or increases. The effect of this counter E.M.F. is to alternately
decrease and increase the potential difference between F and P, and
since the space between F and P constitutes a condenser of small capacity,
the charge accumulated therein is varied in accordance.
As will be explained in Part IV, the internal or self-capacity of the
valve acts as a coupling to transfer energy from the plate circuit
to the grid circuit, the energy for which is supplied by the reactance
voltage of the coil L-3. Marked amplifications are thus secured.

PART III
CASCADE AMPLIFICATION BY THE

VACUUM VALVE
19. IN GENERAL. In the preceding chapter we have described
two general methods by which damped oscillations in radio telegraphy
can be detected by the three-electrode valve.
In the first method :
(1) The potential of the grid in respect to the filament may be main-
tained so that a positive charge impressed upon the grid will
cause a large increase in the plate current, and a negative
charge will cause a small decrease of the plate current. Or
at other points on the characteristic curve, the reverse effect
may be obtained. In either case, the effect over the duration
of a wave train is to impulse the telephone receiver once for
each group of incoming oscillations. In other words, what
amounts to a rectified current flows in the plate circuit.
In the second method :
(2) The plate current is made to vary at an audio frequency by placing

a condenser in series with the grid. The valve action between
the grid and filament rectifies the incoming groups of radio
frequency oscillations, and the grid condenser receives a uni-
directional charge over the duration of a wave train. As the
charge builds up, the plate current decreases, but upon the
termination of a group of oscillations the charge leaks out
the grid condenser and the plate current returns to normal
value.
The sensitiveness of the valve in the second case is determined by

itsconstruction, i.e., the size of the grid, and the spacing between it
and the filament or the plate. If the construction is correct, the proper
operating characteristic is found by adjusting the filament temperature
and the voltage of the plate battery until maximum response is secured.
Reference is made to the diagram of Figure. ^6.
Usually with this circuit, when the filament is rendered incandes-

cent the potential of the grid will be somewhere near point B, Figure 22.
51
In other words, since in the diagram of Figure 26 the potential

of the grid in respect to the filament cannot be definitely fixed by a
grid battery, the operator must select some combination of filament
temperature and plate voltage that will give the correct operating char-
acteristic, for maximum response in the head telephone. This adjust-
ment generally is not difficult to find with a properly constructed valve,
but in event that the valve is improperly constructed it will not in this
circuit act efficiently as a detector of incoming oscillations.
In addition to (1) and (2) we have established another fact:
(3) By tuning the plate circuit to the radio frequency oscillations

further amplification of the incoming signal is secured.
In addition to (1), (2) and (3) we must remember the fundamental

actions of the valve connected as in Figure 24, i.e.,
(4) The incoming radio frequency currents are repeated in the plate
but with distortion, so that a rectified current impulses
circuit,
the telephone diaphragm.
Keeping all these facts before us it is obvious that the valve may
be connected in a number' of ways for further amplification of incoming-
radio signals (damped oscillations). There are two general methods by
which amplification can be secured :
(5) In the reception of damped oscillations either the resultant radio

or audio frequency component of the plate current of the first
valve can be impressed upon the filament and grid or input
circuit of a second valve and again amplified.
(6) Either the resulting radio or audio frequency currents or both

simultaneously can be impressed upon the grid of the same
valve and thus re-enforced, i. e., regenerative amplification se-
cured.
We shall show in Part VI.
(7) That the valve can be used to generate undamped oscillations

for the production of the heterodyne effect, i.e., beat re-
ception;
(8) and that the combined operations of generation, amplification and
beat reception can be performed in a single vacuum tube
simultaneously.
We first shall consider the circuits and functioning of the cascade

radio-frequency amplifier.
20. CASCADE RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER. In a

circuit where the radio or audio frequency component of the plate cur-
rent of one valve is impressed upon the grid and filament of the second
valve, that is where the o.utput circuit of the first valve is coupled to
the input circuit of the second valve and so on, the valves are said to
operate in cascade. In practice, as many as six valves have been thus
used, but three usually suffice for practical operating conditions, and
little gain usually results from employing more.
The complete circuits of a cascade radio frequency amplifying sys-

tem are shown in Figure 29 where a coupling transformer with the M
windings PA and 8 serves to impress the radio frequency component of
the plate circuit of the first valve upon the grid and filament of the
second valve, that is the output circuit of the first tube is coupled to the
input circuit of the next tube.

The antenna circuit of this diagram embraces the antenna loading
inductance L, the primary winding of the receiving transformer L-l,
and the short wave variable condenser (7-8. The secondary or grid
circuit comprises the secondary coil L-2, the secondary loading induct-
ance L-3, the shunt secondary condenser (7-1, and the fixed condenser (7
shunting po@tentiom.eter P-l which has resistance of about 400 or 500
ohms.
B-3 is a battery from three to twenty volts. 5-1 is the usual filament
battery, and B-2, the high voltage battery of the plate circuit of the
first valve. The plate circuit also includes the radio frequency circuit
P-4, CA ;
P-4 being the primary of a radio frequency transformer which
acts inductively upon winding 8. LA is the loading inductance for the
grid circuit of the second valve and 8 is the secondary coil. (7-5 is the
shunt secondary condenser. The condenser C-6 performs the function
of (7 in the first valve. The
plate circuit of the second valve comprises
the battery B-5, the head telephone P-3, and the shunt condenser (7-7.
The operation ofsystem is based upon the phenomenon shown
this
by the characteristic curve in Figure 22 which, for convenience, is

reproduced in Figure 30.
Assume, for example, that the potentiometer P-l of valve No 1 is
adjusted so that the grid potential with no signals in the receiving sys-
tem is approximately at the point A on the lower bend of the curve.
Suppose that the incoming signals are relatively weak, i.e., of just suffi-
cient strength to increase and decrease the grid potential a small frac-
tion of a volt. Then as the curve shows, an equal increase and decrease
of the plate current is secured. This variation takes place at a radio
frequency, and consequently no response would be secured from the
telephone diaphragm if it were connected in the plate circuit of this
valve.
On the other hand, if the signalling E.M.F. is rather strong, then it

will be seen from the shape of the lower bend of the curve that the
positive half of the incoming cycle will produce a relatively large in-
crease in the plate current and the negative half a relatively small
decrease. Therefore, what amounts, in effect, to a rectified current
(BoOOQQJ
g&-
O5 O <!>
01
flS
O) O OJ
bfi
c
fe S??
8 o
would flow through the head telephone, P-3 (if it were connected in
the plate circuit of the first valve). But if the incoming signal is
too weak to obtain an assymetrical relaying effect in the plate circuit of

the first valve, response can only be obtained in the receiving telephone
by amplifying the plate through the medium
oscillations of the first valve
of the second valve. Then if the second valve is adjusted to the proper
operating characteristic, the amplified incoming oscillations impressed
upon its grid and filament will cause a rectified current, that is, a cur-
rent which increases to a greater degree than it decreases or vice versa,
to charge the telephone condenser, (7-7. The latter discharges into the
head telephone P-3 in one direction.
CURRENT
Ul
PLATE
k
valve be accurately adjusted to the radio frequency component of the

plate current of the first valve. This is accomplished by the variable
shunt condenser (7-5.
The plate circuit of valve No. 1 may be tuned to resonance with

its radio frequency component by means of the variable condenser (7-4.
If condenser (7-4 in shunt to the primary winding P-4 gives that circuit
PLATE CURRENT
VALVE N. I
o-i
GRID POTENTIAL
VALVE
PLATE CURRENT
VALVE N2
0-5
APPROXIMATE TELEPHONE
CURRENT VALVE N?2
0-4
Figure 31
Graphs showing the functioning of the cascade radio frequency
amplifier.
a frequency of oscillation equal to that of the radio frequency com-

ponent of the continuous plate current, then a well defined resonance
phenomenon takes place and the amplitude of the plate circuit oscilla-
tions is increased. Tuning of the plate circuit is more effective in prac-
tice, when the incoming oscillations (induced in the receiving antenna
A) are comparatively weak.

In the operation of the apparatus shown in Figure 29, some energy

is withdrawn from the circuits of the first valve by the second valve
through the coupling M, and in consequence, as the coupling is altered
re-adjustments of the various elements of the complete circuit ordinarily
must follow.
In orderto secure amplification from the apparatus of Figure 29,

the potentiometer P-l should be adjusted so that the grid potential will
have some value along the straight part of the curve, say near the point
B, Figure 30; but the grid potential of the second valve must be ad-
justed (by potentiometer P-2) to take full advantage of the assymetrical
conductivity of the valve, i.e., to point A, Figure 30. Then condenser
(7-7 will receive a uni-directional charge over the duration of each wave
train and its discharge through the telephone P-3 will be practically
aperiodic, that is, in one direction.
Instead of adjusting the potential of the grid of value No.

2, Figure
29, to take advantage of its assymetrical properties, we may insert a

grid condenser such as shown at (7 in Figure 26. The circuit then func-
tions identically as explained in connection with that diagram, that is,
the incoming oscillations are rectified, and a charge accumulates in the
grid condenser over the duration of a wave train. As the charge in-
creases, the plate current of valve No. 2 gradually decreases. At the
termination of a group of oscillations the charge leaks out the grid
condenser either through the valve or through a special leak resistance
(shunted about the grid condenser or connected from grid to filament),
whereupon the plate current (battery 5-5) returns to normal strength.
This action, as has already been explained, is repeated for each spark
discharge at the transmitter.
21. CASCADE AUDIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER. We

have pointed out in paragraph 17 (and shown the connections therefor
in the diagram of Figure 26) how the successive groups of incoming
(damped) oscillations may be rectified and stored up in a grid Con-
denser, and how, during the piling up of this charge the plate current
decreases. At the termination of the incoming wave train the charge
leaks out of the condenser and the plate current returns to normal value.
This variation of the continuous current in the plate circuit is termed
the audio frequency component of the plate current.
The audio frequency component may be amplified through the

medium of a second valve. One method is shown in the diagram of
Figure 32, wherein the plate circuit of the first valve and the grid
circuit of the second valve are coupled inductively through the iron
core transformer M. The primary and secondary coils of M consist
of several thousand ampere turns of relatively fine wire such as No.

32 or No. 34 B
and 8 wound over a common iron core, the inductance
of either winding amounting to a henry* or more. Condensers (7-3 and
(7-6 serve to tune the primary and secondary circuits of M to the desired
audio frequency of 300 to 1,000 cycles, although they may be omitted

with good results.
In order that valve No. 2 may be adjusted for maximum amplifi-
cation, battery B-6 and potentiometer P-l are included in the grid
circuit.
The apparatus of Figure 32 functions as follows: The successive

groups of incoming oscillations are converted to audio frequency varia-
tions of the plate current (B-2) through the charge and discharge of
the grid condenser. This component of the plate current is impressed
upon the grid circuit of the second valve through the coupling M.
Through the medium of the grid potentiometer P-l the second tube is
adjusted for the best amplification of the impressed audio frequency
current. The condenser C of valve No. 1 may be dispensed with and the
valve adjusted for assymetrical relaying by providing a special grid
battery, as with valve No. 2.
In practice, a simpler circuitf for audio frequency amplification
than that shown in Figure 32 has been employed. Generally, three
valves are connected in cascade, being coupled together through simple
iron core transformers between the output and input circuits of suc-
cessive valves. No attempt is made to tune these transformers to the
desired frequency.
Although the apparatus shown in Figure 32 is designed primarily

for the amplification of audio frequencies, some of the radio frequency
energy of the plate circuit of the first valve is impressed upon the grid
circuit of the second valve through the electrostatic capacity of the
windings of M, and detected in the last valve. It may then be amplified
by a regenerative circuit or a radio frequency amplification circuit.
A single coil, i.e., an auto-transformer, may be substituted for the
transformer M.
*Some transformers of this type have primary inductance of 15 henries and

secondary inductance of approximately 90 henries.
fin one type of commercial cascade amplifier, an oddly constructed trans-

former is employed between the plate and the grid circuit of the successive
valves. The primary winding of the audio frequency transformer is inserted in
series with the plate circuit in the usual manner, but the secondary winding is
left open-circuited, that is to say, one terminal is connected to the grid of the
valve but the other terminal remains free. By this manner of coupling it is
possible to employ a single battery to light the filaments of all valves. Arm-
strong mentions that leaving the secondary circuit open permits the grid to
assume a potential suitable to amplification.
o ca
22. COMBINED RADIO AND AUDIO FREQUENCY

CASCADE AMPLIFIER. By means of the connections shown in
Figure 33, the radio and audio frequency components of the plate or
output circuit of one valve may be amplified simultaneously through a
second valve.
In this system, the audio frequency component of the plate circuit
is impressed upon the grid circuit of the second valve through trans-
former M. Condenser 0-3 serves as a by-pass for the radio frequency
currents around the audio frequency inductance L-5. Condenser 0-2
serves to tune the plate circuit to the incoming oscillations (the radio
frequency component of the plate current) and 0-5 tunes the grid cir-
cuit of the second valve to the same frequency, the radio frequency cur-
rent of the plate circuit being impressed upon the grid circuit of the
second valve through the coupling i-3, LA. Condenser 0-4 acts to
by-pass the radio frequency current in the grid circuit of the second valve
around the audio frequency coil L-6. Potentiometer P-2 shunting bat-
tery B-6 enables the operator to obtain the best relaying characteristic
of valve No. 2.
As usual, a grid condenser can be inserted in the circuit of valve

No. and the relaying action obtained without the potentiometer. The
2,
battery B-Q is preferably shunted by a condenser of fixed capacity.
At first sight, the circuits shown in this chapter seem complicated
in structure and difficult of adjustment, but it should be understood
that if the tuner is designed for a given range of wave lengths, it is
not necessary to re-adjust each element of the circuit to select a new
wave length. For example, the apparatus could readily be designed so
that the principal adjustments for resonance are obtained at the primary
coil, the secondary condenser, the grid circuit condenser, and plate
circuit condenser. Aslight variation of the grid circuit potentiometer
is necessary for the louder strength of signals.
PART IV
THE REGENERATIVE VACUUM VALVE
AMPLIFIER
23. IN GENERAL. The preceding chapter is devoted to ampli-
fication by cascade connection of a number of valves. This section
will be devoted to the regenerative system of amplification whereby iliu
strength of the incoming radio signals is increased within the same

bulb. circuits were first leported by Captain
Experiments with such
Edwin H. Armstrong, whose researches have been fully described in
the September 1915, issue of "Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
' '
Engineers.
24. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. We have already

shown that the vacuum valve acts as a repeater of radio frequency
currents, i.e., if an oscillating voltage is applied to the grid and filament,

the plate current will oscillate at the same frequency. Also through the
use of a grid condenser during the reception of damped oscillations the
plate current varies simultaneously at an audio and a radio frequency ;
or through the employment of a grid battery, we can adjust the grid
potential so that the increase of the plate current for each incoming
semi-cycle will exceed the decrease or vice versa and what in effect
amounts to a rectified current flows in the plate circuit. Careful con-
sideration of these fundamental actions will assist the student to under-
stand the functioning of the regenerative receiver.
We shall disclose in this chaper circuits whereby either the audio
or radio frequency component of the plate current can be impressed
upon the grid of the same valve and thus reinforced. The circuits
through which such amplifications are obtained are known as "regenera-
tive" or "repeater" circuits. Abroad, they are termed "re-action"
circuits.
62
25. THE PRINCIPLE OF REGENERATION. We have al-
ready set forth how

variation of the grid potential of the three electrode
vacuum valve changes the strength of the plate current and that a very
;
slight change in the grid potential, the proper bulb characteristic

if is
secured, results in a relatively large change in the plate current.

The characteristic curve of the valve indicates that if by any means
the grid potential is reinforced above and below the maximum value
supplied by the incoming radio signal, a still greater change in the
telephone current is bound to follow.
Since, during the reception of radio signals the plate current varies
at the frequency of the incoming oscillations it will be seen that if this
radio frequency component of the plate current can be impressed upon
the grid circuit in synchronism with the incoming signals, the energy of
the original signal will be increased, i.e., regeneration will result.
In brief, regenerative coupling is secured by coupling the plate and
grid circuits, inductively, conductively, or electrostatically. Electrostatic
coupling may be furnished by the tube itself.
26. RADIO FREQUENCY REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT.

A system for the regeneration of radio frequencies first disclosed by
Captain Edwin H. Armstrong is shown (in simple form) in Figure 34.
In this diagram, the plate or output circuit of the valve is coupled
\
Figure 34 ^-^*~~ P-l
Simple regenerative receiver for the amplification of radio fre-
quencies.
through the radio frequency transformer

to its grid or input circuit M
with the primary and secondary windings P and 8 respectively. (The
radio frequency components of the plate current are the cycles of Figure
35 which curve is partially reproduced from Figure 27.)
(a) Phenomena of Regeneration. Just how the regenerative sys-

tem amplifies the incoming signals may be explained more in detail, as
follows :A very small amount of the energy applied to the grid circuit
will release a considerably greater amount of energy on the plate circuit.
Part of the energy liberated in the plate circuit is in turn impressed upon
the grid circuit through the coupling transformers and the difference
between the maximum and minimum potential difference between the
grid and filament accordingly increased. Increased energy is then
liberated in the plate circuit, but this regenerative process cannot con-
tinue indefinitely for the final amplitude of the regenerated current is
Figure 35
Radio frequency component of the continuous
plate current.
Figure 36
Graphs showing the phenomena of regeneration.
governed by the limitations explained in paragraph 12. Then if an

oscillating E.M.F. is impressed upon the grid it is repeated in the plate
circuit and through coupling to the grid circuit the energy of the original
current is increased.
The effects of regenerative coupling be shown by the curves A
may
and B, Figure 36. Curve A shows the amplitude of the incoming radio
frequency currents, and curve B the increased number of oscillations

due to regeneration. If the coupling of the regenerative transformer,
such as Min Figure 34, is very close the system will be set into self-
oscillation (at a frequency determined by the inductance and capacity
of the circuit) as shown in the curve of Figure 37 but this is a condition
;
of affairs not yet desired in the circuits under consideration.
(b)Adjustment of Regenerative Amplifier. In order that the

maximum strength of signals may be obtained from a spark transmitter
by means of the regenerative system, it is essential that the coupling
of the transformer M*
be very carefully adjusted, because (it will be
recognized from the curves of Figure 36 ) if the coupling is too close, the
Figure 37
Graph showing the continuous oscillations resulting
when the grid and plate circuits of the vacuum tube
are closely coupled.
oscillations for each spark at the transmitter will not decay to zero
before the next group is impressed upon the valve circuits. Conse-
quently, the desired change of current through the head telephone will
not be obtained. It must be kept in mind here, that it is not alone the
amount of current flowing through the head telephone which produces
the greatest strength of signals, but it is the change or variation in the
strength of current as well, which deflects the telephone diaphragm.
The apparatus shown in Figure 34 does not differ materially from
vacuum valve shown in Figure 28, for
that of the tuned circuit for the
in Figure 28 the internal capacity of the tube acts as the regenerative
coupling. The complete functioning of the regenerative circuit may be
summed up in the following statements:
(1) The incoming oscillations are repeated in the plate circuit, rein-
forced through coupling to the grid circuit, causing still
greater variation of the grid potential; in the meanwhile,
through rectification, a charge piles up in the grid condenser
which is negative on the grid side of the condenser. This
partially obstructs the flow of electrons to the plate, and
thereby reduces the strength of the plate current.
(2) At the termination of the wave train the charge in the grid con-
denser leaks off through the shunt resistance, the grid returns
to normal potential, and the plate current returns to normal
value.
*The statement applies equally well to electrostatic coupling between the

grid and plate circuits.
Amplifications of fifty fold are thus secured.

In practice, the best operating characteristic of the regenerative
circuit of figure 34 may be secured in the following manner :
(1) Close the circuit from B-l through filament F. Find the correct
degree of incandescence either by trial or by a small ammeter
connected in series with the battery.
(2) Adjust the E.M.F. of battery B-2 near to the value necessary for
the correct operating characteristic (which may be deter-
mined in advance in the laboratory or may be found by
experiment.)
(3) While tuning the open and closed circuits of the receiving tuner
to the distant transmitter use small values of capacities at
C-l, and relatively large values of inductance at L-2.
(4) Adjust the coupling of regenerative transformer M until maximum
strength of signals is secured.
The function of condenser (7-2 is to by-pass the radio frequency
component of the plate current around the head telephone. Its capacity
is generally fixed. The apparatus will function without this condenser,
the required capacity being found in the parallel cords of the head
telephone.
27. TUNED PLATE CIRCUITS. We have illustrated in Figure

28, paragraph 18), the tuned plate circuit of Armstrong. It was
(see
mentioned that amplification of the incoming signal is thus secured.
Either the radio or audio frequency component of the plate current
may be amplified by proper tuning.
The explanation given by Armstrong for the operation of this cir-
cuit is somewhat as follows :
When the grid circuit is not in a state of oscillation, the potential

difference between the plate and filament will be nearly that of the bat-
tery B-2, but during the reception of radio oscillations, the potential
difference between the plate and filament varies accordingly as the
reactance voltage of the coil L-3 assists or opposes the voltage of the
local battery B-2.
Then the current in the plate circuit decreases, the reactance

if
voltage (due to the collapsing lines of force about L-3) will be in the
same direction as the voltage of the battery B-2, and therefore there will
be an increase of potential difference between the plate and filament.
But when the current from battery B-2 increases, the reactance voltage
of L-3 will oppose that of the battery decreasing the potential difference
between the plate and filament.
It is clear from the preceding explanations regarding the function-
ing of the three-electrode tube, that when a negative charge is impressed
upon the grid, the plate current (the circuit of B-2) decreases, but when
a positive charge is applied to the grid, the plate current increases.

Hence, when the filament and grid are connected to a source of radio
frequency oscillations, the current in the plate circuit varies as the
applied frequency.
Then, when a negative charge is placed on the grid, the plate cur-
rent is reduced and the reactance voltage of the coil L-3 acts in the same
direction as B-2 and increases the potential difference between the plate
and the filament drawing more electrons out on the grid. This increases
the charge in the condenser formed by the plate and grid, and the
energy for this increased charge is furnished by the inductance L-3 as
the battery current of B-2, decreases.
The increased negative charge on the grid tends to produce a still

further decrease in the plate current which causes a still further dis-
charge of energy from the plate inductance L-3 into the grid circuit.
But when a positive charge is placed on the grid the plate current
is increased and the reactance voltage of L-3 opposes the voltage of the
battery B-2. This reduces the potential difference between the grid and
plate, and therefore a part of the energy stored up in the condenser
formed by the grid and plate is given back to the plate inductance.
It is at this moment during the cycle that electrons are drawn into
the grid in accordance with the valve action and during a group of in-
coming oscillations a charge is gradually trapped in the condenser C-2
which at the termination of a wave train leaks off the grid exerting the
usual relaying action on the plate current. This relaying action, during
the reception of damped oscillations, occurs at an audio frequency.
We then see the necessity for resonance between the plate and grid
circuits. In order that the transference of energy from the plate to the
grid circuit may take place in synchronism with the incoming oscillations,
the circuit L-3 and the condenser formed by the self-capacity of the
valve must possess substantially the same natural frequency. Then
energy will be transferred from the plate to the grid circuit at the proper
time to increase the final amplitude of the incoming oscillations, i.e., re-
generation will result. This is substantially, electrostatic regenerative
coupling.
In order that the tuning of the plate circuit may be effective at the
lower frequencies corresponding to the longer wave lengths, the coil Z/-3
should be shunted by the condenser (7-3 as shown by the dotted lines.
Armstrong states that the circuit will then function at wave lengths
in excess of 10,000 meters.
Other methods for tuning the plate circuit are shown in Figures 38,
39, and40. In Figure 38, resonance is secured by the variable induct-
ance L-3 which at the lower oscillation frequencies is shunted by con-

denser C-3 (of approximately .001 microfarad capacity). Condenser C-2
acts as a by-pass for the radio frequency currents around the head tele-
phone and battery. Its capacity may be fixed. The primary coil of the
regenerative coupler P is a part of the tuning circuit.
c-s
P-I
Figure 38
Armstrong's regenerative system (with a tuned plate circuit) for
the amplification of radio frequencies.
Figure 39 ' C-z

Second method of tuning the plate circuit in a regenerative system.
In Figure 39 the plate circuit is tuned by inductance P and eon-

denser C-3, which are proportioned for resonance with the incoming
signal.
A third method of tuning the plate circuit is shown in Figure 40,
wherein battery B-2 and head telephone P-l are shunted by condenser
C-3, and coils L-3 and P. Resonance may be established either by varia-
tion of C-3 or L-3. Generally, in practice, L-3 is fixed, tuning being ac-
complished through condenser (7-3. This tuned plate circuit is essentially
"X"
the circuit developed by Weagant which is described in paragraphs
44 and 45.
28. AUDIO FREQUENCY REGENERATIVE SYSTEM.

The audio frequency component of the plate current can be re-enforced
to amplify the incoming signal by the regenerative transformer Figure M ,
41. Windings P and S have inductance of approximately one henry each

or more. Condenser C-2 serves to by-pass the radio frequency current
of the incoming signal, and if of variable capacity, permits circuit S, C-2
to be tuned to the audio frequency component of the plate circuit.
C-3
Figure 40
Third method of tuning the plate circuit in a regenerative system.
The circuit, in brief, functions as follows: As the incoming oscilla-

tions are rectified and trapped in the grid condenser G, the plate current
is gradually reduced (due to the increasing negative potential of the
grid). The resulting reduction and subsequent increase of the con-
tinuous plate current in turn causes winding P to act inductively upon S,
charging the condenser C-2 which discharges into the grid circuit caus-
ing still greater variation of the plate current. Audio frequency currents
are thus amplified.
29. COMBINED AUDIO AND RADIO FREQUENCY RE-

GENERATIVE SYSTEM. We shall now consider a regenerative sys-
tem through which both the audio and radio frequency components of the
plate current may be amplified through the same bulb. The working of
this system will be readily understood by one who has studied the previous
regenerative systems.
The circuit is shown in Figure 42. Here M-2 is a radio frequency
transformer through which the radio frequency component of the plate

current is re-enforced through the grid G.
Transformer M-l is an iron-core audio frequency coupling for ampli-
fying the audio frequency component of the plate circuit, the primary
P being shunted by (7-3, and the secondary S by condenser (7-2.
R-I--
/wwvwv\
Ik
Figure 41
The circuits of an audio frequency regenerative amplifier.
Condenser tunes circuit P, (7-3 to the desired audio frequency

(7-3
and condenser performs the double function of providing a path for

(7-2
the radio frequency current through the grid circuit and tuning circuit
(7-2, S to the audio frequency component. Condenser (7-4 provides a path
for the radio frequency current around the head telephones P-2. Induct-
ance L-3 tunes the plate circuit to the incoming signal.
This circuit was first published by Armstrong, who declares that
with relatively weak incoming signals a total amplification of 100 is ob-
tained. Some difficulty is experienced in keeping this system in stable
operation.
30. ELECTRO-STATIC AND DIRECT MAGNETIC COUPL-

ING. Additional regenerative circuits* devised by Captain Armstrong
are shown in Figures 43 and 44. The grid and plate circuits in Figure
43 are coupled electrostatically through condenser (7-1 and the coil M
of audio frequency dimensions completes the circuit for the plate current.
According to Armstrong the apparatus shown in Figure 43 func-
tions as follows : When
a positive charge is placed on the grid an increase
in the plate current results, the alternating component of the wing cur-
*See Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Sept., 1915, Vol. 3,

No. 3.
sg.
rent charging the condenser 0-1, and the sum of the currents through C-l
and Mequalling the current through the valve. When a negative charge
is placed upon the grid, the current through the valve is reduced and
the coil M discharges into condenser (7-1, charging it in the opposite
way to that caused by the increase of the plate current. In either case
C-l discharges through the grid circuit re-enforcing the oscillations
therein.
Figure 43
Showing the circuits of Armstrong's regenerative system wherein
the plate and grid circuits are electrostatically coupled through a
condenser (C-l).
Figure 43a
Ultra-audion circuit for regenerative amplification.
A modification of the arrangement of Figure 43 is in use, known

under the trade name of "ultra audion." The circuit arrangement is
shown in Figure 43a. Its operation is the same as that of Figure 43
except that radio frequencies alone are regeneratively amplified. It will
be seen that this mode of using the coupling condenser C-l in shunt to
both the battery and the telephones results in apparently connecting the
secondary oscillation circuit between the grid and plate. This is more
apparent than real, however, as it is effectively connected to the filament
through the coupling condenser 0-1.
Figure 44
Direct magnetic coupling between the plate and grid circuits of
the vacuum tube.
The circuit of Figure 44 functions like Figure 34, conductive regen-

erative coupling (M) instead of inductive coupling being used.
31. THE "REACTION" CIRCUITS OF FRANKLIN AND

MARCONI. It is customary in England to speak of regenerative cir-
cuits as "reaction" circuits. The term, in general, refers to a valve
circuit in which the grid and plate circuits are coupled magnetically or
electrostatically.
An by Franklin, of Marconi's Wireless
interesting circuit developed
Telegraph Company, Ltd., shown
is in Figure 45. It is to be noted in
this diagram that the grid and plate circuits are coupled at LA and L-5 ;
that the plate circuit is tuned by L-5, L-6, 0-1 and that the secondary
;
circuit of the receiving tuner L-3, L-4, 0, is tuned to resonance with

the incoming signal by variable condenser 0. Furthermore, the potential
of the grid in respect to the filament is adjusted by battery JB-3 shunted
by potentiometer P-l.
So far, the circuit does not
differ from previous regenerative systems.
It will be seen, however, that the plate tuning and coupling elements
L-5, L-6, and 0-1 are shunted by a crystal rectifier circuit D, P-2, 0-2,
P-3, 5-4, the circuit being similar to the closed or secondary circuit of the
usual receiving tuner.
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The advantage of a circuit of this kind is as follows : Assume that

the incoming signals are too weak to give response in a simple crystal
rectifying circuit then they may be amplified by the vacuum tube in

:
the usual manner. Further amplification may be secured through the

reaction coupling L-4, L-5. Suppose, however, the output current of the
valve increases and decreases by equal amounts so that a telephone if
placed in the plate circuit would give no response. (This has been
explained in paragraph 20). Then the radio frequency component of
the circuitmay be detected by simple rectification through the crystal D;
that is,the amplitude of the positive or negative halves of the plate
if
current have equal value, a telephone connected in series will give no

response, but by connecting the crystal rectifier as shown in the diagram,
the radio frequency component is rectified and made audible in the head
telephone.
Another advantage over the simple crystal rectifier is thus secured,
viz., increased selectivity due to the following phenomenon. Normally,
let us say the incoming signal is highly damped, consisting of but a few
oscillations: the additional energy liberated by the plate circuit through

the reaction coupling actually increases the number of oscillations and
therefore the circuit acts like one in which the damping has been reduced,
i.e., it permits better discrimination between signals of different wave

length (or frequency).*
Crystal rectified D, obviously, can be replaced by a two-electrode or
three-electrode vacuum valve, or by a battery of valves if desired. The
system of Figure 45 is applicable to the reception of damped or undamped
oscillations.
32. SIMPLE REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT. The circuit shown

inFigure 46 has been much used for the reception of damped and un-
damped oscillations. It is merely an elaboration of that shown in Figure
43a. A
point of departure from other systems is the method of connect-
ing the terminals of the secondary coil L-2 to the valve. One terminal
connects through the grid condenser C to the grid G, and the opposite
terminal to the plate P. There has been much argument concerning the
functioning of this circuit, but careful scrutiny reveals that the grid and
plate circuits are electrostatically coupled through condenser C-2. Ad-
ditional magnetic coupling is afforded through coils L-3 and L-4, but as
first used, the condenser (7-2 provided the entire regenerative coupling.
The inductive coupling permits a greater amount of energy to be sup-
plied to the grid circuit by the plate circuit, and is useful for giving
*This, of course, is true of all regenerative circuits.

stability in the reception of undamped oscillations by the beat method

(to be described more in detail further on).
The diagram of Figure 46 shows how the plate circuit of a
also
vacuum valve may be fed with from a dynamo. Ordi-
direct current
narily the fluctuations of current due to the commutator would cause an
HO -500V.
D.C.
Figure 46
Showing how the plate circuit of a vacuum tube may be energized
by a direct current dynamo. The strength of the local current is regu-
lated by the potentiometer P-l, and the fluctuations of the dynamo cur-
rent due to the commutator are smoothed out by the condenser C-4.
Inductive regenerative coupling is provided between the coils L-3 and
L-4, and electrostatic regenerative coupling by the telephone condenser
C-2. The coil L-4 is often termed the "tickler" coil.
interfering"hum" in the receiving telephones, but this is largely pre-

vented by shunting to the D. C. line a condenser of large capacity, (7-4,
which has the effect of smoothing out the current, that is to say, when
the current generated by the dynamo decreases, the energy stored up
in the condenser 0-4 discharges through the circuit and maintains the
line voltage at a nearly constant value. Potentiometer P-l, permits the
plate voltage to be adjusted to the requisite value, and condenser (7-3 acts
as a by-pass for the incoming radio frequency currents.
PART V
COMBINED REGENERATIVE AND CASCADE
AMPLIFICATION SYSTEMS
33. IN GENERAL. We next come to amplification circuits which
embrace the two systems of amplification previously described, namely,
the regenerative amplifier and the cascade amplifier. Other circuits than
those described herein can be devised by the experimenter, the connec-
tions for which will suggest themselves to one who has studied previous
chapters.
34. REGENERATIVE CASCADE SYSTEMS. In the diagram

of Figure 47, is shown a system in which the incoming oscillations are
amplified in the first valve through regenerative coupling, the ampli-
fied radio frequency component of the plate current being impressed
upon the grid and filament of the second valve where it is further ampli-
fied by a second regenerative coupling, the amplified energy finally being
rectified and trapped in the grid condenser of the last valve.
The student who has carefully studied the principle of operation of
the apparatus noted in connection with previous diagrams will readily
recognize the features of Figure 47.
First, the potential of the grid in respect to the filament of the
first valve adjusted by the grid battery, 5-3, and the potentiometer
is
P-3. Second, if the voltage of the plate circuit and the temperature of
the filament are adjusted to operate upon the slope A', B of the char-
f
acteristic curve (Figure 22), substantially equal increases and decreases

of the plate current will be secured for a given incoming radio fre-
quency current and a distortionless radio frequency current obtained in
the plate circuit of the first valve.
Part of the energy liberated by the plate circuit of the first valve is
impressed upon its grid circuit through the radio frequency transformer
77
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M which, in turn, causes an amplified radio frequency current in the

t
plate circuit, P, P-l, C-2. Through the radio frequency transformer

31-1, this current is impressed upon the grid circuit of the second valve,
8-1, L-3, (7-3, LA.
The incoming signal is then repeated in the plate circuit L-5, C-5,
L-6, of the second valve where it is further amplified through the re-
generative coupling M-2. The amplified radio frequency currents are
finally rectified to charge the grid condenser (7-4, which exerts a relay-
ing action on the plate current of the second valve at an audio frequency.
Although the plate circuit of the second valve is tuned by the coils L-5,
L 6 and the condenser (7-5, an untuned circuit may be employed.
It is not always essential in a system of this kind that the plate cir-
cuit of the first valve be tuned to the incoming radio frequency currents,
but for the best signals it is of prime importance that the grid circuits of
both valves be thus tuned. This is accomplished mainly by condensers
C-l, and (7-3, the usual secondary condensers. Variation of L-2, L-3, L-4,
P-l, etc., is necessary to obtain a wide range of frequencies.
In practice, the coupling of transformer M-l is very close and is
usually fixed. Very careful adjustment of the couplings M or M-2 is
necessary, or otherwise the valves will be set into self-oscillation at an

audio or radio frequency.
Summarizing the functioning of the circuit of Figure 47 :
(1) The incoming radio frequency oscillations are repeated in the

plate circuit of the first valve and amplified through the re-
generative coupling M, then impressed upon the grid of the
second valve through M-l, and further amplified through
coupling M-2.
(2) This amplified current is rectified by the valve action between
G and F and over the duration of a wave train a charge piles
up in the grid condenser C-4.
(3) The charge in this condenser raises the potential of the grid to
a high negative value, reducing the plate current.
(4) At the termination of the wave train this charge leaks out the
grid condenser and the plate current returns to normal value.
This variation of the plate or telephone current occurs at an
audio frequency.
This circuit will function with or without the grid condenser (7-4
of the second valve. A
battery with a potentiometer may be connected
in the grid circuit and the potential
of the grid in respect to the filament
adjusted until an assymetrical relaying effect is obtained in valve No. 2.
Condenser C acts as a by-pass for the radio frequency currents around
the potentiometer.
35. AUDIO FREQUENCY REGENERATIVE AND CAS-

CADE SYSTEMS. By employing the connections shown in Figure 48,
WTO* CO .H 0) ..
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3 2S
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02 rt a
the radio frequency component of the plate circuit of the first valve is
firstamplified by the regenerative coupling M
and then, through the iron
core transformer M-l, the audio frequency component of the plate cur-
rent impressed upon the grid and plate of the second valve.
is
In this diagram, the circuit of the first valve includes the grid con-
denser C, in which the incoming oscillations are trapped after rectifica-
tion. The iron core transformer M-l has the primary winding P-l and
the secondary winding $-1 which is connected to the grid or input circuit
of the second valve. Condenser 0-2 acts as a by-pass for the radio fre-
quency currents of the plate circuit around the audio frequency in-
ductance P-l. The audio frequency current impressed upon the grid
circuit of the second valve is increased in amplitude by tuning the grid
circuit through the shunt condenser 0-3. The inductance of P-l and $-1
may be several henries. A step-up ratio of turns is usually employed.
The
potential of the grid circuit of the second valve is adjusted
to secure the maximum signals through potentiometer P-l and battery
5-3.
In practice as many as six valves have been connected in cascade
with the connections of either Figure 47 or 48.
Generally, however, three
commercial requirements.
valves will give sufficient amplification for all
An audio frequency regenerative coupling might be employed with the

second valve of Figure 48.
PART VI
THE VACUUM TUBE AS A DETECTOR OF
CONTINUOUS WAVES. AUDIO FREQUENCY
TUNING CIRCUITS. SPECIAL CIRCUITS
FOR THE VACUUM TUBE
36. RECEPTION OF CONTINUOUS OSCILLATIONS. The
problems encountered in the reception of continuous waves in radio
telegraphy have been reviewed briefly in the introduction. The vacuum
tube can be connected in many ways for the reception of continuous
waves as will be shown in the circuits following.
By way of preliminary explanation, we may assume that a simple

crystal rectifier is connected in the circuit of the usual receiving trans-
former, and that the complete receiving system is tuned to a continuous

wave transmitter;as has already been shown, a rectified current of con-
tinuous amplitude or uniform intensity would flow through the tele-
phone. Because the frequency of these rectified or direct-current pulses
is above audibility, no sound will be obtained from the telephone dia-
phragm except at the opening and closing of the circuit. Let, however,
a mechanical interrupter, such as the well-known "tikker" or "slipping
contact" detector, be connected in some circuit of the receiving system,
and be adjusted to interrupt the incoming signals from 600 to 900 times
per second ;
then the telephone will be energized periodically at an audio
frequency.
These interruptions (by the tikker) do not take place in synchronism
with the incoming oscillations, that is, energy is discharged into the tele-
phones at different portions on the cycles of the incoming oscillations,
and as a consequence a somewhat irregular deflection of the telephone
diaphragm is obtained. In other words, the note produced in the tele-
phone lacks the musical characteristic so desirable for working through
"
atmospheric electricity. This defect is partially obviated by the slip-
82
ping" contact detector, which impulses the telephone diaphragm at a
slightly more uniform rate.
Thesolution of the problem is largely attained by a form of the

"tikker" known as the tone-wheel, which converts the incoming oscilla-
tions into a practically uniform current of audio frequency. The signal
is therefore heard as a musical note in the telephone. This desired
obtained by driving the "tikker" or circuit interrupter at such
effect is
speed that the receiving circuits are interrupted at a rate slightly off
synchronism with the incoming currents, thus producing in the tele-
phone receiver a note having a frequency corresponding to the difference
between the actual speed and the synchronous speed.
To illustrate its action: If the frequency of the incoming oscilla-
tions at any receiving station is50,000 cycles per second, and the tikker
interrupts the circuit 50,000 times per second (in exact synchronism or
at the peak of every other alternation), then either the positive or nega-
tive half of the incoming oscillations will be suppressed and the tele-
phone will be traversed by uni-directional impulses of radio frequency.
If,however, the "tikker" interrupts the circuit at a rate different than

the fundamental frequency, say, 49,500 times per second, the wave form
is interrupted at points on and off the successive peaks, which results in
the production of an audio frequency current, the frequency of which

is the difference between the frequency of the incoming signals and the
interruptions of the tikker. In the problem cited, the telephone dia-

phragm will be deflected 500 times per second.
Although the Goldschmidt tone-wheel is practicable for radio re-

ception at low frequencies from 25,000 to 60,000 per second, it is not
so at the higher frequencies such as 500,000 cycles per second corres-
ponding to the wave length of 600 meters. The mechanical problems in-
volved in the construction of a device to interrupt the circuit one-half
million times per second are too obvious for discussion.
Another system for obtaining audible response from radio frequency

currents is known as the beat receiver. A musical note is secured in the-
telephone in this system, the pitch of which may be varied within the
limits of audibility.
The underlying principle of operation follows: Two radio fre-

quency currents of slightly different frequency superposed upon the
same circuit, interact and produce a third current termed a "beat" cur-
rent.* By proper selection of the interacting frequencies the frequencies
of the beats may range from 200 to 1,000 cycles per second.
*See page 5.
For example, if the antenna circuit of a receiving system is adjusted

to a transmitterwhose frequency of oscillation is 50,000 cycles per second,
and there is induced in some part of the receiving system a locally gen-
erated radio frequency current of 49,500 cycles per second, beat currents
of a frequency of 500 per second will result. The beat currents may
then be rectified to energize a magnetic head telephone in the usual
manner.
37. THE THEORY OF THE BEAT RECEIVER. The gen-

eral theory of the beat receiver be explained by the curves, Figures
may
49 to 52 inclusive. We have stated in the previous paragraph, that the
X-
Figure 49
Showing the current curve resulting from the addition of two cur-
rents of the same frequency but of different amplitude applied to the
same circuit.
requisite current of audio frequency for operation of the head telephone

receiver in the beat system of continuous wave reception, is obtained
from the interaction of two radio frequency currents of slightly different
frequency. Just how this audio frequency current is obtained, can best
be understood by comparing the action of two currents of the same fre-

quency which reach their maximum and minimum amplitudes simul-
taneously or at different moments that is, two currents of the same fre-
;
quency applied to the same circuit identical in phase, or out of phase.

Let the diagram of Figure 49 represent two currents in exact phase
in a given circuit, i.e-, currents that reach their maximum and minimum
amplitudes simultaneously, but possess different amplitudes. Curve X-l
has a maximum value of 10 milliamperes, and curve X-2, 15 milliamperes.
The resultant current will have the maximum amplitude shown by the
12
at certain portions of the cycle these two currents oppose. At P, Figure

50, the value of current X-l is 6 milliamperes and of X-2, 13 milli-
amperes. The amplitude of the resultant current X-3 is 6 + 13, or 19
milliamperes. Again at Point P-l, the value of current X-l is +8 milli-
amperes and of current X-2 8 milliamperes. The amplitude of the
resultant current, therefore, is zero, as shown at point A on the horizontal
axis B, C.
their maximum values, while at other moments they are 180 out of phase
and the amplitude of the resultant current is zero. At all intermediate
points, the two currents either add up or substract.
The interaction of the two currents causes a periodic variation of
the amplitude of the resultant current which occurs at a frequency dif-
ferent from either of the applied frequencies. This resultant current
is called a "beat" current, and it can be shown that the frequency of
the beat current isequal to the numerical difference of the two applied
frequencies. Thus, if a current of 50,000 cycles per second interacts
with another current of 49,500 cycles per second, the frequency of the
leat currents will be 50,000 49,500 or 500 per second.
INCOMING
OSCILLATIONS
wvwwvwv OSCILLATIONS
Figure 52
Graphs showing the beat currents resulting from
the interaction of two currents of different frequency.
It follows that if a current of 100,000 cycles per second interacts

with another of 101,000 cycles per second, the frequency of the "beats"
will be 1,000 per second, and so on. The production of beats by the in-
teraction of two currents can best be explained by the diagram of Figure
52, wherein the line 0-1 represents a current of 250,000 cycles per
second, and the line 0-2 a superposed current of 200,000 cycles per
second. The frequency of the beat current shown on line 0-3 in this
case is 50,000 cycles per second, which is, of course, above the limits of
audibility and will produce no sound in the telephone received. (A dif-
ference of frequency so great as this had to be selected in order that
several cycles of the resultant beat current could be plotted to scale.)
It is now clear that by proper selection of the frequencies of the
interacting currents beats of any desired audio frequency may be secured.

We may review the foregoing facts as follows :
(1) If two currents of the same frequency andlike phase flow in a

amplitude of the resultant current will be the sum
circuit, the
of the amplitudes of the individual currents.
(2) It two currents of dissimilar phase but of similar frequency flow

in a circuit, the amplitude of the resulting current is found
by adding their amplitudes at any particular moment.
(3) If the currents dift'er in phase by 180 the amplitude of the re-
sultant current will be zero if the two currents are of
identical amplitude, or if of different amplitude the resultant
current will be the difference of the amplitude of the two
currents.
(4) If two currents of unequal frequency are applied to a nîven
circuit, they will add or subtract their amplitudes periodically
resulting in the production of a beat current the frequency
of which is the numerical difference of the two applied
frequencies.
We shall presently see how this principle is applied to the recep-

tion of undamped or continuous waves in radio telegraphy.
38. THE SIMPLE HETERODYNE.

It has been already ex-
plained that if a receiving antenna and associated receiver circuits con-

taining a simple rectifier are tuned to a continuous wave transmitter,
the receiving telephone will be traversed by a uni-directional current as
Figure 53
Showing the rectified current pulses in the local
telephone circuit of a receiving system containing a
simple rectifier.
0-2
Figure 54
Showing how the amplitude of direct current
pulses (above audition) can be varied at an audio
frequency.
shown in graph 0-1, Figure 53. This represents the rectified current
of an incoming group of oscillations. The individual pulses of the
graph occur at a radio frequency and therefore, the telephone emits no
sound. But if by local means we cause the amplitude of these pulses
to fluctuate periodically at an audio frequency as shown in graph 0-1,
Figure 54, sound will be produced because the telephone diaphragm will
be deflected at rates varying as the periodic fluctuations of the rectified
current.
The telephone current will be approximately that of the graph 0-2,
in which successive curves A, B, G represent the average effect of the
individual groups of pulses in the graph 0-1. This is what occurs in
the circuits of the simple heterodyne receiver shown in Figure 55.
As in the usual receiving circuit employing a crystal or solid recti-
fier, the primary winding is represented by the coil Zr-1, the secondary
winding by the coil L-2, the crystal detector by D, the shunt secondary
condenser by (7-2, the telephone condenser by 0-1, and the head tele-
phone by P. A
radio frequency alternator of variable frequency A-l, is
inductively coupled through L-3 to the antenna coil LA.
The operation of this system in brief is as follows Assume that the
:
antenna circuit L-l, LA, A, E, is tuned to 8,000 meters, the oscillation

' '
frequency of this circuit is or, 37,500 cycles per second. The

8,000
frequency of the current induced in the secondary circuit L-2, 0-2 and
impressed across the oscillation detector D, is also 37,500 cycles per
second, and, for reasons already explained, the telephone diaphragm
emits no sound. But if the frequency of the alternator is 36,500 cycles
A-i
v C-3
Figure 55
The circuits of a simple beat receiver. Local oscillations are gen-
erated by the radio frequency alternator, vacuum tube or arc generator
A-l. The resulting beat currents are detected in the circuit L-2, C-2, D,
C-l, P.
per second, the amplitude of the oscillations in the entire system will be
varied from a maximum to a minimum at a rate due to the difference of
37,500 and 36,500 or 1,000 per second, i.e., the frequency of the "beat"
currents will be 1,000 per second. These beats in turn are rectified by
the detector D
and 1,000 pulses of direct current per second energize the
telephone P.
The same beat frequency will be obtained if the alternator A-l is
adjusted for 38,500 cycles per second; that is, the frequency of the
"beats" in every case equals the difference of the two applied frequencies.
By changing the frequency of the alternator A-\ the receiving opera-
J
tor can change the pitch of the beat note from, say, 200 cycles to 1,000
cycles per second or beyond the limits of audibility. Not only can the
note be varied according to the desire of the operator, but it can be
shown that the efficiency of the receiver is thus increased, i.e., amplifica-
tion of the incoming signal is secured.
INCOMING
OSCILATIONS
O-i
o-z
BEAT CURRENT
RECTIFIED
BEAT CURRENT
O-4
AAAflfJA.aAA
PERIODIC
TELEPHONE CURRENT
0-5
Figure 56
Curves showing the functioning of the beat receiver.
(a) Curves of the Beat Receiver in Radio. The complete pro-

cesses involved in the detection of continuous oscillations by this method
56
(Figure 55) are shown graphically in the series of curves. Figure ;
where 0-1 represents the incoming oscillations 0-2, the locally generated
;
current 0-3, the resulting beat current 0-4 the rectified beat current
; ; ;
and 0-5, the approximate telephone current. It is to be noted that the

amplitude of the beat current exceeds the amplitude of either the locally
generated current or that of the incoming signal.
It would be well for the student here, to bear in mind that the radio
frequency alternator A-l can be replaced by:

(1) An arc generator such as the Poulsen type.
(2) A vacuum tube oscillator.
The complete circuit for (2) is shown and described in paragraph 41.
39. SELECTIVITY BY THE HETERODYNE. In addition to

the selectivity afforded by the usual radio frequency tuning of the re-
ceiver circuits, an additional discrimination between different stations
operating near the same wave is secured by reason of the beat phe-
nomenon.
If the frequency of the incoming oscillations from the station desired
is,for example, 37,500 cycles, per second (A =

8,000 meters) and the
frequency of the local oscillations 36,500 cycles (A =
8,219 meters) the
beat pitch will be 1,000 per second. Suppose, however, that another sta-
tion sends at awave length corresponding to a frequency of 37,000 cycles
per second (A =
8,108 meters), then a beat note of 500 per second will
be obtained, and due to the differences of tone, the operator can concen-
trate on the particular signal he desires to receive.
Then if several undamped wave transmitters operate simultaneously

at such wave lengths as to produce a beat note in the receiving apparatus
when its locally generated current is adjusted to a certain frequency, the
operator in many cases can change the pitch of the beat note of the
station he desires to receive, to a pitch that will permit him to concen-
trate on that signal to the exclusion of others.
Also, if the frequency of the local current is maintained at a definite

value, signals will be heard only from such stations as will produce a
beat pitch between the values of, say, 16 to 10,000 per second. It must
be remembered, however, that the best response is generally obtained
when the beat pitch is somewhere near the value of 1,000 per second.
It is easily seen from the foregoing, that if the frequency of an inter-
fering signal cause a beat current of a frequency above
is sufficient to
or below the limits of audibility, it will not be heard in the telephone

even the receiving station is near enough to the transmitter to be
if
energized by forced oscillations,

As will be shown in paragraph 43 an audio frequency tuning cir-
cuit can be connected to the plate circuit of the vacuum tube detector,
requiring the receiving operator to tune to the beat frequency as well as

to the radio frequency oscillations.
In summary, there are three modes of obtaining selectivity in a
beat receiver:
by radio frequency tuning;
(1)
by change of the beat note;
(2)
(3) by audio frequency tuning.
The student will comprehend this more clearly from the instruc-
tions to follow.
DETECTOR CIRCUIT
LOCAL GENERATOR
Figure 57
The vacuum tube as a detector in the beat receiver.
40. HETERODYNE WITH THE VACUUM VALVE AS A

DETECTOR. "We next consider the use of the three electrode vacuum
tube as a detector in the heterodyne system in place of the carborundum
rectifier. In the diagram of Figure 57, the crystal rectifier of Figure 55
has been replaced by a vacuum tube F, G, P } adjusted for assymetri&al
relaying, i.e., the potential of the grid to filament is controlled by a grid
battery B-3, to secure the best relaying effect.
If the alternator A-l, adjusted to a frequency slightly off the signal
frequency is coupled to the antenna at coils L-3 and I/-4, an E.M.F.
at a radio frequency will be induced across the terminals of LA. Cur-
rents of similar frequency will flow in the complete antenna system.
Currents of the same frequency will be induced in the secondary or
detector circuit L-2, C-l, and the plate current will rise and fall at a
radio frequency as shown by the graph, Figure 58. Since the variations
of the plate current occur at a radio frequency, and have constant ampli-
tude, no response is obtained in the head telephone P, but this current
flows in the plate or output circuit so long as the alternator A-I is in
operation.
Assume, however, that a distant transmitter induces continuous oscil-
lations in the receiving aerial at a frequency differing from the
local frequency by 500 to 1,000 cycles; these oscillations will interact
Avith the locally generated oscillations producing beats which have ampli-
PLATt CURRENT
Figure 58
Showing the repeated oscillations (in the plate
circuit) when the valve operated at a certain point
is
on the characteristic curve. Undamped oscillations are
assumed to be impressed upon the grid circuit.
tude greater than either the signalling frequency or the local frequency.
That is, as the two currents add up or subtract, the potential of the
grid will be raised and lowered above and below the potential supplied
by the incoming signal. Then, if the grid potential is adjusted so that
a rectified current flows in the plate circuit, the telephone will respond
to an averageeffect of each group of beat currents. In this way the
plate current varies at the frequency of the beats and the telephone
diaphragm is deflected accordingly.

Diagrammatically, the actions of the circuit in Figure 57 are shown
in Figure 59, it being assumed that the grid potential of the detecting
tube is adjusted so that a rectified current flows in the plate circuit.

Curve 0-1 represents the frequency of the incoming signal; curve 0-2,
the locally generated current curve 0-3, the beat current curve 0-4,
; ;
the modulated plate current, and curve 0-5, the approximate telephone
current.
Further amplification of the beat current can be secured by pro-
viding the system of Figure 57 with a regenerative coupling (audio or
radio frequency), but the coupling must not be too close or the valve
will be set into self-oscillation a state of affairs not desired with this
particular set of connections.
THE VACUUM VALVE AS A GENERATOR OF RADIO

41.
FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS. A vacuum tube connected as in

Figure 60 may be employed to generate the local radio frequency cur-
rents for beat reception. The grid and plate circuits are coupled
through coils L-2 and L-3. The grid circuit is tuned to a given fre-
quency of oscillation by the condenser (7-1 and the plate circuit by con-
denser (7-2.
INCOMING
o-i
SIGNALS
0-5
Figure 59
Illustrating the actions of the three-electrode tube for the detection of
beat currents.
The conditions present in the plate circuit are substantially those

of the circuit, Figure 61, where an oscillation circuit including coil L
and condenser (7 is shunted by the battery B, the circuit being impulsed
by opening and closing the switch 8.
When the switch 8 is closed, the energy supplied by the battery

isstored temporarily in coil L and condenser (7; but when switch 8 is
opened this stored up energy is released and the circuit L, C, oscillates
at a radio frequency determined by the product of the capacity and in-
ductance of the circuit. Now, switch 8 can be considered to be replaced

in Figure 60 by the valve grid G, which varies the current of B-2 by
change of its potential.
It has been shown that if the grid is charged to a high negative
potential, the circuit of B-2 is completely opened (but this does not occur
in practical operation) and consequently, it is easily seen that any vari-
Figure 60
The circuits of the vacuum tube for generating radio frequency
currents.*
Figure 61
An oscillation circuit set into excitation by an
external E. M. F.
able E.M.F. applied to the grid circuit, will vary the strength of the
plate current, which
will set circuit L-3, (7-2, LA
into oscillation at a
radio frequency.
Through the coupling L-2, L-3, the grid circuit L-2 5 0-1, will be
and it
set into oscillation, vary the plate current through change
will
of the grid potential. This will occur in synchronism with the radio
frequency current. In this way the complete system oscillates at a radio
frequency which may be varied over a wide range of frequencies by
*The grid battery B-4 is not essential in this circuit.

change of capacity of condensers (7-1 and (7-2, or by variation of induc-

tances L-2, L-3 and LA. It is found, in practice, that the condenser C-2
and the coil LA
can be eliminated, sufficient energy being liberated in the
plate circuit to keep the valve circuits in self -oscillation through the coup-
ling coils L-2, L-3.
It should now be clear that in order to set the valves into self-
oscillation, it is necessary to change the potential of either the grid or
plate circuits, and to provide static or magnetic coupling between the
circuits in order that some of the energy released by the plate circuit
may be fed back into the system. A

switch may be connected in the
circuit of the battery BA to set the system into oscillation. It is fre-
quently found that sudden variations of the capacity of condenser (7-1,

or (7-2, vary the potential sufficiently for the purpose.
will
Connected as in Figure 60 the valve may be employed to generate

the local oscillations for the beat system shown in Figure 57. The receiv-
ing antenna is coupled to either coil L-2 or L-3.
BEAT DETECTOR
LOCAL GENERATOR
Figure 62
The vacuum tube connected up for generation of radio frequency
oscillations for the production of beat currents. This system is some-
times called the external heterodyne.
A
simpler valve circuit for the generation of sustained oscillations
is shown in Figure 62, where the grid and plate circuits are magnetically
coupled through the coil L additional regenerative coupling is provided

;
by condenser C. By proper selection of the values of L and (7, the valve

circuits will oscillate vigorously at any desired frequency. These oscilla-

1
tions interacting with the oscillations of the incoming signal produce

beats in the detector circuits which in turn are detected by the valve
acting in either of the ways previously outlined.
42. THE REGENERATIVE BEAT RECEIVER. In the hetero-

dyne or beat receiver circuits heretofore shown, the local frequency is
generated by an external oscillator, and the beat currents are detected
in a coupled detector circuit. Such a receiver may be termed the external
heterodyne.
We now come to a regenerative receiver in which the combined func-
tions of regenerative amplification, the generation of local oscillations, the
production of beats and detection occur in the circuits of a single valve
bulb. Such a system is generally known as the regenerative beat receiver }
but is also termed the self-heterodyne or internal heterodyne.
B-2
Figure 63
The vacuum tube as a self-heterodyne or as a detector of con-
tinuous waves. (Armstrong's Regenerative System).
All of the several regenerative circuits already shown can be set

into self oscillation at radio frequencies provided the coupling of the
plate and grid circuits is sufficiently close. For example, the circuit
shown in Figure 38 and reproduced in Figure 63, indicates a system
which will generate undamped or continuous oscillations of any desired
frequency, but which simultaneously will act as a detector of incoming
radio signals. This is one of Armstrong's original regenerative circuits.
The plate circuit in Figure 63 is tuned to the incoming signal by
X-3, C-3, P (0-2 may be fixed), and the grid circuit by L-2, S, C-l.
Usually a fixed capacity can be found for condenser, C, approximately
.00003 microfarad.
(a) How the Valve is Set into Self-Oscillation. We have already

explained in a general way the process by which the valve may be made
to generate radio frequency currents. Imagine any disturbance to
occur in the plate circuit such as a sudden variation of the plate volt-
age the resulting change of current through P causes it to act induc-
tively on 8, setting the grid circuit L-2, C-l, 8, into oscillation. The grid
then acts to vary the plate current at a radio frequency. Part of the
plate circuit's energy is fed back to the grid circuit to keep the entire
system in self oscillation. This state of oscillation is only possible by
reason of the fact that the energy released in the plate circuit is equal
to, or exceeds that applied to the grid circuit, and consequently part of
the energy liberated by the plate circuit can be re-transferred to the
grid circuit through the regenerative coupling to keep the system in
continuous oscillation.
The frequency of the oscillations generated by the valve of Figure
63, will be approximately that of the grid circuit, if the capacity of the
secondary condenser exceeds the capacity of the valve (grid to filament),
but if it is less than the valve capacity, the inductance and capacity of
the plate circuit will be the governing factor.
(b) The Phenomena of the Self-Heterodyne. The sequence of

events when the valve of Figure 63 is set into self oscillation, has been
explained graphically by Armstrong as in the curves of Figure 64, where
graph 0-1 shows the gradual building up of oscillations in the grid cir-
cuitby regenerative coupling. These oscillations are rectified and charge
the grid condenser C, the charge in which leaks off constantly either
through the valve or across a special leak resistance (R-l, Figure 63) of
several hundred thousand ohms.
Now, the rectified current charges the grid negatively and, as already
explained, an increasing negative charge decreases the plate current and
consequently reduces the amplitude of the grid circuit oscillations
less energy being supplied through the regenerative coupling M. This
reduction continues until the amount of electricity supplied to the grid
condenser is equal to the rate at which it leaks off.
The valve thenoscillates steadily as shown by the curve 0-2, which
represents the potential of the grid to filament. The plate current under-
goes variation at the same frequency as shown by 0-3. The steady tele-
phone current is shown by the curve 0-4.
Let the valve circuits oscillate steadily as shown in the curves 0-2
and 0-3, and the frequency differ slightly from that of the incoming
let
signal; independently of the local oscillations the incoming oscillations

change the grid potential, are repeated in the plate circuit and are re-
enforced in the grid circuit through the regenerative coupling M

(Figure
63). Simultaneously these amplified oscillations interact with the local
oscillations producing throughout the system the beats shown by line
0-1 (Figure 65).
CURRENT IN
GRID CIRCUIT
0-2
0-3
TELEPHONE
CURRENT
O-4
Figure 64
Showing the phenomena involved when the vacuum tube of figure
63 is set into self-oscillation.
These beats alternately increase or decrease the potential of the

grid above and below that steady state indicated at 0-2 in Figure 64.
Hence, the potential of the grid to the filament varies as in curve 0-2,
Figure 65, and the plate current fluctuates at an audio frequency as in
0-3 that is, the amplitude of the repeated radio frequency plate current
;
varies at an audio frequency, and the approximate telephone current is

that shown in the curve 0-4 (Figure 65).
As pointed out by Captain Armstrong, the great advantage of this
system of reception the fact that the telephones are traversed

lies in
by an almost simple harmonic alternating current. Hence, the telephone

receivers may be connected in a coupled audio frequency tuning circuit
where selectivity or tuning independent of the signalling frequency may
BEAT
CURRENT
POTENTIAL OF GRID
o-z TO FILAMENT
0-3
PLATE
CURRENT
0-4
Figure 65
Illustrating the resulting beat currents and the final effect upon the
telephone current of the vacuum tube, connected as in figure 63.
be secured ;
that is, an audio frequency tuning circuit may be coupled to
the output circuit of the valve, in which oscillations of different group
frequencies can be tuned in or out as desired.
43. AUDIO FREQUENCY TUNING. In the circuit for group

frequency (audio frequency) tuning shown in Figure 66, the primary
and secondary circuits of the receiving transformer have been eliminated ;
connection in practice being made to terminals A, B. The group fre-

quency tuner embraces the telephone P, the variable condenser C, and
the secondary winding $' which is coupled to the plate circuit of the
vacuum valve through winding P7, shunted by condenser C-2.
In order to secure effective group tuning the inductance of the coil
Vacuum Tubes In Wir&Le^s , 101
S must be extremely large to obtain the necessary ratio of reactance of

the circuit.
The use of this circuit in practice may be explained as follows:
Assume that during the reception of undamped waves, several beat fre-
Figure 66
Audio frequency tuning circuit.
quencies are obtained in the plate circuit of the vacuum tube; the re-
ceiving operator may obtain response from the signal desired by care-
fully tuning the audio frequency circuit to a particular beat pitch to
the complete or partial exclusion of the unwanted signals.
Selectivity
is thus secured independently of the usual radio frequency tuning.
VALVE N21 VALVE N2
Figure 67
^
Two-step vacuum tube cascade amplifier. The grid circuit of the
amplifying tube is tuned to audio frequencies.
A more desirable circuit for audio frequency tuning is shown in

Figure 67, where a second vacuum valve with a tuned audio frequency
grid circuit S, L-5, 0-4, is coupled to the plate circuit of the first
valve through the audio frequency transformer M. By keeping the re-
sistance of this circuit low, response may be obtained in the output cir-
cuit of the second valve at audio frequencies with much lower values
of inductance in the grid circuit than those employed in the audio fre-
quency tuning circuit of Figure 66.
In the diagram, Figure 67, S, L-5, C-4, are of the correct value
topermit tuning to frequencies from say 200 to 1,000 cycles per second.
By means of battery 5-4, and potentiometer P-l, the potential of the
grid in respect to the filament in the second valve is adjusted to obtain
the best amplification. The condenser 0-1 in the plate circuit of the
first valve serves as a by-pass for the radio frequency component of the
plate current around the audio frequency inductance P. Coil L-3 per-
mits the plate circuit of the first valve to be tuned to the incoming sig-
nals,and regenerative coupling as usual is obtained at the radio fre-

quency transformer M-l.
In order that full advantage may be taken of an audio frequency
tuning circuit, it is essential that the frequency of the wave generator
remain constant, for it is readily seen that if its frequency changes, the
beat note will change at the receiver. This may put the beat frequency
out of range with the sharply tuned audio-frequency circuit.
T...C-I
_L E-i
Figure 68
Weagant's receiver for damped and undamped oscillations.
A of this circuit which causes it to operate at a dis-

phenomenon
advantage the
is following: An impulse of static or atmospheric elec-
tricity will set the audio frequency circuit into oscillation by shock exci-
tation converting the otherwise low-pitched static signals into musical
sounds.
In event that static is not severe and interference is experienced
from another station, some advantage is derived in the use of this circuit.
44. THE WEAGANT UNDAMPED WAVE RECEIVER.

Regenerative couplings such as previously shown are not essential to
the production of beat currents in the reception of continuous waves.
The system of Figure 68, devised by Mr. Roy A. Weagant, functions
satisfactorily with the simple set of connections shown. The principle

feature of this system is the "X," or tertiary circuit, consisting of the
condenser (7-3 and the inductance L-3, which are connected in series, and
in shunt to the plate circuit.
By carefully adjusting the capacity of the condensers in the

secondary and "X" circuits, or change of both the inductance and
capacity, the system will oscillate at radio frequency which may be
made to differ slightly from the frequency of the incoming signal. Beats
of any desired frequency are thus formed.
In practice, the author has found this system to give practically
the same strength of signal as any of the regenerative circuits previously
shown. It is applicable either to damped or undamped oscillations. On
account of its extreme simplicity the circuit is particularly recom-
mended.
45. MODIFIED WEAGANT BEAT RECEIVER.The circuits

of Figure 68 may be modified as in Figure 69. It is simply an exten-
sion of the "X" circuit, inductive regenerative coupling being secured
through the coupling L-4, L-5.
Figure 69
Modified Weagant receiver for continuous and discontinuous waves.
In Figure 69, the aerial tuning inductance is indicated at L-l, the

primary winding of the receiving tuner at L-2, the secondary winding at
L-3, the secondary loading inductance at L-4, and the shunt secondary
condenser at (7-1. The usual grid condenser is indicated at (7 and the
tuning elements of the plate circuit at L-5, C-2. LA and L-5 are placed
in inductive relation for regenerative amplification.
kind that the secondary induct-

It is preferable in a circuit of this
ance LA
be connected at the upper end of the coil L-3 as indicated
in the drawing, since the valve functions best in a secondary circuit
giving the maximum possible voltage for a given incoming signal. The
point of maximum potential in this case is at the right-hand end of the
coil LA-, that is, the greatest E.M.F. exists at the end of furthest LA
away from the earth end of L-3.
In the reception of undamped waves the operator adjusts the appa-
ratus first by regulating the incandescence of lamp filament and the
voltage of the battery B-2. He then tunes the grid and plate circuits to
the requisite frequency for the production of beat currents. The sta-
bility of the circuit with some valves is somewhat enchanced by adjust-
ing the coupling between LA and L-5, but it is not essential to practical
operation in the majority of cases.
The inductance of LA and L-5 may be fixed. A wide range of fre-
quencies may be secured by simultaneous adjustment of the variable

condensers (7-1 and C-2.
The antenna must, of course, be tuned to the incoming signal by
inductances L-l and L-2, or at the variometer V, but in general, these
three adjustments cover substantially all operations necessary in prac-
tice to tune the circuits to the distant transmitter.
Inductive disturbances from nearby 60 cycle alternating current
circuits may be eliminated by connecting the valve filament to earth at
point E-l.
For wave lengths up to 10,000 meters, coils LA and L-5 if of the
single layer type are from 20 to 24 inches in length and from 5 to 6
inches in diameter wound with No. 30 or 32 B. & S. wire. The author,
in fact, has secured very good results with much smaller coils wound
with No. 36 B. & S. wire.
Multi-layered frequently used in
coils are
circuits of this kind, and of course possess smaller dimensions for a
given wave length than any of the other types mentioned. The receiv-
ing transformer L-2, L-3 for use in connection with the loading coils
mentioned above may have the usual dimensions for wave lengths up
to 4,000 meters.
A variometer inductance is of considerable advantage in the beat

receiver circuits.
The effect of turning the handle of the variometer during beat re-
ception from a continuous wave transmitter is of interest. Assume that
with the control handle at the "half-way" position a beat note equal to
a pitch of 500 is secured in the head telephones, then by simply turning
/ Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication 105
the handle (of the variometer) thereby detuning the antenna circuit, the
pitch of the beat note will change from a higher to a lower note accord-
ingly as the tuning is varied.
As a matter of scientific interest, there has been included in dotted

lines in the diagram of Figure 69, a so-called "sensitizing" circuit, L-6,
(7-6, first published by Dr. Austin.
Ithas been assumed by Dr. Austin that the coupling of this circuit
to the secondary system merely reduced the amplitude of the locally
generated oscillations, and since some optimum value* of the locally
generated current in the heterodyne system gives the best amplification,
this was asserted to be the effect of the sensitizing circuit.
According to Captain Armstrong, the key-note to the phenomenon

is that coupling the circuit L-6, 0-6, to the secondary circuit gives this
system two natural frequencies of oscillation differing by 500 to 1,500
cycles per second, one of which coincides with the incoming signal and
the other with the locally generated radio frequency current.
That this circuit will amplify the incoming signals is now clear.
If the valve generating oscillations and the frequency of the antenna,
is
grid, and plate circuits is adjusted for the production of beats, these
circuits are slightly out of resonance with the incoming signal and there-
fore offer some reactance; but when the grid circuit possesses two de-
grees of freedom, one of these can be the frequency of the incoming
signal and the other the frequency of the locally generated current.
Hence, the circuits possess zero reactance to either the local frequency
or the signalling frequency which permits either current to rise in ampli-
tude. The same effect can be secured by close coupling of the open and
closed circuits. But with the sensitizing circuit a smaller degree of
coupling can be employed between the open and closed circuits with the
same strength of signals, permitting greater freedom from interference.
46. RECEPTION OF CONTINUOUS WAVES BY THE

VALVE WITHOUT BEATS. We are indebted to Captain Arm-
strong for the disclosure of a circuit for the reception of continuous
waves, which employs the generating feature of the vacuum valve, but
does not make use of the beat phenomenon. The circuits appear in
Figure 70.
The incoming oscillations, which, of course, are of continuous ampli-
tude, are varied at an audio frequency by setting the first valve into
self-oscillation at an audio frequency. Meanwhile, incoming radio fre-
quency currents are repeated into the plate circuit of the first valve and
*See paragraph 52.

are amplified by the second valve through regenerative coupling, but

their amplitude is modulated at an audio frequency by the first valve.
Hence, groups of radio frequency oscillations flow in the grid circuit of

the second valve where rectificaton takes place as usual.
It is to be observed that the grid potential of valve No. 1 is regu-

latedby battery J5-3 and potentiometer P-l. The plate and grid circuits
are coupled through an audio frequency transformer M-l, the primary
and secondary coils of which are tuned by condensers C-2 and 0-1
respectively. The radio frequency component of the plate current of
the first valve is impressed upon the grid of the second valve through
the plate inductance LA.
Tracing the connections further, the second valve is equipped with a
radio frequency regenerative transformer M-3 (which amplifies the in-
coming signal), and the complete grid circuit includes the inductances
L-5, L-6, and L-l and variable condenser C-3. A path for the radio
frequency current flowing in the output circuit around the telephone
of the second valve is provided by condenser C-5.
The processes involved in the detection of undamped oscillations

by the circuit of Figure 70 follow: the first valve is set into oscillation
at an audio frequency through the coupling M-l, so that if a telephone
were inserted in the plate circuit of B-2, a continuous tone would be
heard in the telephone receiver. Simultaneously the incoming oscilla-
tions impressed upon the grid circuit of the first valve are repeated into
its plate or output circuit and thence impressed upon the grid or input
circuit of the second valve through coils LA and L-5, wherein amplifi-
cation and detection takes place in the usual manner that is, the ampli-
;
tudes of the incoming radio frequency oscillations are varied at an audio

frequency, and therefore the potential of the grid varies in accordance.
The foregoing actions are shown graphically in Figure 71, where the
incoming signals are indicated on the line 0-1, the
oscillations of the
modulated radio frequency currents by the line 0-2, the grid oscillations
of the second valve by the line 0-3, and the current in the output or tele-
phone circuit of the second valve by the line 0-4.
In practical operation it is essential that the coupling of the radio

frequency transformer M-2 be carefully adjusted, for otherwise the
audio frequency component of the plate circuit of the first valve will
be heard as a musical tone in the telephone of the second valve.
The primary and secondary coils of transformer M-2 are connected

to earth.This prevents electrostatic coupling between the windings LA
and L-5 through the telephone of the second valve to earth.
A simple buzzer placed in inductive relation to circuits of the first
valve obviously would give approximately the same results as this cir-
cuit. The audio frequency coupling then may be eliminated.
47. CASCADEAMPLIFICATION. The output circuits of any

of the foregoing types of beat receivers can be connected to a battery
of vacuum valves in cascade for further amplification of the incoming
signal. Either the radio or audio frequency component may ~be ampli-
INCOMING OSCILLATIONS
FIRST VALVE
0-1
MODULATED PLATE
CURRENT FIRST
VALVE
0-2
GRID OSCILLATIONS
SECOND VALVE
0-3
TELEPHONE CURRENT
SECOND VALVE
0-4
Figure 71
Indicating the phenomena involved in the operation of the apparatus
in Figure 70.
fied. Cascade operation always becomes necessary when the incoming

signals are too weak to effect the head telephone. The student who has
carefully studied previous chapters describing the various cascade cir-
cuits will be able to devise various amplification circuits.
Better results are obtained under the usual operating conditions,

by connecting the valves for radio frequency amplification. In addition
to the increased strength of signals resulting therefrom, increased selec-
tivity is obtained, that is to say, the additional energy released in suc-

cessive circuits in the form of radio frequency oscillations causes these
circuits to function with reduced damping. Captain Armstrong declares
that two vacuum valves connected in cascade for radio frequency ampli-
fication will increase the incoming signals 1,000 times.
48 CASCADE REGENERATIVE SYSTEMS FOR BEAT RE-

CEPTION. If the incoming signals are too weak to give response in
the plate circuit of a single wave, progressive amplification can be secured
by combining the regenerative and cascade systems. Such systems may
be employed for reception of continuous or discontinuous waves.
In systems of this kind either one bulb is employed to amplify and
repeat the incoming signal into a second bulb, the latter being set into
oscillation for the production of beats, or the circuits of both bulbs may
be set into oscillation. Beats then will be generated throughout the
entire system; but in general, it is somewhat difficult to keep the two
circuits oscillating in synchronism.
If the two bulbs

oscillate out of synchronism or assynchronously,
a beat note obtained causing a continual hum in the receivers,* but
is
by carefully adjusting the radio frequency tuning of one of the valves

the beats can be brought into synchronism at a frequency near to 200
cycles per second as is evidenced by silence in the head telephones.
Various combination circuits are possible. One circuit is shown in
Figure 72. In this system, amplification in the first valve is obtained as
usual :
(1) By tuning the grid and plate circuits of the first valve;
(2) By carefully adjusting the coupling of the regenerative trans-
former M-l for maximum amplification;
(3) By adjusting the grid potential through battery B-3 and the grid
potentiometer P-l.
The principal adjustments for radio frequency tuning in the first
valve are made at:
(1) Antenna inductance L-l;

(2) Secondary loading inductance L-3;
(3) Secondary condenser C-l;
(4) Plate circuit condenser C-2.
Similarly, for the radio frequency circuits of the second valve at:
(1) Secondary loading inductance L-5;
(2) Secondary condenser C-5;
(3) Plate circuit condenser C-6;
(4) Plate inductance L-4.
*A weak beat note is not harmful to reception.

no Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication
The coupling of the regenerative transformer lf-1 should be just

close enough to amplify the incoming radio frequency signals. The
amplified radio frequency component of the plate current is then im-
pressed upon the grid circuit of the second valve which already has been
set into oscillation at a frequency slightly different than that of the
incoming signal.
Beats are then generated in the second system which are rectified
as usual, alternating current of an audio frequency flowing through the
head telephone P-2. Careful adjustment of couplings M-l, M-2 and M-3
is essential for stable operation.
It may be mentioned here, that the primary secondary coils of the
regenerative transformers generally possess fixed values of inductance.
Any radio frequency tuning which may be necessary in either circuit is
secured through additional variable inductances or condensers.
It tends toward simplicity of operation in cascade systems to elimi-
nate the two regenerative couplings of Figure 72, employing instead
the simple cascade radio frequency amplifiers shown in Figure 73.
The last valve of the group may, or may not be fitted with a regen-
erative coupling M-3* for as has already been set forth, the valve cir-
cuits may oscillate at a radio frequency without regenerative coupling.
In Figure 73, L-2, L-ll, 0-1 constitute the radio frequency tuning
elements of the grid circuit for the first valve; L-3, 0-2 for the plate
circuit L-4, L-12, 0-3 for the grid circuit of the second valve L-5, 0-4
; ;
for the plate circuit of the second valve L-6, L-7, L-8, 0-5 for the grid
;
circuit of the third valve and 0-6, 0-7, L-9 and Z/-10 for the plate cir-
;
cuit of the third valve. Battery B-3 and potentiometer P-l are employed
to adjust the grid potential of the first valve similarly B-5 and P-2 for
;
the second valve. The audio frequency reduction and increase of the
plate current of the third valve is secured by the grid condenser C
which traps the rectified beat currents, producing a relaying action on
the plate current.
It will be seen by careful consideration of the circuits in Figure 73
that the amplified radio frequency component of the plate current of the
first valve is impressed upon the grid circuit of the second valve through
the radio transformerM-l similarly, the amplified radio frequency com-

;
ponent of the plate current of the second valve upon the grid of the
third valve by M-2.
The circuits of the third valve are set into self-oscillation at a
slightly different frequency than that of the incoming signal so that the
interaction of the two currents produces I) eats which are rectified and
*See paragraph 44.

U'OOOWOO' 1
^s t
trapped in the grid condenser C. The tuning condensers across the

primary coils of if-1 and M-2 can be eliminated, sufficient response gen-
erally being secured with untuned circuits.
As usual a special resistance JK-1 provides the requisite leakage for
the grid condenser.
It here should be borne in mind that coupling two valves in the
manner shown withdrawal of energy from the plate cir-
results in the
cuits of the first valve, and some readjustments of the circuit are then
required for maximum response. Such adjustments are most readily

determined by experiment.
49. BEAT RECEPTION FROM DAMPED WAVE TRANS-

MITTERS. Partial beats are formed when locally generated oscilla-
tions interact with discontinuous or damped oscillations such as those
generated by spark transmitters. Due to the
discontinuity of the radi-
ated waves complete beat formations such as are obtained from continu-
ous waves cannot be had. Nevertheless, amplification results, but a dis-
torted note is obtained in the receiving telephone, that is, the normal
note of the spark transmitter is destroyed and a beat note of a rough
quality is obtained.
Figure 74
Showing the use of a simple "tikker" in the vacuum tube circuits.
In the reception of damped oscillations (or discontinuous waves)

through a receiver responsive to either type of oscillations the distor-
tions due to beat formations can be prevented by careful adjustment of
the coupling of the regenerative transformer. The coupling should be
close enough to reinforce the plate oscillations through the grid circuit
but not to set the valve into self -oscillation.
50. SPECIAL CIRCUITS FOR THE VACUUM VALVE.

It is now obvious that the vacuum tube can be employed toamplify the
local currents of any type of radio detector. An exemplary circuit is
shown in Figure 74, inwhich the incoming oscillations are interrupted
at an audio frequency by the motor-driven circuit interrupter or tikker

T. In this way the amplitude of the otherwise continuous oscillations
impressed upon the grid circuit is varied periodically and the grid con-
denser may therefore be energized at an audio frequency. In other
words a system for the detection of undamped oscillations is here pro-
vided that does not employ regenerative coupling or the heterodyne
principle.
If further amplification is required, a number of valves may be
connected in cascade for radio frequency or audio frequency amplifi-
cation.
The disadvantage of the connection shown in Figure 74, is that the

tikker interrupts the conduction current from the grid to filament, caus-
ing a humming sound in the telephone independently of the incoming
signal. But this may be prevented by placing the tikker in the antenna
circuit or in a special circuit to which the valve is coupled inductively.
Figure 75
Illustrating the use of the revolving variable condenser for making
audible undamped oscillations.
(a) The Use of a Rotary Condenser for the Reception of Con-

tinuous Oscillations. The author has recently taken out a patent on
a receiver for continuous wave reception, the fundamental character-
istics of which are shown in Figure 75.
A revolving secondary condenser (7-2 constructed much like a rotary

spark gap is connected in shunt to the secondary coil of the receiving
transformer L-2. This condenser contains twelve sets of stationary
plates mounted in a circle and one movable set driven by a high-speed
A.C. or D.C. motor. Now, if the primary and secondary circuits of
Figure 75 are tuned to a continuous wave transmitter without the re-
volving condenser (7-2, direct current will pass through the telephone P;
but for reasons explained in paragraph 1, the telephone diaphragm will

emit no sound. If the condenser rotates at such speeds to throw the
secondary system into and out of resonance 200 to 1000 times per second,
the amplitude of the telephone current will be varied at the same rate.
Hence, groups of direct current pulses occurring at an audio frequency
will flow through the head telephone P.
The advantage of this method over the usual tikker isobvious; all
electrical contacts are done away with and beyond this, the condenser
may be inserted in the plate or grid circuit of the vacuum valve with-
out actual interruption of the local currents which would produce a
humming sound in the telephone.
HWh
p -'
^wyvwl
Figure 76
Special circuit for the revolving condenser in connection with the
reception of continuous oscillations.
The author has had some success with the connections disclosed in
Figure 76,where the amplitudes of the incoming oscillations are varied
as in the previous system by the rotating condenser (7-2 and the resulting
groups of radio frequency currents rectified by the two electrode valve,
F, P. They are thereafter amplified by a three electrode valve F', G', P',
the grid circuit of which is tuned to an audio frequency by the shunt
condenser (7-3.
The two electrode valve is adjusted to the most favorable working

point on the characteristic curve by the battery B-2 and the potentio-
meter P-l, the potential of B-2 varying from 20 to 100 volts. Groups
of rectified currents flow through winding P of an iron core transformer
which acts inductively upon the secondary winding 8. Through potentio-
meter P-2 and battery 5-3, the potential of the grid to filament of the
three electrode valve may be adjusted for the best amplification. Further
amplification may be secured by connecting in cascade several valves

with iron core transformers inserted between the output and input cir-
cuits of successive tubes. The revolving condenser C-2 obviously can
be placed in any part of the radio frequency circuits of Figure 76.
A point to be considered in the operation of this system is that the
condenser must be constructed so that its capacity as the plates revolve
covers a small range, for otherwise, signals from undesired stations will
be tuned to resonance if the coupling L-l, L-2 is close. In addition care
must be taken to select the proper values of inductance at L-2, so that
the secondary system is thrown into resonance at the point where the
revolving condenser reaches its maximum capacity; for, otherwise, the
circuit will be thrown in and out of resonance twice for each set of sta-
tionary plates, and a rather mixed note in the telephone will result.
51. "OPEN CIRCUIT" OSCILLATORS FOR THE VACUUM

VALVE. The operating characteristic for the three-electrode valve,
shown in Figure 22, indicates that the strength of the plate current at
certain points along the characteristic curve varies directly with the
grid potential. Hence, if the valve be employed as an oscillation de-
tector, the best response will be obtained from a circuit which provides
the maximum E.M.F. for a given group of oscillations. This condition
is satisfied by making the inductance of the grid circuit very large and
the shunt condenser very small for a given frequency or wave length.
In general, the capacity of the shunt condenser should not exceed say
.0005 microfarad.
Over the range of the shorter wave lengths, the secondary con-
denser may be dispensed with, the distributed capacity of the secondary
inductance and the internal capacity of the vacuum valve (filament to
grid) completing the oscillation circuit.
At the longer wave lengths the capacity of the grid circuit induct-
ance becomes high in comparison with the valve capacity that better
so
signals are secured by employing a secondary condenser to fix definitely

the maximum and minimum potential across the filament and the grid.
Because of the high potential which exists on the free end of an
open circuit or linear oscillator, a coil of high self-inductance may be
employed in the grid circuit of the vacuum tube to amplify the signal.
One circuit of this kind devised by the author several years ago, is shown
in Figure 77, where the usual antenna inductance is indicated at .L-l, an
open circuit or grid circuit coil at L-2 being placed in inductive relation
thereto and connected to earth at the lower end. The free end of L-2
connects through the grid condenser C to the grid G of the valve. In
event that the length of the coil L-2 is excessive for maximum amplifi-
cation, it may be reduced and shunted by a variable condenser. unipo- A

lar connection of the valve, however, is still used as shown in Figure 77.
E-i
Figure 77
Open circuit oscillator for the reception of damped or undamped
oscillations.
As already remarked, amplification is obtained in this circuit
by reason of the increased potential impressed upon the grid, but with
very long coils, the resistance losses and absorption through the self-
capacity of the coil may be excessive and the selectivity thus afforded may
not equal that of a smaller coil with a shunt condenser. The coil L-2
obviously must be of considerable length for the longer wave lengths.
The natural frequency or wave length of open circuit coils can be
measured by placing a wave meter set into excitation by a buzzer in
inductive relation to the coil, the free end of which terminates in a crystal
rectifier shunted by a head telephone.
The when L-2 is of differ-

best results are secured with this system
ent dimensions for each wave In other words, elimination of the
length.
unused turns is desirable. An end turn switch might be employed to
break the winding into groups for different frequencies. Such a switch,
however, does not eliminate wholly the end turn losses, but it aids in
this direction. For complete removal of these effects the unused turns
must be removed from the magnetic field of the used turns.
Coil L-2 need not necessarily be connected to earth at the lower
end. It may be left ungrounded, but it must then possess a considerably
greater number of turns for a given wave length, than when conncted to
earth. Its natural frequency of oscillation must equal that of the in-
coming signal.
Induction from low frequency power circuits is prevented by
connecting one leg of the filament of the valve to earth. The earth con-
nection is not essential to the radio frequency tuning of the secondary

or grid circuit, but it assists in eliminating local inductive disturbances.
(a) Modified Open Circuit Oscillators. Numerous modifications of

the circuit shown in Figure 77 are possible. For example, in Figure 78
the valve is connected to the free end of an aerial A f B, which is con-
Figure 78
Novel connection of the three-electrode valve. The grid is con-
nected to the free end of a flat top aerial.
L-z
,8-2
Figure 79
Showing the use of open circuit oscillators with direct coupling
between the antenna and grid circuits.
nected to earth through the tuning inductance L-l. By variation of L-l,

the maximum potential may be made to occur at the free end of the
aerial, which is attached to the grid G. Amplification is thus secured.
A circuit much
similar to Figure 77, preferred by the author is
shown in Figure 79, where the primary and secondary circuits of the
receiving system are directly coupled and the grid G connected to the
free end of an open circuit oscillator, L-3. Circuit L-2, L-3, C, G, is tuned
to the frequency of the incoming signal and a very high potential is
impressed upon the grid. The filament F, as usual, is connected to
earth at E-l. Regenerative couplings may be employed in the circuits of
Figures 77, 78, or 79, the plate circuit being coupled to the grid circuit
at L-3, LA, as shown in Figure 80. The plate circuit is tuned to reso-
nance with the incoming signal through inductance LA and condenser
L-4
E-l
Figure 80
Modified circuits of Weagant's system for the reception of
damped or undamped
oscillations. The plate circuit is tuned by the
inductance L-4 and the condenser C-2. The grid is attached to the free
end of an open circuit oscillator.
C-2 which constitute the "X" by R. Weagant.

circuit first disclosed
This circuit, however, will respond to continuous waves without the re-
generative coupling, L-3, LA. (See paragraph 44.)
52. AMPLIFICATION BY THE HETERODYNE SYSTEM.

The numerical degree of amplification obtained by the heterodyne receiv-
ing system in radio has been a point of considerable debate among wire-
less engineers. Various figures have been claimed varying from a mini-
mum of four to several thousand. It has been shown mathematically by
Liebowitz that the maximum true amplification that may be secured by
the external heterodyne is four, and that any increase in strength of sig-
nals beyond four-fold amplification is due to some increase of efficiency
of the detector. It is well known, however, that remarkable amplifications
are secured by employing the vacuum valve detector as a self -heterodyne.
In fact, the total amplification as actually measured has totaled several

thousand.
In the self-heterodyne circuits of the regenerative type where the
combined functions of detection, amplification, and generation of the local
radio frequency oscillations occur in the circuits of a single bulb, there
are two methods of amplification which take place simultaneously, each
one operating its own particular way practically independent of the
presence of the other.
With the point in view of separating the magnitude of the various
amplifying effects produced by the self-heterodyne as compared with the
simple vacuum valve without regenerative circuits, a series of tests was

carried out by Captain Armstrong at a wave length of approximately
8,000 meters.*
The first measurements were for the purpose of comparing the sig-
nal strength obtained with a simple three-electrode valve coupled to an
antenna circuit which was interrupted approximately 600 times per
second by a tikker or chopper, and the signal strength secured by what
Armstrong terms the "equal heterodyne." This is the term he applies
to the condition where the locally generated current and the signalling
current are equal in strength. It was found in general that the equal
heterodyne system gave a signal from four to ten times as loud as that
given by the tikker, the greatest amplification being secured on the
weaker signals.
In the second series of tests, the locally generated radio frequency
current was increased to the point of maximum amplification and as a
matter of notation, this system was termed the "optimum heterodyne."
On the strongest signals the response for the best adjustment of the
locally generated current was approximately one and one-half times
as great as that of the equal heterodyne, but on weaker signals amplifica-
tion of fifty-five times was obtained.
In the third test, measurements were made for the purpose of de-
termining the relation between the maximum signal strength obtainable
with a vacuum valve and the external heterodyne and the signal obtain-
able when the same valve is coupled as a self -heterodyne. An average
amplification of approximately fifty times was secured.
In summary, then, the equal heterodyne, the optimum heterodyne
and the self-heterodyne gave amplifications respectively of five, twenty,
and fifty, making a total amplification of 5,000 or possibly more.
It has been shown by Armstrong, that the true keynote to this in-
*See Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Vol. 5, No. 2, April,

1917.
crease of amplification above the mathematically established factor of

four, lies in what may be called the "heterodyne characteristic," i.e.,
the relation between the telephone signal strength and the ratio of the
local to the signalling current. A
number of experimental curves were
published and in beyond the 1 to 1 point, the increase of the
all cases
local to the signalling current produced a very rapid increase in the

telephone signal strength which rose to a maximum value rather rapidly
and then fell off to zero.
The rapid rise of the curve as the local current is increased beyond
the 1 to 1 point is due to the shape of the rectifying or valve char-
acteristic; that is, the relation between the grid voltage (with respect to
the filament) and the grid to filament current. The grid current is the
actual conduction current flowing from grid to filament and it is upon
the amplitude of this current that the value of the cumulative charge in
the grid condenser depends. Two curves were published, one showing the
grid- volt age, grid-current characteristic for the equal heterodyne, and
the other for the optimum heterodyne. By simple analysis, it was shown
that the variation of current is obviously very much greater with the
optimum heterodyne.
53. KENOTRON AND PLIOTRON VACUUM TUBES. Dr.

Irving Langumuir and Saul Dushman, together with Mr. William C.
White, have described in various publications the two-electrode and three-
electrode vacuum valve tubes, which they have been instrumental in
developing. These are simply extensions of Fleming's original dis-
closures. The two-electrode valve called the "Kenotron" is shown in
Figure 81, and the three-electrode valve termed the "Pliotron" is shown
in Figure 82. These tubes are exhausted to an exceedingly high vacuum
by an elaborate process.* The "Kenotron" is employed principally as a

high voltage alternating currents, but obviously, small bulbs
rectifier of
might be employed as oscillation detectors for the reception of wireless

telegrams.
With a plate potential as low as 200 volts electron currents up to
one ampere have been secured with these tubes, but, as pointed out by
Langumuir, a more serviceable tube is one designed for electron currents
of 250 milliamperes. If a greater current is desired, several "Kenotrons"
may be operated in parallel.
The "Kenotron" tubes have been employed to rectify alternating
currents up to 180,000 volts. For any purpose for which high voltage
direct current is desirable, they have proven practical and serviceable.
*See Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 287-
289, Sept., 1915.
The particular tube shown in Figure 81 is designed for potentials to

up
50,000 volts. As a rectifier it has shown an efficiency of 97.8%.
In the three-electrode tube or "Pliotron" in
Figure 82, the grid is
shown at G, the filament at F which is supported by a glass frame
PLATE -
PLATE
FILAMENT
Figure 81
Showing the general construction of the
Kenotron rectifier.
and the plate or anode at A The grid consists of a number of turns of

.
tungsten wire .01 millimeter in diameter, spaced to include 100 turns

tp the centimeter. The filament is mounted inside the grid. The plates
or anodes placed on either side of the filament consist of tungsten wire

wound zig-zag in the manner shown.
A large "Pliotron" which may be termed a "power" bulb is shown
in Figure 83. A
tube of these dimensions may be employed to generate
several watts of radio frequency alternating current from a source of
direct current. Hundreds of bulbs may be connected in parallel for the
production of radio frequency currents at very large powers.
Abattery of tubes may be employed to control the output of a radio
frequency alternator, either for radio telegraphy or telephony. For
example, as pointed out by Dr. Langumuir, if the plate is connected to
Figure 82
A
small sized Pliotron for use as an oscillation detector. G is a
tungsten grid F, a tungsten filament and A, the anode of tungsten wire.
;
a point of high potential in the antenna system (with the filament con-
nected to earth) and the grid is held at a highly negative potential, no
leakage of the antenna current takes place, But, if by an external elec-
tromotive force, the grid potential is decreased, sufficient energy may be
withdrawn from the antenna circuit to damp out the oscillations. Tele-
graph signalling may thus be accomplished.
Radio telephony may be carried on by connecting the grid and fila-
ment to the secondary of an induction coil, the primary of which includes
a microphone transmitter and a battery. Fluctuations of the primary
current in the microphone circuit will impress upon the grid of the
valve a vocal current of several hundred volts which, in turn, will vary
the amplitude of the radio frequency currents flowing in the antenna
circuit.
In the curves for the tube of Figure 82, published by Dr. Langumuir,
approximately 26 volts negative grid potential reduces the plate cur-
rent to zero. A positive potential of 10 volts affords a plate current of
nearly ten milliamperes. With the grid at zero potential, plate current
PLATE
FILAMENT -Y GRID
Figure 83
A "power bulb" Pliotron.
of nearly six milliamperes is secured. On the other hand, for the large
"Pliotron" shown in Figure 83 with the grid potential at 375 volts, the
plate current is zero and at 105 volts, the plate current is 230 milli-
amperes.
Mr. William C. White has disclosed two circuits for practical use
' * ' '

of the Pliotron, one for the production of high voltage radio frequen-
cies, and the other for the production of low voltage radio frequencies at
large current values.

The "Pliotron" when used as an oscillator for the production of
alternating current from a direct current source of energy has the char-
i.e., an ampli-
acteristics of the three-electrode valve as already discussed,
fying relay. That is, the wave shape of any variable electromotive force
applied between the filament and the grid will be faithfully reproduced
in the plate circuit. Therefore, the input of a small amount of alternat-
ing current energy will set up a relatively high amount in the plate
circuit identical in frequency and wave shape.* By utilizing a small
proportion of the alternating current energy thus produced to feed back
l ' ' '
system can be made self -exciting. The Pliotron

to the grid circuit, this
thus becomes a converter of direct currents into radio frequency alternat-
ing currents and can be used for various purposes in the technical
laboratory. In connection with the circuit of Figure 84 for the produc-
tion of radio frequency currents at low voltages, Mr. White points out
firstthat in a resonance circuit, the current will rise until the losses
become equal to the input energy; but the lower limit of power factor
obtainable in practical circuits is about one-half of one per cent. This
permits the maximum resonance current to attain a value of about two
hundred times the value of the true energy current fed into the resonant
circuit. In consequence, if large currents are desired from a small
quantity of energy, the total volt-amperes in the circuit must be kept
small. This condition requires large capacity and small inductance.
Again, if the amount of electrical energy which can be furnished by

a certain source is limited by the amount of primary power available
or by the losses in transmission, it is important that the resistance of
the load be adjusted to the voltage so that the energy will be economically
utilized. This implies in the case of the vacuum valve circuit shown in
Figure 84, that the resistance of the heavy current circuit must be given
the apparent value, the most suitable for insertion in the plate circuit
of the "Pliotron."
(a) The Connections of the Pliotron for the Generation of Radio

Frequencies at High Current Values. In the circuit shown in Figure
84, the "Pliotron" is employed to generate radio frequency currents of
high current value. The output circuit -2, C-2, of the "Pliotron" is
coupled to the heavy current circuit, L-3, (7-3 A, A-1, which in this
particular case is used to calibrate ammeter A by A-l at radio frequencies.
*This is true of any properly constructed three-electrode bull),

The grid circuit includes the inductance L-I. Condenser C provides the
requisite electrostatic coupling to keep the system in oscillation.
It is important to carry out this calibration that the inductance of
L-3, in accordance with the limitations discussed in the previous para-
graph, be made with lowest possible amount. Usually, it consists of
one or two turns of heavy conductor, and, therefore the capacity of 0-3
must be of the order of 0.1 microfarad. By proper adjustment of in-
ductances L-l and L-2 and variable condenser C, the "Pliotron" will
oscillate energetically at a radio frequency determined by the electrical
Figure 84
A Pliotron connected up for the production of continuous oscilla-
tions of high current value and high frequency.
Figure 85
The circuits of the Pliotron for the production of high voltages at
radio frequencies. The apparatus as connected in this diagram will
produce potentials up to 12,000 volts at the spark gap G at frequencies
up to 100,000 cycles per second.
dimensions of the grid and plate circuits. Because of the relative values
of the inductances L-2 and L-3, the apparent resistance in the plate
circuit occasioned by the coupled calibration circuit is considerably multi-
plied, but it is not sufficient to absorb all available energy, and to increase
this apparent resistance further, a variable condenser 0-2 is shunted
about L-2.
The current flowing in the heavy current output circuit in Figure 84

is dependent upon the voltage of the direct current source. The most
practical range has been found to be between 200 and 750 volts. Con-
nected as shown in this drawing the "Pliotron" will generate current
at frequencies from 100,000 to 1,000,000 cycles per second, and by oper-
ating several tubes in parallel much larger current outputs may be

obtained.
(b) The Pliotron as a Generator of High Voltages at Radio Fre-

quencies. Acircuit for the production of high-voltage radio frequency
currents is shown in Figure 85. Here the inductances L-\ and L-2 are of
approximately 8 millihenries each. Inductances L-3 and LA are of ap-
proximately 2.5 millihenries each. The latter are preferably of the
variometer type, but a simple coil fitted with plug contacts satisfies the
requirements.
The plate voltage is furnished by a direct current
generator, D.
A high voltage condenser in series with a hot-wire ammeter A is shown
GRID,. .FILAMENT
PLATE PLATE
Figure 86
Showing the construction of commercial type of
three-electrode vacuum valve.
at (7-1. The capacity of 0-1 should lie between 20 and 200 micro-micro-
farads for a frequency of 100,000 cycles. Knowledge of the currents flow
at A and the frequency of the circuit permits the voltage across the
condenser 0-1 to be simply calculated.
If the inductances and capacities* are properly proportioned for a
frequency of 100,000 cycles and the voltage of the dynamo lies between
200 and 750 volts, voltages up to 12,000 may be secured at the spark
gap G. The object of having L-4, Figure 85, variable is for the purpose
of applying the high frequency energy from the "Pliotron" to the
resonance circuit at the correct voltage so that the energy available is
used most advantageously in the resistance of this circuit.
A commonly used type of three-electrode valve as an oscillation de-
tector is shown in Figure 86. The material of the grid, plate and fila-
ment being as follows: The filament is made of lime coated platinum
and is energized by a 4 to 6 volt battery; the grid is composed of a
number of turns of tungsten w ire spaced equally on either side of the
r
filament. The plates are made of sheet nickel J^" by 1" placed on either
side of the grid. The voltage of the plate circuit varies from 90 to 150
volts or more.
*Mr. White mentions that two metal plates 10" by 10" placed approximately
%" apart will afford a condenser having capacity of approximately 40 micro-
microfarads.
PART VII
WIRELESS TELEPHONY
54. In General. The art of wireless telephony has been so aptly
and completely covered in Dr. Goldsmith's "Radio Telephony" that the
subject will be touched upon lightly here. The vacuum tube, however,
occupies such an important place in wireless telephone systems, that this
volume could not be considered complete without some mention of cer-
tain circuits which have been disclosed by various investigators.
In general, wireless telephone conversations are tranmitted by radio
frequency wave motion termed the carrier wave. This carrier wave is
modulated at an audio frequency by a microphone transmitter such as
employed in land line telephony. Thus, any undamped wave transmitter
and any type of oscillation detector giving a quantitative response may
be employed provided a magnetic telephone is the current translator.
Consider, for example, a wireless transmitter which generates a

steady wave stream of continuous amplitude. If a wireless receiving set
containing a simple rectifier and a telephone is tuned to this trans-
mitter, pulses of direct current in rapid succession traverse the telephone
windings but produce no sound. But if the amplitude of the radiated
energy is modulated at an audio or vocal frequency through a micro-
phone, the amplitude of the rectified telephone current will be varied,
at a vocal frequency in accordance. Hence, the diaphragm of the tele-
phone will vibrate at the same rate as the diaphragm at the transmitter.
The audio frequency variations occasioned by the microphone gen-
erally occur at rates from 100 to 2,000 per second, the mean average being
approximately 1,000 per second. This average value has been termed the
speech" frequency.
The great problem heretofore in radio telephony has been the diifi-
129
culty of modulating the large powers employed at the transmitter by

the usual telephone microphone which at its best can handle approxi-
mately from one-half to one ampere of current. Owing to the inherent
imperfections of the microphone and its limited current carrying capac-
ity, a continuously operative high power radio telephone system was not
produced until the advent of the vacuum tube.

In the earliest radiophone systems, a number of microphones were
connected in parallel, and then in series with some part of the antenna
system or in special circuits associated inductively or conductively with
the antenna system; but owing to the "packing"* of the microphone
and the difficulty of over-heating, only very small powers could be em-
ployed.
Various types of high power microphones have been constructed,
but they cannot be said to have satisfied the demands of modern engi-
neering, i.e. } they were not continuously operative.
Experiments have been made wherein the microphone was connected
in the field circuit of a D. C. generator supplying current to an arc gen-
erator, or in a similar way to alter the field excitation of a radio fre-
quency alternator; but such systems were only partially successful, be-
cause of the small current carrying capacity of the microphone and the
consequent limited degree of modulation of the antenna current.
In general, we may state that the systems of radio telephony so far
proposed contemplate the generation of a carrier wave above the limits
of audibility, and the modulation of either the amplitude or the wave
length of the wave at speech frequency. In some systems, one or the
other function is performed individually, but in others both occur to a
limited degree simultaneously.
The vacuum tubes seem to offer a practical solution of this problem,
for, as already explained, they can be employed to generate radio fre-

quency alternating currents of any desired frequency. The grid potential-
plate current characteristic of a properly constructed valve indicates also
that a very slight change in the grid potential will cause a relatively
large variation of the plate current. Hence, if a vacuum valve be con-
nected up for the production of continuous oscillations and a micro-
phone and battery be connected inductively or conductively to the grid
circuit, the grid potential will rise and fall in accordance with the sound
modulations of the human voice and the amplitude of the radio fre-
quency carrier wave will be modulated at vocal frequencies.
(a) Fundamental Circuits of the Three-Electrode Tube as a

Radiophone Transmitter. A diagram typifying this system of connec-
*Coherence of the carbon granules.

tions is shown in Figure 87. The grid and plate circuits of the vacuum
tube are magnetically coupled at -L-l and .L-2, both circuits being
tuned to a given frequency of oscillation by condensers 0-1 and 0-2 and
the inductances L-l and L-2. A
similar circuit has been shown in Figure
60. The antenna circuit A, L, may be coupled to either the plate
coil L-2 or the grid coil L-l. If tuned to resonance, considerable amounts
Figure 87
Vacuum valve connected up for the production of continuous oscil-
lations for radio telephony.
Figure 87a
Modified connection of the microphone to the valve generator for
radio telephony.
of energy will be withdrawn from the valve circuits into the antenna
system from which part of the energy is radiated in the form of electro-
magnetic waves.
An induction coil M-l with the primary and secondary windings P
and 8 respectively may be connected to the

Y
condenser G -1, the primary
microphone T and the battery B-3. By
circuit of the coil including the
proper design of the induction coil, two or three hundred volts may be
impressed upon the grid and a very great modulation of the antenna cur-
rent thus secured. Valves employed for the generation of radio fre-
quencies at high powers have grid potentials of 150 volts negative, and
the plate potentials may attain 2,000 volts or more. It should be under-
stood that Figure 87 is simply a suggestive circuit. It may be re-drawn
as in Figure 87a, coils L-l and L-2 being considered as one long coil
tapped at the center to the filament. A single condenser C-l can be
Figure 87b
Another method of connecting the microphone to the valve generator.
used to tune the plate and grid circuits simultaneously. The microphone
and its induction coil may be connected as in Figure 87a, or in another
way as in Figure 87b, where a large condenser (7-4 is connected across the
secondary terminals of the induction coil and in series with the inductance
of the grid circuit.
There are many combination circuits for wireless telephony in which
the three-electrode vacuum tube may be employed in one way or the other.
For example :
(1) A number of bulbs connected in parallel may generate the requi-

siteradio frequency current and one or more additional bulbs
including a microphone transmitter may be used to vary the
output of the "power bulbs" by variation of their grid poten-
tial.
(2) The radio frequency current for the carrier wave may be gener-
ated by a radio frequency alternator and modulated by con-
necting a three-electrode valve at some effective point in the
antenna system.
(3) A battery of "power'* vacuum tube bulbs may be employed to

amplify the output of a small radio frequency alternator and
the grid potential varied at mean speech frequency by addi-
tional bulbs including in their grid circuit an induction coil
and a microphone.
(4) A battery of tubes controlled by a microphone may vary the field
excitation of a radio frequency alternator.
(b) Rounds' Wireless Telephone System. A few examples

of pro-
posed systems will be described. The first system to employ the vacuum
valve as a source of oscillations for wireless telephony was that developed
by H. J. Rounds of Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd., which
is shown in Figure 88. It will be noted in this diagram that the grid and
plate circuits of a vacuum tube are coupled at L-3 and LA, the antenna
being coupled to the grid circuit at L-l. The plate battery B-2 varying
Figure 88
Rounds' system of wireless telephony. Continuous oscillations are
generated in the circuits of the tube F', G', P', transferred to the antenna
through the coupling L-l, L-3, and modulated by the microphone T.
from 500 to 2,000 volts is shunted by the condenser 0-2. Four resistances,
R-l, #-2, R-3 of 500 ohms and K-4 of 10,000 ohms, are connected in
series with the plate battery.
The filament battery an 80 ampere hour 6 volt cell, and the

is
grid battery B-3 has a voltage of approximately 500 volts. A microphone

T, is connected in series with the antenna circuit as well as a small glow
lamp N, which is employed to indicate conditions of resonance between
the generating circuit and the antenna circuit.
The entire system is set into oscillation by opening and closing the
key connected in the grid circuit. Resonance is established by careful
adjustment of condensers 0-1 and 0-2. By further adjustment of the
reaction coupling and by tuning the antenna circuit, the small glow
lamp N, will light to full brilliancy. This indicates that the antenna
circuit is in a state of oscillation, that is, N takes the

place of the antenna
ammeter. When the transmitter T
spoken into, the radio frequency
is
wave is modulated at speech frequency and response will then be secured

at the receiving station. Note should be made of the fact that the micro-
phone as here connected in the circuit is not in the most effective position,
but later circuits developed by Rounds show the microphone connected
in some part of the grid circuit. With the connections of Figure 88,
radio telephony was accomplished over distances up to 50 miles.
55. HUND'S METHOD OF RADIO FREQUENCY MODU-

LATION. A
method for controlling the carrier wave at an audio or
vocal frequency suggested by August Hund, is disclosed in Figure 89.
In this system, the antenna oscillations are modulated at vocal frequency
by a three-electrode vacuum tube. The radio frequency currents for the
carrier wave are generated by the vacuum tube V, the grid and plate cir-
cuits being coupled together as usual for the generation of radio fre-
quency currents. By coupling L-2 to L-l, currents of similar frequency

are induced in the antenna circuit.
The antenna system further includes the coil L-3 which may have
from 6 to 15 microhenries inductance. The terminals of L-3 are con-
nected to the plates P-l and P-2 of the three-electrode bulb V-1.
The filament F-I is rendered incandescent by the battery B-l and
the potential of the grid to filament varied at speech frequency by the
microphone T through the iron-core induction coil P-l, $-1. The poten-
tialof the grid in respect to the filament can be maintained at the most
satisfactory value by battery B-3 and potentiometer P. The grid nor-
mally is held at a fairly high negative potential so that no currents leak
around L-3 through the valve "P-l; but when the microphone T is
spoken into, the valve becomes conductive at vocal frequencies-; one-
half cycle of the carrier wave leaks through the conduction path from
P-l to F-l, and similarly the other half cycle through the conduction path
from P-2 to F. Energy is thus withdrawn from successive cycles of the
carrier wave in accordance with the vocal wave impressed upon the
grid by the microphone T and the transformer P-l, $-1. In summary,
the grid potential is modulated by the microphone, and the antenna cur-
rent leaks from plates P-l and P-2 to filament F-\. The antenna oscilla-
tions are damped out at speech frequency.
Obviously, two valves might be employed to secure this leakage.
56. ENGLUND'S WIRELESS TELEPHONE SYSTEM. It

has been established that if the frequency of the carrier wave in wire-
less telephony is of constant amplitude and F cycles per second, and it
ismodulated at a vocal frequency / such as generated by a microphone,

there will be radiated into the ether a complex wave which is made up
of three component frequencies f, F /, and F-\- f. It is evident that
the unmodulated component of the antenna current F since it does not
contain the signal frequency /, need not be present in the antenna, but it
may be supplied by an auxiliary source at the receiving station. Hence, if
by any means the carrier frequency F can be eliminated, except as at such
MODULATOR
Figure 89
Hund's proposed method for modulating radio frequency currents
by a microphone.
is spoken into, a considerable

times that the wireless telephone transmitter
wastage of energy is prevented, and, furthermore, the carrier frequency
F will not i terfere with the operation of other stations in proximity.
In Engiund's proposed system, shown in Figures 90* and 91*, this
phenomenon is taken into consideration and means have been devised
*It cannot be said that systems outlined in these diagrams have attained
the stage of practical commercial application. They are merely published to
indicate the general trend of experimentation.
a
^-S M 3
a 9 S
-2 -s
a .
rH (jj "^ 3 r*
llfll
-MP P53
"- 1
llfPl
w
|1|3I
>& Q O
'oJ
whereby the antenna circuit, A, L-13, E, is traversed by modu-

Figure 90,
lated currents only when "T" is spoken into. From this
the transmitter
diagram, the student receives some hint of the fundamental circuits of a
long distance wireless telephone system in which vacuum valves are
employed not only to generate the radio frequency current but to modu-
late it at speech frequency as well.
It is to be noted first, that the plate and grid circuits of the

vacuum tube V-1 called the master oscillator, are coupled through the coil
L-l and condenser (7-1 for the production of radio frequency currents,
that is, the grid and plate circuits are coupled in such a way as to
L-15
Figure 91
Receiving apparatus of Englund's system. The carrier frequency
is supplied by a local generator A-l.
set the circuits of T7 -! into oscillation. Coupled to L-l is the secondary

coil L-2 which in turn is connected to the grid and filament of another
vacuum tube V-2 termed the "modulator."
The output circuit of the " modulator" bulb is coupled to L-6
through L-5. The circuit of L-6 in turn contains a bridge consisting of
resistances R-l, R-2, inductance L-7, and condenser (7-7. Tapped across
this bridge is the inductance L-8 coupled to L-9, the terminals of which
in turn are attached to the grid and filament (the input circuit) of a
battery of tubes F-3.
By properly balancing the bridge, no current flows through L-8 at
the carrier frequency F, but currents of a frequency differing from that
of the carrier frequency destroy the balance according to the frequencies
of the vocal currents generated by the human voice. The modulated cur-
rents are then amplified by the vacuum tubes V-3 connected in parallel.
The output circuits of these bulbs are in turn coupled to the grids
and filaments of the battery of power bulbs VA of which there may be
any number connected in parallel. The plate circuits of VA

may be
fed by a direct current dynamo or a large storage battery. Their out-
put circuits are in turn connected to the antenna system at L-12 and L-13.
Beginning extreme left-hand part of the drawing, Figure
at the
90, a circuit will
be seen containing the microphone "T," a battery B,
and an induction coil L-3, L-4, which is coupled to the input circuit of
the modulator bulb V-2. The radio frequency current modulated by the
microphone unbalances the bridge network above mentioned and the
resulting currents are amplified through the batteries of bulbs V-3 and
V-4. The oscillator F-l, of course, can be replaced by a small radio fre-
quency alternator.
Very feeble currents flowing through microphone T can control
antenna current of many kilowatts, thus greatly increasing the distances
over which wireless telephony can be carried on.
Since the carrier wave of frequency F has been eliminated by this
process, it must be supplied at the receiving station. The diagram, Figure
91, shows a radio frequency alternator A-l (for which may be substituted
a vacuum valve connectedup for the production of radio frequency os-
cillations) coupled inductively to the antenna system at L-16 and L-14.
A vacuum valve V-5 is employed for purposes of detection. It is induc-
tively coupled to the antenna circuit through coil L-15.
The inventor claims that in addition to the elimination of the waste

of energy by this system there is a slight improvement in the quality
of received signals due to the elimination of the frequency F.
57. CARSON'S PROPOSED WIRELESS TELEPHONE SYS-

TEM. Another system has been disclosed by John Carson in Figure
92, inwhich the antenna does not radiate except when the microphone is
spoken into. It is to be noted in this diagram that the field current of
a radio frequency alternator A is modulated at vocal frequencies by a
microphone T, the currents of which are amplified by a vacuum tube V.
The field windings F of the alternator are thus excited at speech fre-
quency and the amplitude of the radio frequency current generated by A
varied accordingly.
The complete microphone circuit includes the transmitter T, the
battery B, and the induction coil P, S. Winding 8 is connected to the
grid or input circuit of a three-electrode valve F, the plate or output
circuit of which includes the primary winding of an induction coil P-l
coupled to the secondary winding $-1. The secondary circuit includes the
condenser C and the field winding of the alternator F. The armature of
the alternator A is connected to the grid or input circuit of the tube F-l
whose plate circuit 0-1, L-l, may be fed with direct current from battery
or direct current dynamo. This tube repeats and amplifies the radio
frequency currents impressed upon its input circuit and the oscillations
in the output circuit are transferred to the antenna
through the coupling
L-l and L-2. The impedance of the circuit S-l, C, F to the vocal cur-
rents is reduced by condenser C.
In summary, the modulated currents of the microphone circuit T,
P, B, are amplified by bulb V, and a fluctuating current circulates
through field winding F which varies the output of the radio frequency
alternator A at a vocal frequency. A current, the reproduction of the
signalling current, therefore flows in the antenna which radiates only
Figure 92
Carson's system for wireless telephony. The output of a radio fre-
quency alternator A is varied at vocal frequency through a microphone
T and an amplifier bulb V. This in turn varies the current input in the
field windings F of the alternator.
when the microphone is in operation. The amplitude of the high fre-

quency wave radiated from the antenna is directly proportional to the
low frequency signalling wave, hence the telephone diaphragm at the
receiving station is deflected at vocal frequencies.
In ordinary systems, as we have already mentioned, there is a con-
tinuous radiation in the form of an unmodulated carrier wave even when
the transmitter is not spoken into. The transmission of this wave, be-
sides involving a waste of energy, constitutes a serious bar against the
operation of duplex systems.
58. ESPENSCHIED'S DUPLEX WIRELESS TELEPHONE

SYSTEM. Among the attempts that have been made to secure simul-
taneous transmission and reception in wireless telephony, the system
evolved by Lloyd Espenschied is of interest. A
problem of considerable
magnitude is encountered in duplex transmitting and receiving systems
HK 0000000
co
fWHKKT a
I
because of the large amounts of power used for transmitting compared

to that flowing in the receiving systems, the ratio being approximately
one million to one. This inventor believes he has solved the problem
through the use of specially devised balancing out circuits.
The embodiments of Espenschied's system are shown in the diagram
of Figure 93, additional circuits being shown in Figures, 94 95 and 96.
In the systems shown in these diagrams the inventor secures duplex
operation by employing different carrier frequencies for transmission
and reception. Through the selectivity thus afforded and by the aid of
additional balancing out circuits, either the same aerial or two different
aerialsmay be employed for simultaneous transmission and reception.
In brief, the antenna system shown in Figure 93, comprises two
parallel branches B and C which gives the complete system two natural
frequencies of oscillation. Branch B is coupled to a continuous wave
generator A-l, and branch C is coupled to a valve amplifying system in-
cluding the tubes V-l and "7-2. The speech signals are translated through
the medium of the telephone T connected in the output circuit of the
tube F-2.
Keeping in mind the enormous volume of energy flowing in the trans-

mitting branch compared to that in the receiving branch, it is clear that
some means of balancing out the effect of branch B upon the branch C
must be employed. This is accomplished by the balancing out circuit
8, 0-1, 0-2, P-l. 8 is coupled to the radio frequency generator A-l and
to the input side of the three-electrode valve at P-l, 8-1. By proper ad-
justment of the phase relation of the balancing out current and the cur-
rent of similar frequency induced in the receiving system, complete an-
nulment is secured in the branch 0. It must be remembered that the
frequency of the balancing out circuit is that of the transmitter. Hence,
only currents of this frequency are suppressed in the receiving system,
leaving it free to receive waves at a frequency differing from that of the
radio frequency alternator A-\. Careful adjustments of the couplings
P, 8, and P-l, $-1, are essential for successful operation.
The correct phase relation between the balancing currents is obtained
by proper adjustment of capacity of the condensers 0-1 and 0-2.
The circuit shown in Figure 94 is in all respects similar to Figure
93 with the exception that the balancing out circuit includes a vacuum
tube "F-3 which amplifies the effect of generator A-l. Better balance of
the opposing E.M.F.'s is thus secured.
It is thus seen that in a general way the circuits of Figures 93 and
94 simulate the circuits of wire telephony, the apparatus always being
in a position to transmit and receive.
A system involving the use of separate aerials for transmission and

T www-
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6
II
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ft
VI
^CC
Si
reception of speech signals disclosed by Espenschied is shown in Figure

95. The aerial of the transmitter is indicated at W, and of the receiv-
ing station at W-l. The source of radio frequency current for the carrier
wave is shown which is amplified by means of the
at A-l, the output of
three-electrode vacuum tubes V-l and "F-2, the output currents of the
latter tube being fed to the aerial W at the coupling P 9 S.
The receiving system embraces the coupling transformer P-l, $-1, the
incoming signal being amplified by the three-electrode tube F-3 and
detected by the tube F-4. The output circuit of Y-4 includes the receiv-
ing telephone T.
Through the transformer M and the microphone T-l, currents of

vocal frequency are impressed upon the circuit X
which also is induc-
tively coupled at M-l to the alternator A-l. The output of the alternator
is modulated at vocal frequency by T-l. The circuit X
is coupled to
antenna W
at M-3. Radio frequency current is thus withdrawn from
the antenna circuit through the circuit X
coupled to V-3 at M-2, to bal-
ance out currents of similar frequency in the receiving system. This cir-
cuit thus serves to impress currents of speech frequency upon the alter-
nator A-l and to deliver radio frequency currents to the input cir-
cuit of the tube F-3 to balance out such currents as may be induced in
the aerial W-l by W. The correct phase relation of the opposing radio
frequency currents is obtained by careful adjustment of condensers 0-1
and 0-2.
In respect to the reception of signals, it is seen that antenna W-l is

strongly responsive while antenna W
is weakly responsive to the distant
transmitter owing to the difference of frequency.
Summarizing the actions of the apparatus disclosed in Figure 95,

currents of radio frequency generated by the radio frequency alternator
^.-1 are amplified by a battery of vacuum valve tubes the output cir-
cuits of which are inductively coupled to the antenna. Circuit serves X
to conduct radio frequency current from the transmitter for balancing
out the effects of the transmitter upon the receiving system. It acts
also as a carrier of the vocal currents generated by the microphone T-l.
The system shown in Figure 96 fundamentally is similar to that

of Figure 95. The output of the radio frequency alternator A-l is
amplified by the bulb V-l, the carrier wave being modulated at a radio
frequency by the microphone T-l through the coupling M. The output
circuit of V-l is coupled to the input circuit of the valve V-2, the out-
put circuit of which is inductively coupled to the antenna through the

transformer P, 8. A balancing-out circuit shunted across circuit in- X
cluding the condenser 0-1 and the coupling M-2 serves to impress a modu-
lated radio frequency current on the input circuit of the detection tubes
y-3, T-4. Thus currents of the transmitter frequency which may be
induced in the antenna W-l are balanced out leaving the receiving sys-
tem free to respond to waves of a frequency differing from that employed
in the antenna system W. Correct phase relation of the opposing cur-
rents is obtained by means of the condenser 0-1
59. ENGLUND'S DUPLEX RADIO TELEPHONE AND

RADIO TELEGRAPH SYSTEM. We have remarked in paragraph
56 how a wave or current of speech frequency impressed upon a
vocal
radio frequency or carrier wave sets up three complex waves of fre-
quencies F -{- f, F, and F /, in which F is the frequency of the carrier
wave and / the vocal wave impressed upon the carrier wave by the
human voice through a microphone. Because the wave of frequency F
does not contain the signal frequency, /, it represents a waste of power in
the antenna system. Means were shown (in paragraph 56) whereby the
current of frequency F
could be practically eliminated at the transmitter
but be supplied at the receiver by a local generator.
Englund has recently disclosed a novel system which not only em-
bodies the foregoing principle, but in which the frequency F is employed
for telegraphic signalling. That is, the antenna is used for simultaneous
radiation of telephonic and telegraphic messages.
An
important feature of the system is the fact that telegraphic and
telephonic signals may be dispatched simultaneously at the same wave
length from one aerial and may be received upon one aerial at the re-
ceiving station. The transmitting circuits of this system are shown in
Figure 97 and the receiving circuits in Figure 98. Beginning at the
left-hand side of the drawing of Figure 97, a radio frequency alternator
A coupled to the input circuit B of a modulator bulb. Coupled to the
is
same input circuit is a microphone circuit including the microphone T,

the battery 5-3, and the transformer M-2.
The output circuit of the modulator bulb contains two branch cir-
cuitsB-l and B-2. The branch B-~L comprising the inductance and the
condenser serves as a short circuit to current of the frequency of the
generator A. The parallel circuits of branch B-2 are tuned to offer a
practically infinite impedance to currents of the generator frequency
and a low impedance to currents whose frequencies differ therefrom by
a vocal frequency.
Through the transformer M }l
currents of vocal frequency are im-
pressed upon the input circuit F
of the amplifying bulbs V-l, the out-
put circuit G being coupled to a battery of power bulbs V-2 at M-3. The
output circuits of the latter are inductively coupled to the antenna at
M-l. So far the circuit does not differ materially from that described in
paragraph 56, and as already explained, the antenna only radiates when
the transmitter T is actuated.
through the transformer M-4, and
It is to be noted, however, that
the telegraph key K-l, currents of tlie frequency of the generator can
be impressed upon the input circuit F
of the amplifying bulbs F-l.
Therefore, during the moment that the key K-l is closed, the antenna
will radiate at the frequency of the alternator F. This wave motion can
be detected at the receiving station by a receiver tuned to that fre-
quency. Thus, the current of the carrier wave is superposed upon the
modulated current induced in the antenna circuit by the microphone.
Telegraphic and telephonic signalling may then be carried on simul-,
taneously. During the time that the key K-\ is closed, the speech dis-
tortion ordinarily caused by the presence of the frequency F in the
Figure 98
Receiving apparatus in Englund's duplex system. This system will
receive telegraphic and telephonic signals simultaneously.
antenna circuit in wireless telephony, is experienced, but at all other

times the frequency of the carrier wave F is eliminated. However, it
does not interfere seriously with the signals of speech or vocal frequency.
To avoid short-circuiting the amplifiers F-l, a resistance R is placed
in series with the key circuit.
The whereby telegraphic and tele-
circuits of the receiving system
phonic signals may be recorded at the wave length simultaneously is
shown in Figure 98.
The carrier frequency F which has been eliminated at the trans-
mitting station for wireless telephony, is supplied by a local generator
A-2 which is coupled to the input side of a three-electrode valve V-3, the
output circuit of which is connected to a telephone receiver T-1,

The secondary of the receiving transformer M-3 is shunted by an

inductance L-l and a condenser 0-1, the circuit further containing the
inductances L-2, L-3 and the condensers 0-2 and 0-3. This circuit will
be found similar to B-l, B-2 of Figure 97, performing similar functions.
It is also to be noted that the input side of a vacuum tube VA
is in-
ductively coupled to L-l by transformer MA. It is in this circuit that

the telegraphic signals are detected.
Keeping in mind the functions of the branch circuits B-l and B-2,
in the transmitter, the function of those of the receiver will be readily
understood. Thus, oscillations of the carrier frequency will be shunted
through L-l, 0-1. Through the coupling MA
they are impressed upon
the input circuit of the tube VA
and detected in the telephone T-2. Cur-
rents of the carrier frequency cannot appear in the transformer M-o
which serves to couple the antenna system to the input circuit of the valve
V-3, but currents of modulated frequency are readily transformed
through i-5 because of its tuning and thus are detected in the tele-
phone T-l.
In summary, the telegraphic signals are detected in telephone T-2 and
telephonic signals in T-l. The alternator A-2 supplies the carrier fre-
quency F which has been eliminated in the telephone transmitter circuits.
Englund has disclosed another system for elimination of the carrier
frequency at the transmitting station in wireless telephony, it being a
modification of the circuits disclosed in paragraph 56. The complete
circuits are shown in Figure 99. As usual, the radio frequency carrier
wave generated by
is the source A-l which is inductively coupled to the
input side of the three-electrode tube V-l at the coupling M, the same
circuit being coupled at M-l to the transmitter circuit including the
microphone T, and the battery!?. The output circuit of V-l is inductively

coupled through M-2 to the input circuit of the power bulbs V-2. The
output circuit of the latter is, in turn, inductively coupled to the antenna
circuit as usual at MA.
Up to this point, if the transmitter T be spoken into, the antenna
would radiate at three frequencies, that is, the carrier frequency would
not be eliminated. A
special balancing-out circuit, however, is provided,
which connected to the alternator AA in the following way: The
is
input side of a vacuum tube V-3 is coupled to the alternator through

the auto-transformer M-3. The output circuit of V-3 is connected to a
phase-regulating device P, consisting of inductances, capacity and resis-
tance, as shown. This circuit is in turn tapped across the secondary wind-
ing of the transformer M-2 so that currents of the carrier frequency F
which may be induced in the circuits of M-2 are balanced out by oppo-
site phase regulation. The antenna then radiates only during the produc-
tion of the wave of vocal frequency.

PART VIII
THE DYNATRON DETECTOR AND
OSCILLATOR
60. THE DYNATRON. A recent development in the design of
the three-electrode evacuated tubes is the so-called dynatron described by
Dr. A. W. Hull *"

in the February, 1918, issue of Proceedings of the
Institute ofRadio Engineers." The fundamental construction is shown
in Figure 100. The tube contains a filament F, a perforated anode A,
and a plate P. As in the usual tube circuits, the filament is incandesced
vwvww N
R
K EXTERNAL
CIRCUIT
+
5-T N
B' 2 T-
iH
"""- J
Figure 100
Showing the fundamental construction of the
dynatron.
by a battery JB-1, and the anode is held at a positive potential by the

battery B-2.
One of the peculiar operating characteristics of the dynatron is that
within a certain region of voltages applied to the plate circuit, the device
*The dynatron is treated at length in Vol. 6, No. 1, "Proceedings of the Insti-

tute of Radio Engineers," from which the material of this chapter has been
abstracted.
151
acts as a simple rectifier, but at other values of plate voltage it acts as

a true negative resistance, namely, an applied E.M.F. will set up a cur-
rent in the wrong direction.
When the filament F is lit to incandescence electrons are attracted
to the anode A by connecting it to the positive pole of the battery B-2,
but some of them pass through the holes in the anode and strike the plate
P. If the potential difference between P and F is low, the electrons will
enter the plate and as usual set up a negative current in the external
,025
Ao
50 IOC 200
Figure 101
Characteristic curve of the dynatron.
circuit, but if the potential of P

is raised to some upper value, the pri-
mary electrons will strike it with such velocity that their impact will
cause the emission of secondary electrons (from the plate).
These electrons will be attracted to the more positive anode A. The
final electron current received by the plate is the difference between the
number of primary electrons that strike it and the number of secondary
electrons that leave it. Dr. Hull states that the number of primary elec-
trons depends upon the temperature of the filament, but they are inde-
pendent of the voltage of the plate. The number of secondary electrons
increases rapidly with the voltage difference between the plate and fila-
ment and may exceed the number of primary electrons. In fact, each
primary electron may produce as many as 20 secondary electrons.
The phenomena surrounding the functioning of the dynatron are
shown in the characteristic curve of Figure 101. The horizontal axis
represents the voltage of the plate with respect to the negative end of
the filament the vertical axis, the current in the plate circuit. The data
;
for the plotting is secured by maintaining the filament temperature at

some constant value varying the voltage of the plate to filament by mov-
ing contact T up battery. Contact T-l serves to vary the potential
tfhe
of the anode. (The anode potential when properly adjusted remains

fixed.)
At very low voltages, as is clear from the curve, the plate current
is relatively small, but at about 25 volts the plate receives the entire
electronic emission of the filament. For higher voltages the primary
electronic currents remain constant, but at values above 25 volts the
emission of secondary electrons enters the case that is, the primary elec-
;
trons strike the plate with such velocity as to cause the emission of sec-
ondary electrons which, as the curve indicates, increase rapidly with the
voltage. The net plate current therefore decreases as may be seen by fol-
lowing the downward slope of the curve.
At approximately 100 volts the number of secondary electrons leav-
ing the plate is equal to the number of primary electrons entering it.
The plate current therefore is zero. For further increases of voltage, the
secondary electrons exceed the primary electrons, that is, the plate ex-
periences a net loss of electrons. The current therefore flows in the oppo-
site direction to the impressed voltage. For still further increases of
voltage, say 200 volts, a point is reached at which the anode is no
longer sufficiently positive to carry away all the secondary electrons from
the plate, and the current again becomes a zero and then rises to a num-
ber corresponding to the number of primary electrons.
It should be noted from the curve that in the region A to C that ,
isbetween 50 and 150 volts, the current in the dynatron decreases linearly
with increase of the voltage. Here the dynatron acts as a true nega-
tive resistance. For example, if connection is made from the tap T and
the plate P, the dynatron would act the reverse to an ordinary or positive
resistance.
To make the dynatron an amplifier we insert a series resistance such
as, R, Figure 100. The value of R should be the same as the negative
resistance of the tube. The characteristic curve of the total circuit then
becomes that shown in Figure 102. It is clearly seen that in the region
of the plate voltage corresponding to E, the application of a small E.M.F.
to the circuit of Figure 100 such as by connection to the terminals N, N,
will cause a very large change in the total current through the circuit,
the amplification only being limited by the characteristic curve itself.
It is pointed out that while the total resistance of the circuit of Figure
E. M.
*
Figure 102
'
The characteristic curve of the dynatron for voltage amp Nation.

1
100 is very small, the resistance of its parts individually is not. There-
fore, a smallchange in applied E.M.F. will cause a comparatively large
change in current and consequently in the voltage drop across each part
separately. The dynatron thus becomes a powerful amplifier.
61. THE DYNATRON AS AN OSCILLATOR. The plate cir-

cuit of the dynatron if connected to an inductance-capacity circuit will
oscillate at a frequency determined largely by the values of L and (7.
Such a circuit is shown in Figure 103, where the inductance L is shunted
by the condenser C, both being connected in series with the circuit of the
plate P. Since there is but one oscillating circuit it affords greater sim-
plicity in manipulation than the usual regenerative systems. Connected
as in Figure 103 the dynatron may be employed to generate the local
radio frequency currents for beat reception or for radio frequency meas-
urements. Currents at frequencies from one-half to 20,000,000 cycles
per second are readily obtained.
Figure 103
The connections of the dynatron for the production of radio fre-
quency currents.
62. THE DYNATRON AS A DETECTOR OF ELECTRICAL

OSCILLATIONS. If connected as in Figure 104, the dynatron can be
employed to detect electrical oscillations in radio. For example, if

the plate potential is adjusted by moving the sliding contact T, Figure
100, over the high voltage battery B-2 we arrive at the points C or in A
Figure 101. The radio frequency current impressed upon the plate cir-
cuit, which in this case includes the secondary inductance L-2, the shunt
condenser (7-2, the telephone P-l and the shunt condenser C-l, will, if the
dynatron is worked near either point A
or C, be repeated through the
telephone with distortion; that is, there will be obtained a radio fre-
quency component of the plate current the increase of which exceeds the
decrease, i. e., a rectification. The telephone, therefore, will be impulsed
once for each group of incoming oscillations. The distributed capacity
of the telephone winding P-l will be sufficient to pass the radio frequency
current flowing in the secondary circuit, but owing to the high inductance
of the telephone windings the circuit is apt to oscillate at an audio fre-
quency. Audio frequency oscillation may be prevented by shunting the

telephone to a condenser 0-1 of suitable capacity.
The circuit of Figure 104be set to oscillate at a frequency
may
slightly different than that of the
incoming signals thereby producing
beats. Further advantage can be obtained by tuning the circuit includ-
ing the telephone P-l and the condenser (7-1 to the desired audio fre-
quency. This is accomplished by adjusting the capacity of C-l and the
negative resistance of the tube to neutralize the resistance of the tele-
phone P-l to a particular audio or group frequency. If the frequency of
the circuit coincides with the group frequency of the incoming oscilla-
tions, the sensitiveness of the system becomes very great.
In a circuit of this kind, the energy consumed in the detector does
not decrease the amplification because the dynatron can be adjusted
just to neutralize this loss. The selectivity is therefore relatively great,
for the detector absorbs no energy as in circuits heretofore; i. e., the
damping is not increased by the detector.
C-i
Figure 104
Connections of the dynatron as an oscillation detector in radio.
63. THE DYNATRON AS A COMPENSATOR FOR CIR-

CUIT LOSSES. Two circuits disclosed by Dr. Hull show how the
dynatron may be employed to supply the energy losses in any oscillation
circuit. The circuit therefore behaves as regards selectivity, damping
and an impressed radio frequency current like a circuit
sensitiveness, to
having zero resistance, that is, the dynatron feeds back to the circuit
that energy which ordinarily is lost by "positive" resistance. In the
diagram of Figure 105, the dynatron is connected in the plate circuit
of a three-electrode tube for aperiodic amplification. The filament of the
three-electrode tube is shown at F, the grid at G, and the plate at P. The
dynatron is indicated by the filament F', the anode A', and the plate P'.
The filament F
is incandesced by the battery J5-1, the filament F' by the
battery #-2, and the anode of the dynatron is held at a positive potential
by the battery B-3. Battery 5-4 is that normally of the plate circuit P,
but it includes the resistance E and the current translator P-l, R being
adjusted just to neutralize the negative resistance of the. dynatron F', A',
P'. The current through the pliotron and for constant grid voltage in
creases with increasing voltage of the plate, that is, the circuit has
the characteristics of a positive resistance which limits its amplifying
power, but this may be neutralized by connecting the dynatron as shown
in Figure 105.
VALVE DYNATRON
VOLTAGE
TO BE
AMPLIFIED
T
Figure 105
The dynatron connected to compensate for the losses in the piate cir-
cuit of a three-electrode vacuum tube.
Using a pliotron of 100,000 ohms resistance and a series resistance,

R, of 250,000 ohms, Dr. Hull states that the D. C. voltage amplification
was increased from 12 fold for the pliotron to 625 fold for the circuit
of Figure 105.
The dynatron connected to compensate the grid circuit losses of a

pliotron is shown in Figure 106. An increase of the voltage of the grid
DYNATRON
Figure 106
The dynatron connected to compensate for the losses in the grid
circuit of a three-electrode vacuum tube.
of the pliotron detector is opposed by a leakage current which increases

with the voltage as in a positive resistance, and also by the counter
E.M.F. and losses in its own and coupled antenna circuit. These
losses maybe neutralized by connecting a dynatron in parallel with the
grid circuit of the pliotron as in Figure 106. It is remarked that with
this arrangement the intensity of weak signals from a spark set was in-
creased from audibility to a roar.
Figure 107
The pliodynatron.
64. THE PLIODYNATRON. As in the usual three-electrode

tube, the electrostatic field of a grid may be employed to control the
number of electrons reaching the plate in a dynatron. A
tube con-
structed in this way, shown in Figure 107, is called a pliodynatron. Its
construction is in all respects similar to the simple dynatron with the
exception of the grid surrounding the filament.

The negative resistance of the pliodynatron makes it a powerful
amplifier. In the simple pliotron an increase of grid potential by in-
creasing the current through the load in the plate circuit and therefore
the voltage drop over the load lowers the voltage of the plate and this
tends to decrease the plate current and to oppose the effect of the grid. In
the pliodynatron, a decrease in the plate voltage means an increase in
current which may be very large if the positive and negative resistances
are adjusted equally.
65. THE PLIODYNATRON AS A DETECTOR. The circuit

for the pliodynatron as a detector of radio frequency currents is shown
in Figure 108, the primary winding of the receiving tuner being indi-
cated at L-l, the secondary winding at L-2, the shunt condenser at 0-1,
the grid element at G, the filament at F, the anode at A, and the plate
at P. The filament is incandesced by B-l and the anode is excited by the
battery B-2. The potential of the plate P in respect to the anode is regu-
lated by the variable contact T at the battery B-2. The plate circuit in-
Figure 108
The connections of the pliodynatron as a detector of radio frequency
currents.
eludes the inductance L-3, a shunt condenser 0-2 and the telephone con-
denser 0-3. The function of the circuit L-3, 0-2, is to increase the selec-
tivity of the circuit or to amplify the incoming signal. Thus the cir-
cuit jC-3, 0-2, may be set on the verge of oscillation for the reception of
damped waves, or set into oscillation at a slightly different frequency

than that of the incoming signal, for the reception of undamped waves.
Used in the latter way, beats will occur in the plate circuit. The circuit
P-l, 0-3, can be tuned to the beat frequency for greater selectivity. This
circuit can be brought to the verge of oscillation at an audio frequency by
adjusting the negative resistance. The final adjustment for radio fre-
quency tuning is made by varying the ratio of L-3 to 0-2, keeping their
product constant for any particular applied frequency.
66. THE PLIODYNATRON IN RADIO TELEPHONY. The

pliodynatron may be employed to generate the required radio frequency
current for radio telegraphic or telephonic transmission, as has already
been shown in Figure 103. The circuit for radio telephony is shown in
Figure 109. The primary circuit L-l, 0, is inductively coupled to the
antenna through coils L } Owing to the instability of a circuit pos-

L-l.
sessing negative resistance, oscillations will occur in the circuit L-l, C, at
a frequency varying as their product. The amplitude of these oscilla-
tions may be controlled by the grid G, which is connected to one leg of
the secondary winding of a speech frequency transformer. The other
leg of this transformer is connected to one terminal of the plate battery
Figure 109
The connections of the pliodynatron in wireless telephony.
B-2. A microphone M and a battery BA cause speech frequency varia-

tions of the potential of the grid to the filament and the amplitude of the
energy radiated from the antenna is varied in accordance.

Dr. Hull reports that with a small tube giving about ten watts it
became possible to telephone by wireless sixteen miles with good inten-
sity and articulation.
APPENDIX
Diagrams Illustrating Certain Fundamental Actions of the
Vacuum Tube as an Oscillation Detector
In Radio Telegraphy
Figure 1
The filament F when heated by battery B-l emits electrons which are
drawn to plate P when it is connected to the positive pole of a high voltage
battery such as B-2. Current from battery B-2 then flows from P to the nega-
tive side of F through the telephones back to the negative terminal of the
battery. (It is to be noted that the assumed direction of the current is opposite
to the flow of electrons.)
. 161
Figure 2
If filament F and plate P are connected to the terminals of a coil L-l in

which is induced an alternating E.M.F. the valve is conductive in the direction
from P to F but not in the opposite way. Hence the alternating current in-
duced in coil L-l is rectified and the telephone P-l is traversed by uni-direc-
tional currents.
Figure 3
element called the grid, G, is inserted between the filament

If a metallic
and plate captures a certain number of electrons and its potential is lowered
it
thereby reducing the flow of current from P to F. In other words, the flow of
current from B-2 is reduced.
P-2
Figure 4
If the grid, G, ischarged to a sufficiently high negative potential relative

to the filamentby an external E.M.F. such as may be supplied by a battery B-3,
the flow of electrons from the plate is completely obstructed. The circuit of
the battery B-2 from P to F is then opened.
Figure 5
If the grid G is charged to a positive potential by an external E.M.F. nor-

mal flow of electrons to the plate takes place and the circuit of battery B-2 is
restored.
L-3
Figure 6
If the terminals of a coil such as L-l are connected to the grid, G, and
the filament, F, and an alternating E.M.F. of radio or audio frequency is
induced therein, the negative alternation reduces the flow of electrons between
F and P-and the positive alternation increases the flow of electrons between
F and P. The plate current therefore rises and falls at the frequency of the
E.M.F. impressed upon the grid circuit. An alternating current of increased
power can then be withdrawn from the terminals C, D, of the coil L-3. The
additional energy for amplification is supplied by the source B-2. Within a
certain range of applied E.M.F's. the current impressed upon the grid circuit
will be repeated in the plate circuit B-2, L-2 without distortion. On the other
hand, under certain adjustments of filament temperature and plate voltage, what
amounts to a rectified current will flow through the coil L-2 when an alternat-
ing E.M.F. is impressed upon the filament F and the grid G; that is, the posi-
tive halves of the repeated plate currents may exceed the negative halves or
vice versa.
Figure 7
By inserting a grid battery B-3, shunted by the potentiometer, P-2, in

the grid circuit of the valve F, G, the potential of the grid in respect to
the filament can be maintained so that the negative half of an impressed al-
ternating E.M.F. causes a very slight reduction of the plate current and the
positive half a great increase of the plate current. This effect is obtained
when the tube is worked at the lower bend of the characteristic curve. At
the upper bend, the reverse effect takes place, that is, the negative half of an
impressed alternating E.M.F. decreases the plate current greatly, and the posi-
tive half increases it slightly. In either case, what amounts to a rectified cur-
rent flows in the plate circuit P, B-2, L-2, P-l, F. The same effect is obtained
from the circuit in Figure 6, but with the potentiometer and battery of Figure 7
it is less difficult for the operator to obtain the desired operating charac-
teristic.
B-2
P-l
Figure 8
By connecting a condenser C in series with the grid, groups of radio fre-

quency oscillations such as A, B, C are rectified between G and F, the con-
denser C accumulating a charge which is negative on the grid side of C. This
increased negative potential reduces the electron current from filament to plate,
that is, the flow of current from battery B-2 is reduced. At the termination of a
group of grid oscillations the charge leaks out the condenser C, either through
the valve or through a special leak resistance. The grid then returns to normal
potential, and the plate current returns to normal value. The telephone P-l will
then be impulsed once for each group of radio frequency oscillations. During
the time that the radio frequency oscillations undergo rectification, the radio
frequency current impressed upon the grid circuit is repeated in the plate cir-
cuit, but this current is not heard in the telephone P-l because its frequency
is above audition.
L-i
(JQOOOIK
Figure 9
By coupling the plate and grid circuits of the vacuum tube through a
transformer such as P', S either the radio or audio frequency variation of the
continuous plate current (such as is obtained during the reception of wireless
signals) can be impressed upon the grid and re-enforced; that is, part of the
energy in the plate circuit is fed back to the grid circuit for amplification. If
it is desired to amplify radio frequencies, transformers P', S, is an air core
radio frequency transformer, but for the amplification of audio frequencies,
windings P' and S may have a henry or more inductance and be provided with
an iron core. A circuit of this kind is termed a regenerative system. Incom-
ing radio signals may thus be enormously amplified.
If the coupling of P' to S

is sufficiently close, the valve will be set into
an audio frequency. The tube thus becomes a gen-

self-oscillation at a radio or
erator of sustained oscillations which may be employed for transmission of
radio telephonic or telegraphic signals, or for the reception of continuous waves
by the phenomenon of beats or otherwise.
B-5
Figure 10
If groups of radio frequency oscillations, such as A, B, C, are impressed

upon the coil L-l, the plate circuit including the coil L-2 is traversed by an
audio and a radio frequency current. Either the audio or radio frequency
component of the continuous plate current can be amplified by coupling L-2
to the grid circuit of asecond valve F', G' P' through coil L-3. If the audio
frequency component is to be amplified, L-2, L-3 is an iron core transformer
of audio frequency dimensions; but if it is desired to amplify the radio fre-
quency component of the continuous plate current, transformer L-2, L-3 is of
the air core type and of radio frequency dimensions. Several tubes may be
connected in this way for further amplification. Cascade amplifiers are used
in wire telephony for the amplification of long-distance telephone signals as
well as in radio. In fact, the tubes may be employed to amplify the input of
any variable wave form.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
INTRODUCTION
Ques. (1) State the distinction drawn between audio and radio frequency
currents.
Ques. (2) How may radio frequency currents be made audible in a telephone
receiver?
Ques. (3) State three methods by which continuous oscillations may be made
audible in a telephone.
Ques. (4) If a single group of radio frequency oscillations are rectified by an

oscillation detector, what is the effect upon the telephone
diaphragm?
Ques. (5) What are the two fundamental circuits of the inductively coupled
receiving tuner?
Ques. (6) How is the receiver transformer and associated tuning apparatus
adjusted to establish resonance with the distant transmitter?
Ques. (7) Over what range of frequencies will the telephone receiver give
maximum response with a minimum of current?
PART I
Ques. (1) What is the direction of the electron current within the two-
electrode tube?
Ques. (2) Explain by diagram a simple test by which the rectifying properties
of the tube can be demonstrated.
Ques. (3) Explain what is meant by the non-uniform conductivity of the

vacuum tube; how can advantage be taken of the tube's non-
uniform conductivity in the reception of radio signals?
Ques. (4) Explain the phenomena of the tube which cause it to reach the
point of saturation.
169
PART II
Ques. (1) Show by diagram three practical circuits for the two-electrode valve
as an oscillation detector in radio.
Ques. (2) What is the effect of inserting the grid element in a two-electrode
vacuum tube?
Ques. (3) If the grid is charged to a high negative potential by an external

E.M.F., how does it affect the electron current; similarly what
is the effect if the grid is charged to a positive potential?
Ques. (4) If an alternating E.M.F. be impressed upon the grid and filament of
the three-electrode tube, state what occurs in the plate circuit?
Ques. (5) Explain the functioning of the three-electrode valve as an oscilla-

tion detector with a grid condenser.
Ques. (6) Explain the action of the three-electrode tube as an oscillation de-
tector without the grid condenser.
Ques. (7) What adjustments are necessary in order that the three-electrode
tube may be employed as a distortionless repeater?
Ques. (8) How can the three-electrode tube be adjusted to set up a rectified
current in its plate circuit?
Ques. (9) What is the effect of tuning the plate circuit of the three-electrode
tube?
Ques. (10) Explain what is meant by the "input" and "output" circuits of the
vacuum tube.
PART III
Ques. (1) Explain what is meant by a cascade connection of vacuum tubes.
Ques. (2) What are the principal points of difference between the cascade
radio frequency amplifier and the cascade audio frequency
amplifier?
Ques. (3) Which of the two cascade systems (radio or audio frequency) gives
the greatest selectivity?
PART IV
Ques. (1) What is the effect of regenerative coupling in the
'
vacuum tube
system?
Ques. (2) Explain how the radio frequency regenerative amplifier is adjusted
to amplify damped oscillations?
Ques. (3) What are the differences between the audio frequency regenerative
amplifier and the radio frequency regenerative amplifier?
Ques. (4) Show by diagram a circuit employing electrostatic regenerative

coupling.
Ques. (5) If during the reception of radio signals the incoming currents are
repeated without distortion in the plate circuit, how can the
repeated plate currents be made audible in the telephone?
PART V
Ques. (1) What are the advantages of a combined regenerative and cascade
amplification system?
Ques. (2) For selectivity, which is preferable, the audio frequency regenerative
cascade system or the radio frequency regenerative cascade
system?
PART VI
Ques. (1) State three methods by which continuous oscillations may be made
audible in the head telephone.
Ques. (2) Explain the fundamental theory of the beat receiver.
Ques. (3) What are the advantages of the beat receiver over the tikker?
Ques. (4) Show by diagram and explain the functioning of the external-
heterodyne receiver and the self-heterodyne receiver.
Ques. (5) Explain how the circuits of the three-electrode tube can be set into
oscillation at a radio frequency.
Ques. (6) Show the circuits of an audio frequency tuning system.
Ques. (7) What are the advantages of an audio frequency tuner?
Ques. (8) Show by diagram how continuous waves may be detected by the
vacuum tube without employing the beat phenomenon.
Ques. (9) What are the advantages of a cascade regenerative system for beat
reception?
Ques. (10) Why is amplification obtained through the use of open circuit
oscillators?
Ques. (11) Show by diagram how the three-electrode tube may be connected
up for the generation of radio or audio frequency currents.
PART VII
Ques. (1) Explain three methods by which the antenna currents of a radio
telephone transmitter may be modulated at a vocal frequency.
Ques. (2) In what part of the circuits of the three-electrode vacuum tube is
the connection of the microphone transmitter most effective for
modulation?
Ques. (3) Show by diagram how the vacuum tube may be connected up for
the production of radio frequency oscillations and include a
battery of tubes for the amplification of their output.
Ques. (4) Show by diagram how the carrier wave in radio telephony can be
eliminated except at such times as the microphone is actuated.
PART VIII
Ques. (1) What are the fundamental points of difference between the con-
struction of the dynatron and the three-electrode vacuum tube?
Ques. (2) Show the circuits of the dynatron for use as a detector of electrical
oscillation.
Ques. (3) Show the circuits of the pliodynatron as an oscillation detector in

radio.
Ques. (4) Explain the operation of the dynatron as an oscillation detector

from its characteristic curve.
INDEX
Page Page
"A MPLIFIER
cascade audio frequency. 57, 58, 159
PLECTRON
*-*
definition of 20, 21
cascade radio frequency 51, 52
combined radio and audio fre-
quency cascade 61 DR. j. A
PLEMING, Oscillation 19
curves of cascade 55, 56 Fleming Valve.... 21, 37
regenerative vacuum valve.. 62, 76 action of simple 29
Armstrong, Capt. E. H 19 non-uniform conductivity of.. 24 .
Audio frequency tuning. .100, 101, 102

. practical circuits for.. 33, 34, 35, 36
Audio and radio frequency currents rectifying properties of 23
definition of 1 saturation characteristic of 26
space charge of . . . 28
.,
T3EAT CURRENTS 5 temperature limitation of 27, 28

13 Beat Receiver Franklin's "Reaction" Circuits 73, 74
curves of 90, 91
phenomena of 86, 87, 88
regenerative type of 97, 98 HETERODYNE RECEIVER
amplification by 119, 120, 121
theory of 84, 85, 86
Beat Reception from damped wave selectivity by the 92 91,
transmitters 113 simple type of 88, 89
with vacuum valve, as detec-
tor 92, 93
(CASCADE AMPLIFICATION.. 108
^* of
Coils, multilayered type 12
Continuous oscillations, detection of 5
T NDUCTANCE
Continuous waves 13
multipoint tuning
reception of 82, 83, 84
Ions, positive and negative 20
reception of, without beats 103, 107
.
reception of, by rotary con-

denser 114, 115
TTENOTRON
JV 122,123
connections for 126
DETECTOR, OSCILLATION
coherer 4
dynatron , 156 T ANGUMUIR, DR. IRVING. ... 19
Fleming 21
Marconi magnetic 4
pliodynatron 159
slipping contact type of
three-electrode
two-electrode
5
37
22
^
OSCILLATIONS,
and
damped
ELECTRICAL
undamped 2
detection of continuous 5
Dynatron Oscillators, open circuit. .. .116, 117, 118
as an amplifier 154
as an oscillator 155
as a detector 155, 156 pLATE
*-
CURRENT
as a compensator of energy radio and audio frequency com-
losses 157, 158, 159 ponent of 48
173
Page
Pliotron 123, 124, 125
as generator of high voltage at necessity for ................. 11
Tuned Plate Circuit .............. 49, 50
radio frequencies 127, 128
as generator of heavy currents Armstrong's ............ 66, 67, 68
Transmitter
at radio frequencies 125, 126 radio frequency circuits of ____ 12
connections for 126
Pliodynatron
as a detector 159
in radio telephony 159, 160 , THREE-ELECTRODE
characteristic curve of
AV ECEIVER
T> 38, 39, 43, 44, 48, 49
modified as an electron relay 41
Weagant undamped as generator of radio frequency
wave 103, 104
oscillations 95
telephone, phenomena of
1, 17
15, 16,
apparatus for obtaining char-
acteristic curve of 40
Weagant undamped wave.. 102, 103
Receiver Circuits fundamental construction of. .. 37
conductive type of 10
modified open circuit, oscilla-.
tors for 118
electrostatically coupled type of 10
inductive type of 9 open circuit, oscillators for. 116, 117
rectification by 47
open oscillator type of 11
Receiver Telephone 15 relaying action of 44
action of 16, 17 terminology of 41
use of, with grid condenser.. 45
Regenerative Amplifier
Armstrong's
63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72
audio frequency 69
combined audio and radio fre- WAVE SYSTEMS
quency 70 between continuous
distinction
electrostatic and direct mag- and discontinuous
netic coupling for 70, 71 Weagant, Roy A 19
simple type of 75, 76
Wireless Telephony
ultra-audion 72 Englunds' system for
Regenerative Cascade Systems .77, 78, 79
. 135, 136, 137, 138, 146
audio frequency 80 147, 148, 149, 150
Regenerative Cascade Systems for Espenschied's duplex system
beat reception.... 109, 110, 111, 112 for 140, 145
Rectifiers Carson's system for 139
types of 3 Hund's system for 134, 135
use of 3 Simple circuits of three-elec-
trode tube for.. 131, 132, 133, 134
SELECTIVITY IN RADIO RE-

CEIVERS 14
Self-heterodyne
phenomena of the 99
"Y
-^ CIRCUIT RECEIVER
R. Weagant ....102, 103, 104
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PRACTICAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
By ELMER E. BUCHER
Instructing Engineer Marconi Company
of the
Revised Edition, enlarged, with new chapter on Location

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This book is the last word in wireless text books. It furnishes much
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PRACTICAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY is the first wireless
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Three chapters are devoted entirely how to tune a transmitter and receiv-
to basic electrical principles. The ing set, how to measure inductance and
motor-generator, the dynamotor and capacity of radiotelegraphic circuits,
rotary converter are treated in detail. how to determine the strength of in-
The nickel-iron and lead plate storage coming signals and the method of plot-
batteries, now supplied for emergency ting resonance curves. A complete ex-
purposes with all commercial radio planation of ships' tuning records, Gpv-
equipments are the subject of an entire ernment tuning cards and everything
chapter, a description of the apparatus pertaining to the adjustment of a wire-
associated with the charging of bat-
jess telegraph
transmitter and receiver
teries and complete instructions for is published,
their care being furnished. The emergency transmitters and aux-
The radio transmitter is treated both iliary power apparatus of modern ship
in theory and in practice. The book wireless sets are thoroughly described
contains complete diagrams, photo- and illustrated. Descriptions in detail
graphs and descriptions of modern and principle of the Marconi direction
commercial marine transmitters and finder are given and modern undamped
instructions for the adjustment and wave transmitters and receivers are
operation of the apparatus. Receiving comprehensively told of.
apparatus is treated in like manner, de- The for the first time, is
student,
scriptions and working instructions given a complete description of Mar-
being given for all types of up-to-date coni transoceanic stations, including
receiving sets, including the two and their fundamental working principles,
three-electrode valves. the details of the apparatus and the
A full chapter is devoted to practical general plan of the great globe-gird-
radio measurements, showing in detail ling scheme of the Marconi system.
The 340 illustrations alone, specially drawn, form a complete dia-

grammatic study and impress upon the reader's mind a pictorial outline of
the entire subject. Many of these illustrations reveal details of construc-
tion of the newest types of sets and apparatus never before published.
PRACTICAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY is a practical man's
book from cover to cover and up to the minute. Size 330 pp. 6x9 inches,
handsomely bound in full cloth with cover stamping in gold and black.
Price $1.50 net. Mailing weight 2 Ibs.
Postage as per Postal Rate schedule.
This volume has been a very expensive one to prepare. Ordinarily it would
be priced at $2.50, but to meet the requirements of students and amateurs for a
IDT
moderate priced, up-to-date text the lower price has been fixed.
ELM
Specialists in
Wireless Literature W
\Y7*
irelCSS II CSS, lllC.
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NEW YORK, N. Y.
ST.
At Last a Practical Book tor Aviators
Practical Aviation for Military Airmen

By MAJOR J. ANDREW WHITE
Author of "Military Signal Corps Manual."
Chief Signal Officer, American Guard.
A complete text for intensive study. It provides all fundamental information required
to prepare an aviator for actual flying.
Each component part of the airplane is shown by diagram and principles and methods
of operation are concisely stated in detail therewith.
It treats broadly many subjects not covered in general aeronautic text books.
CONTENTS
Principles of flight; construction of the airplane; rigging; directions for first flights,
cross-country and night flying construction, operation and care of engines
;
reconnais- ;
sance, map reading, signaling and co-operation with military bodies radio and its uses ; ;
machine gunnery and bombing from airplanes, etc.

Cloth, Price $1.50 Ready About September First
How to Pass U. S. Government Wireless

License Examinations
By E. E. BUCHER
New Edition Largely Revised and Extended. 142 Questions and Answers
An ideal quiz book when used with PRACTICAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
CONTENTS
Explanation of Electrical Symbols Definitions of Electrical Terms Part I. Transmitting
Apparatus Part II. Motor Generators Part III. Storage Batteries and the Auxiliary
Set Part IV. Antenna of Aerials Part V. Receiving Apparatus Part VI. Radio
Laws and Regulations Part VII. General Information Concerning Operator's License
Examinations Practical Equations for Radio Telegraphy Equations for Ordinary Power
Work -
PRICE 50c. Net
Elementary Principles of Wireless Telegraphy

By R. D. BANGAY
Since the book has been used largely in the training of Telegraphists who are frequently
called upon to take sole charge of complete Wireless Telegraph installations, the author
has endeavored to cover all parts of the transmitting and receiving apparatus in such
a way as to give the student a sound working knowledge of the apparatus entrusted
to his care.
CONTENTS
Continental Code Symbols Used in Diagrams Electricity and Magnetism Magnetism
The Principles of Wave Motion Pressure Waves Production of Waves Production of
High-Frequency Oscillations Production of Oscillating Currents in an Aerial Coupled
Oscillatory Circuits The Wavemeter Wireless Telegraph Receivers The Tuning Buzzer
The Electrolytic Detector The Magnetic Detector "Atmospherics" Aerials Distribu-
tion of Potential and Current Along Aerials Masts The Insulation of Aerials INDEX.
Cloth, PRICE $1.00
Radio Instruments and Measurements

A valuable reference book for every day use.
Every instructor and teacher of radio, whether teaching in college or Government training
school will find this book a valuable addition to his radio library.
CONTENTS
Part Theoretical basis of radio measurements. The fundamentals of electromagnetism.
I.
Theprinciples of alternating currents. Radio circuits. Damping.
Part II. Instruments and methods of radio measurement. Wave meters. Condensers.
Coils. Current measurement. Resistance measurement. Sources of high-frequency
current.
Part III. Formulas and Data. Calculation of capacity. Calculation of inductance.
Design of inductance coils. High-frequency resistance. Miscellaneous formulas and
data -
In Press-Ready September first
Specialists in
Wireless Literature WIRELESS PRESS, Inc.
RADIO TELEPHONY
By Alfred N. Goldsmith, Ph. D.
Fellow of the Institute of Radio Engineers
Member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Director of the Radio Telegraphic and Telephonic Laboratory
of the College of the City of New York
This complete text on radio telephony is intended for radio engineers,

radio electricians in the Navy, men in the Signal Corps and especially
men in the Aviation Service who handle radio equipment. Amateurs and
others who desire to be clearly informed concerning this newest and most
interesting branch of electric communication will want this book.
written in clear style, and presupposes very little knowledge of

It is
radio. Thetext deals largely with the practical aspects of radio teleph-
ony and its future. It is copiously illustrated with wiring diagrams and
previously unpublished photographs of "wireless telephone" apparatus.
IT IS THE ONLY BOOK TREATING THE SUBJECT OF RADIO

TELEPHONY IN ALL ITS ASPECTS.
Among the unusual features of the book are a description of how
radio telephony was carried on over a distance of more than 5,000 miles ;
an illustrated description of an airplane radio telephone set an illustrated

;
description of a large ship radiophone set numerous illustrated sections

;
on smaller ship "wireless telephone" transmitters; land station radio

telephone sets of all sizes.
Another noteworthy feature is a description of the method of trans-
mitting a radio telephone message to a ship at sea, or across continent or
ocean, including the number of persons involved. This material is in
dialogue form and so worded as to require no previous knowledge of
the subject.
Among the topics treated are the construction and operation of the
:
Armstrong oscillating audion circuits the construction and use of bulb

;
amplifiers ;
the construction of the great alternators of the Alexanderson
and Goldschmidt systems and how they are controlled, especially for
radio telephony.
The book is very complete, practically every aspect of radio teleph-

ony being covered in detail. Thereâre over 400 separate topics listed in
a carefully prepared index.
8vo. 256 pages. 226 illustrations.

Full cloth, stamped in gold. Price $2.00 net.
Specialists in ELM ST
Wireless Literature W
\Y7ivo1ooc Pwaee IIIC.
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NEW
25
YORK, N. Y.
'
MILITARY SIGNAL CORPS MANUAL
By Major J. Andrew White
Chief Signal Officer of the American Guard, Member Institute of
Radio Engineers, Acting President National Wireless Association
This manual, the first and the only complete work on the broad
of its kind
subject of army signaling,indispensable to those responding to the call to the
is
colors. Primarily prepared for Signal Corps men, it is a necessity for the proper
understanding of apparatus and the tactical employment of troops and equipment.
Officers of infantry and artillery will find the volume of great utility, a proper
conception of the enormously enlarged Service of Information being indispensable
to all commissioned men.
Its contents include administration and government of military units
tactics of the division on the march, at rest and in engagement function and
operations of the Signal Corps and its relation to the line of the army drill
instruction,mounted and dismounted, for telegraph companies, radio and outpost
companies, and battalions of Signal Corps signaling by telegraph, heliograph,
night lantern and flags, radio and service buzzer camp and field telephones and
their uses radio apparatus of the Signal Corps scouting, patrolling and tactical
employment of field lines.
Prepared with the full co-operation and approval of the Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army.
CONTENTS
Part I. Organization
The Signal Corps, An Auxiliary Branch of the Army. The Signal Corps'
Relation to the Line of the Army. Aircraft. Government and Administration.
Military Courtesy. Personnel. Proficiency Test for Companies of Signal Troops.
Part II. Drill Instruction
General Principles. Definitions. Commands and Signals. School of the
Soldier. Physical Training. School of the Squad. Instruction with Arms. The
Company Dismounted. The Soldier Mounted. Elementary Collective Instruction
Mounted. Field Signal Troops. The Wire Company. The Radio Company. The
Outpost Company. The Field Battalion. Telegraph Signal Troops. The Tele-
graph Company. The Telegraph Battalion. Base Line Signal Troops. Depot
Signal Troops. Ceremonies. Reviews. Inspections. Funeral Escort. The
Standard. The Guidon. Manual of the Saber.
Part III. Technical Instruction and Apparatus
Telegraphy and Telephony. The Voltaic Cell, Ohm's Law, and Primary and
Secondary Batteries. The Camp Telephone and the Buzzer. Induction Telegraph
Set. Radio-telegraphy. Radio Apparatus of the Signal Corps. Visual Signaling
Equipment. Flag Kits. The Heliograph. The Acetylene Lantern. Technical
Equipment of Personnel.
Part IV. Transmission
Transmission of Military Information. General Instructions for Army Sig-
naling. The American Morse Code. The International Morse or General Service
Code. Instruction in Garrison. Visual Stations. Telegraphy. Visual Signaling
in General. Signaling by Flag, Torch and Lantern, or Beam or Searchlight
(without Shutter). Signaling with Heliograph, Flash Lantern, or Searchlight,
(with Shutter). The Ardois System. Signaling by Two-Arm Semaphore. Sig-
naling by Hand Flags. General Instructions for Locating and Operating Visual
Stations. Letter Codes. Telegraph Code Books and Ciphers. Conventional and
Preconcerted Signals with Rockets, Bombs, Small Arms and Guns. Flag Signals
by Permanent Hoist. Emergency Signals. Conventional Telephone Signals.
Part V. Field Service
Signal Troops in the Field. Reconnaissance, Patrolling and Scouting. Mili-
tary Map Reading. Signal Troops in Field Service. Field Lines. Camps.
Company Guard Mounting. The Signal Corps and General Coast Defense. Coast
Defense Information in War.
Cloth. 588 pages. 260 illustrations. Price $1.50 net.
Specialists in
W
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1161688
D 1688,
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Wireless Literature
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST BATE
STAMPED BELOW
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WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH
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OVERDUE.
JAN 1 6 1936
LD 21-20m-6,'32
YC 33545
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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BBS

HOW TO PASS U. S. GOVERN-

HOW TO CONDUCT A RADIO

For more detailed descriptions of these books see

Instructing Engineer, Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America

A series ofgraphic charts in the appendix reveals the functioning of the

daylight, and up to 6,000 miles in darkness. Any experimenter may

TO THE STUDENT AND EXPERIMENTER

detector, amplifier, and generator of radio frequency currents is well

THE OSCILLATION VALVE IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE OSCILLATION VALVE

1. AUDIO AND RADIO FREQUENCY CURRENTS. It is

ding line. The following definition is therefore of immediate importance :

(1) Currents of frequency above cycles

2 Vacuum Tubes In Wireless Communication

electricwaves for the dispatch of wireless messages from ship to ship

2. DAMPED AND UNDAMPED OSCILLATIONS. There

Continuous oscillations are generated by

*TMs statement applies to a sinusoidal E.M.F.

Several groups of discontinuous oscillations are shown in Figure 1.

occurring at audio frequency. Currents of similar frequency flow in the

tromagnetic waves. These waves generate in the receiver aerial cur-

directly in a telephone, but by various means these groups may be

(a) The Use of Rectifiers. Audible response in a telephone may

Among the crystalline elements possessing the ability to rectify high

tivity between a hot lamp filament and a metallic element inserted in a

istics, the rectification may be accompanied by a relaying action and

amplification of signals may thus be secured. This is particularly true

In this method of reception as with the crystal rectifiers, the tele-

(b) The Detection of Continuous Oscillations. If we connect a

no sound will therefore be produced except at the opening and closing

Among the many methods through whichcontinuous radio frequency

rupter connected in some part of the receiving system to interrupt the

beat currents. In brief, if two radio frequency currents of slightly dif-

frequencies, beat currents occurring at an audible frequency suitable

(c) Between Continuous and Discontinuous Wave

damped wave systems and particularly the problems involved in the

transformer. The frequency of the current is 500 cycles per second.

gap. The discharge, as is well known, gives rise to radio frequency

Each alternation of the charging current, therefore, releases in the

already explained, the frequency of the uni-directional pulses 0-3 is

3. RECEIVER CIRCUITS. In general, a modern radio receiv-

(1) the open circuit;

(the aerial tuning inductance), the receiving aerial responds to longer

When radio frequency currents flow through L-l, an alternating

Conductive or direct coupling may be employed as in Figure 7, or so-

ticular advantage for use with oscillation detectors whose response is

(a) The Necessity for Tuning. It is 'essential for best results in

any two open and closed oscillation

maximum value. If the energy consumption of the detector is large,

less exactness of tuning give good results, but approximate reso-

is, he makes the reactance of the capacity equal

ance of the inductance for a given impressed frequency of oscillation.

Such tuning is accomplished by variable inductances and variable

Tuning inductances are generally of the single layer type varying

isfound objectionable at the higher frequencies. They have, however,

JNSULATION OUTER TUBE

POSITION OF MAXIMUM CAPACITY