Quantum Physics Apparatus to detect the photoelectric effect

Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter Consider the apparatus below consisting of an anode A (+) and a cathode B (−).
and energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles / waves.

Starting points
• An atom consists of a dense positively charged region called the nucleus with
electrons orbiting that nucleus.
• The electrons have different energies, dependent on their orbits.
• Light is an electromagnetic wave.

Photoelectric Emission

Some of the electrons in a metal are free to move around in it. It is these free
electrons that form the electric current when a potential difference is applied
across the ends of a metal wire.

However, to remove free electrons from a metal requires energy because they
are held in the metal by the electrostatic force of attraction of the positively Metal surface A is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation and electrons are
charged nuclei. emitted. Some of these electrons travel from A to B and a current is produced in
the microammeter. This current indicates that photoemissions are taking place.
If an electron is to escape from the surface of a metal, work must be done on it,
which means the electron must be supplied with energy. When this energy is in Kinetic energy of the electrons
the form of light energy, the phenomenon is called photoelectric emission.
If a potential difference is applied between A and B, with B negative with respect
Photoelectric emission is the release of electrons from the surface of metal when to A, any electron going from A to B will gain electric potential energy at the
the metal is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation above a certain frequency. expense of its kinetic energy.

𝑒𝑉 = 𝐸k,i − 𝐸k,f

However, not all electrons are emitted with the same kinetic energy. This is
because the work done required to be done to remove an electron varies from
electron to electron depending on where they are situated in the metal. Those at

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the surface have to do less work and therefore are emitted with maximum kinetic
energy. Example
Electrons are emitted from a metal surface when light of a particular wavelength
is incident on the surface. Explain why the emitted electrons have a range of
values of kinetic energy below a maximum value.
Solution
Electrons emitted with maximum kinetic energy are those at the surface. Those
below the surface have to do work in order to come to the surface.

In order for the potential energy difference between A and B to equal to the
maximum kinetic energy with which an electron is emitted from the metal A, we
make B more and more negative until the current just drop to zero. At this point,

𝑒𝑉s = 𝐸k,max .

The potential for which the current just drop to zero is called the stopping
Observations
potential 𝑉s .
• Photoemission takes place only if the frequency of the incident radiation is
The experiment can be carried out with EM radiation of different frequencies and above a certain minimum value called the threshold frequency 𝒇𝟎 .
the stopping potential 𝑉s for each frequency is determined. A graph can be • Different metals have different threshold frequencies.
plotted and the result obtained is as shown below. • The emission is independent of the intensity of the radiation.
• For a given frequency above the threshold frequency, the rate of emission of
photoelectrons is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
• For a fixed intensity, the current decreases with increasing frequency.
• Photoemission is instantaneous, which means there is no delay between
illumination and emission.

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Some of these observations are in complete contradiction with the classical wave Photon theory of electromagnetic radiation
theory of electromagnetic radiation.
According to the photon theory, the energy of EM radiation comes in small
• According to the classical theory, electrons should be emitted at all discrete packets called quanta.
frequencies provided the intensity is high enough. Even if the frequency is
In the photon theory, electromagnetic radiation consists of particles called
low (below the threshold frequency), electrons should be emitted if the
photons. Each photon carries an energy given by
intensity is high enough. High intensity means more energy is available and
the electrons should be able to absorb the energy and leave the metal. In 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
other words, there should be no threshold frequency.
Where ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 Js is the called the Planck constant and 𝑓 is the
No photoemission takes place if the frequency of the radiation is lower than frequency.
the threshold frequency no matter how high the intensity.
The photon is simply the quantum of energy for electromagnetic radiation.

• The maximum kinetic energy of an electron should depend on the intensity of How does the photon theory explain the observations of photoemissions?
the radiation. Increasing the intensity should lead to a greater maximum
kinetic energy of the electron and therefore a bigger stopping potential. This A photon interacts with only one electron. There is no sharing which means that
is because more energy is available and the electron should be more an electron cannot interact with two photons.
energetic when leaving the metal surface.
• The photons are absorbed by the electrons. If the energy of a photon is lower
than the minimum energy required by the electron to get released, then no
The maximum kinetic energy is only dependent on the frequency and not the
photoemission is seen. Since the energy of a photon is determined solely by
intensity.
the frequency of the radiation and the electron-photon interaction is one-to-
one, no photoemission will take place below a certain threshold frequency as
• Photoemission should not be instantaneous. This means that even at low
the photon does not possess the minimum energy required for the electron
intensity, the electrons should be able to absorb the energy over time and
to absorb in order to get released.
escaped.

The minimum energy required for an electron to be released from the surface
Photoemission takes place instantaneously even at low intensity provided the
of a metal by irradiating it with radiation is called the work function energy 𝜙.
frequency of the radiation is bigger than the threshold frequency.

𝜙 = ℎ𝑓0

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• Photoemission is independent of intensity because simply increasing the 1
𝑛∝
intensity will not increase the energy carried by each photon, which is solely 𝑓
dependent on the frequency. • Photoemission is instantaneous irrespective of how high or low the intensity
is. This is because an electron-photon interaction is one-to-one and there is
• The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the frequency no accumulation of energy over time.
because with higher frequency comes more energetic photons. Therefore the
electrons absorbed more energy and therefore gets released with more
Example
energy.
The work function energy of platinum is 9.0 × 10−19 J. Calculate
𝐸k,max = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0
a) the threshold frequency for the emission of photoelectrons from platinium.
• Increasing the intensity means increasing the number of photons hitting unit
b) the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron when radiation of frequency
area of the metal surface per unit time. If the frequency is above threshold,
2.0 × 1015 Hz is incident on a platinum surface.
there are more electron-photon interactions per unit time at higher intensity
Solution
and therefore a bigger current is observed.
a) 𝑓0 = 1.4 × 1015 Hz
b) 4.0 × 10−19 J
𝑃
𝐼= = 𝑛 × ℎ𝑓
𝐴
Where 𝑛 is the number of photons hitting unit surface area and each photon
carries a frequency 𝑓.

𝑛𝑒 ∝ 𝑛

Therefore the number of electrons released per unit surface area per unit
time 𝑛𝑒 is proportional to the number of photons arriving per unit time on
unit surface area of the metal.

• The photocurrent decreases with frequency at constant intensity because the

number of photons per unit area per unit time decreases. This is because
each photon is more energetic and therefore for the same power per unit
area, less photon is needed.

For a constant intensity 𝐼

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Example Example
Data for the threshold frequency and the work function energy of some metal a) With reference to the photoelectric effect, state what is meant by the work
surfaces are shown below. function energy.
b) The work function energy of a clean metal surface is 5.5 × 10−19 J.
Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 280 nm is incident on the metal
surface. The metal is in a vacuum.
i) Calculate the photon energy.
ii) Calculate the maximum speed 𝑣𝑚 of the electrons emitted.
iii) Explain why most electrons are not emitted with maximum speed 𝑣𝑚 .
Solution
a) Calculate the threshold frequency for platinum.
a) The work function energy is the minimum energy that photon has to possess
b) A beam of electromagnetic radiation having a continuous range of
in order to remove an electron from the surface of metal.
wavelengths between 320 nm and 550 nm is incident, in turn, on each of the
b) i) 𝐸 = 7.10 × 10−19 J
above metals. Determine which metals will emit photoelectrons.
ii) 𝑣𝑚 = 5.93 × 105 m/s
c) When light of frequency 𝑓 and intensity 𝐼 is incident on a certain metal,
iii) Work has to be done to bring some electrons to the surface.
electrons are emitted. State and explain the effect, if any, on the emission of
photoelectrons for light of frequency 2𝑓 and 𝐼.
Solution

a) ℎ𝑓0 = 9.0 × 10−19

𝑓0 = 13.6 × 1014 Hz
b)
𝑐
𝑓1 = = 9.38 × 1014 Hz (maximum)
𝜆1
𝑐
𝑓2 = = 5.45 × 1014 Hz (minimum)
𝜆2
Sodium and Zinc will release electrons via the photoelectric effect.
c) The number of electrons emitted will become half its original number.

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Example
a) The variation with frequency 𝑓 of the maximum kinetic energy 𝐸𝐾 of
photoelectrons emitted from the surface of sodium metal is shown below.

Calculate the Planck’s constant.

b) The sodium metal in (a) has a work function energy of 2.4 eV. The sodium is
replaced by calcium which has a work function energy of 2.9 eV.
Draw a line to show the variation with frequency 𝑓 of the maximum kinetic
energy 𝐸K of the photoelectrons emitted from the surface of calcium.
Solution
a)
𝐸K 0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19
𝐸K = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓0 ===> ℎ = = = 6.67 × 10−34 Js
𝑓 − 𝑓0 (7 − 5.8) × 1014
b)
𝜙c 𝑓c
= ===> 𝑓c = 5.8 × 1014 × (2.9/2.4) = 7.0 × 1014 Hz
𝜙s 𝑓s

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Wave-particle duality Since matter can behave like waves, then a wavelength can be associated with
matter. This wavelength is known as the De Broglie wavelength and is given by
Interference and diffraction experiments are evidences that electromagnetic the equation
radiation has a wave nature. On the other hand, the photoelectric effect provides
ℎ
evidence that EM radiation consist of particles called photon. This lead to the 𝜆=
𝑝
conclusion that EM radiation has dual nature, meaning it is both a wave and a
particle. Where 𝑝 is the momentum of the matter particle.
Most experiments done in classical physics have demonstrated that matter is
made up of particles. However, there are experiments that show the wave nature Example
of matter. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at a speed of
5.5 × 107 ms−1 .
Solution

ℎ
𝜆= = 1.32 × 10−11 m
𝑝

Example
Photons of wavelength 380 nm are incident normally on a metal surface at a rate
of 7.6 × 1014 s–1 . All the photons are absorbed in the surface and no
photoelectrons are emitted.

Calculate the force exerted on the metal surface by the incident photons.
Solution
If a beam of electrons is incident on a graphite film, a diffraction pattern similar to ℎ
𝑝 = = 1.74 × 10−27 Ns
that observed with light is seen. This leads to the conclusion that electrons can 𝜆
behave like waves and therefore interfere and diffract to produce a pattern. 𝑑𝑝
𝐹= = 𝑛 × 𝑝 = 1.33 × 10−12 N
𝑑𝑡

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 Energy levels and atomic spectra
Example
a) State what is meant by the de Broglie wavelength. When white light from a tungsten filament lamp is passed through a prism the
b) An electron is accelerated in a vacuum from rest through a potential light is dispersed into its component colours. This band of different colours is
difference of 850 V. called a continuous spectrum.
i) Show that the final momentum of the electron is 1.6 × 10−23 Ns.
ii) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of this electron.
Solution
a) The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength associated with a material
particle that is moving. It is given by the equation
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
b) i)
𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸k
𝐸k = 𝑒Δ𝑉
𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑒Δ𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−23 Ns
ii) 𝜆 = 4.1 × 10−11 m A continuous spectrum has all colours (wavelengths) between two limits, e.g. for
white light the colour and wavelength limits are violet (400 nm) and red (700 nm).

In the case above, the spectrum has been produced by the tungsten filament
lamp and therefore the spectrum is referred to as an emission spectrum.

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Line spectrum Electron energy levels in an atom

A discharge tube is a transparent tube containing a gas at low-pressure. Electron in an atom can only have certain specific energies and these energies are
called the electron energy levels of the atom. These levels are represented in a
diagram as shown below, called an energy level diagram.

The diagram below is the electron energy levels of hydrogen.

When a voltage is applied to the two electrodes and the pressure of the gas in the
tube is reduced, eventually a pressure is reached at which a current flows and the
gas begins to glow. The current flows due to ionisation of the gas molecules and
electrons flow.

These electrons called “cathode rays” collide with the gas atoms and molecules
and excite them, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. A
diffraction grating together with a screen is used to analyse the spectrum.

An electron can only have energies corresponding to the energy associated with
each level and therefore cannot have energy in between. In other words, the
energy of the electron can only have discrete values.
The emission spectrum is not a continuous one but one with discrete lines. This is
Normally electrons will occupy the lowest energy levels available and under these
called a line spectrum. This means that electromagnetic energies are emitted at
certain wavelengths only. conditions, the electron and the atom are said to be in ground state.
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 Possible energy transitions

Consider an electron of an atom that has been excited from the ground energy
level with value 𝐸1 to the energy level with value 𝐸4 .

When the electron transition down, there are different transitions that can take
place.

If, however, an electron of an atom absorbs energy, perhaps by being heated or

by collision with another electron, it may be promoted to a higher level. The
difference between the two levels will be equal to the energy absorbed by the
electron. Under these conditions the atom and its electron is said to be in an
excited state.

An excited atom is unstable and therefore after a short time, the excited electron
will return to a lower level. To achieve this, the electron must lose energy and
therefore it emits a photon with energy equal to the difference between the two
energy levels.

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓

The movement of an electron between two energy levels is called an electron For each transition, a photon with energy corresponding to the difference
transition. between the energy levels will be emitted. Going from 𝐸4 to 𝐸1 will result in the
most energetic photon being emitted while going from 𝐸4 to 𝐸3 results in the
To transit from a lower to a higher level, the electron must absorb a photon with
least energetic photon.
energy equal to exactly the difference between the two energy levels.
Because all elements have different energy levels, the energy differences are
unique to each element. Consequently, each element produces a different and
characteristic line spectrum. Spectra can be used to identify the presence of a
particular element.
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Continuous spectra
The light emitted by isolated atoms such as those in low-pressure gases produces
line spectra but the light emitted by atoms in a solid, a liquid or a gas at high
pressure produces a continous spectrum. This happens because of the proximity
of the atoms to each other. Interaction between the atoms results in a
broadening of the electron energy levels. Consequently, transitions of a wide
range of magnitudes of energy are possible and the light of a broad spread of
wavelengths may be emitted. This is seen as a continous spectrum.

Absorption spectra
When white light passes through a low-pressure gas and the spectrum of the
white light is then analyzed, it is found that light of certain wavelengths is missing.
In their place are dark lines called absorption lines. This type of spectrum is called
an absorption spectrum. Example
Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the electron in a
hydrogen atom makes a transition from the energy level at −0.54 × 10−18 J to
the level at −2.18 × 10−18 J.
Solution
𝜆 = 121 nm

As white light passes through the gas, some electrons absorb energy and make
transitions to higher energy levels. The wavelengths of the light they absorb
correspond exactly to the energies needed to make the particular upward
transitions. When these excited electrons return to lower levels, the photons are
emitted in all directions, rather than in the original direction of th white light.
Thus some wavelengths appear to be missing. It follows that the wavelengths
missing from an absorption spectrum are those present in the emission spectrum
of the same element.

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 i) Light of wavelength 420 nm has a photon energy of 2.96 eV. Calculate the
Example photon energy, in eV, of light of wavelength 740 nm.
A beam of light consists of a continuous range of wavelengths from 420 nm to ii) Use data from (i) and your answer in (i) to show, on Fig. 11.2, the changes
740 nm. The light passes through a cloud of cool gas, as shown. in energy levels giving rise to the dark lines in (a).

Solution

a) These dark lines corresponds to photons with wavelengths that have been
absorbed by the electrons in the atoms of the cool gas. Each of these
wavelengths correspond to a difference in the energy levels of an electron in
an atom of the gas. When the electrons de-exites, the photons are emitted in
all directions. So a dark line is seen corresponding to the wavelength
a) The spectrum of the light emerging from the cloud of cool gas is viewed using absorbed.
a diffraction grating. Explain why this spectrum contains a number of dark b) 1.68 eV
lines. c)
b) Some of the electron energy levels of the atoms in the cloud of gas are
represented as shown.

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Band theory
We have seen that electrons in an isolated atom have specific energy levels.
Electrons in an atom can have only these particular energies. Atoms in a gas at
low pressure are, on average, sufficently far apart from them to behave as
isolated atoms. This is not the case for high pressure gases or liquids and solids
where the atoms are much closer together.

In semiconductors and insulators, the lower energy bands are filled with
electrons. The valence band is the uppermost filled band and the conduction
band is the lowest unfilled band. Each band consists of a very large number of
closely spaced energy levels. Between the conduction band and the valence band,
there exists the forbidden band.

The forbidden band is a range of energies that cannot be occupied by an electron.

Where atoms are close together, the electrons in an atom experience forces due
to the charges in neighbouring atoms. The effect is to cause the energy of the Conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor
electron to change slightly. The energy is not fixed for all electrons and, An instrinsic semiconductor is a substance such as pure silicon or germanium
consequently the single energy level in an isolated atom broadens out to become that, at room temperature, has a typical resistance between that of metals and
an energy band in a solid. insulators.

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The valence band being fully occupied means that the electrons cannot move lattice vibrate. These vibrations hinder the progress of the charge carriers through
under the action of an electric field. Since these charge carriers cannot move in the solid. As the temperature rises, so the amplitude of the lattice vibrations
the valence band and there are no electrons in the conduction band, then there is increases. However, any effect on the increase of the current due to the increase
no electric current and the resistance of the intrinsic semiconductor is very large. in the number of charge carriers outweighs any possible reduction due to an
increase in lattice vibrations. Overall the resistance decreases with rise in
Above zero kelvin, the electrons in the valence band will have some energy due to temperature.
higher temperature. Electrons will have a distributin of energies with the mean
energy increasing as the temperature rises. At any temperature above 0 K, some
electrons will have sufficient energy to jump across the forbidden band and enter
the conduction band. These electrons in the conduction band are negative charge
carriers and can migrate under the action of an electric field.

The electrons that enter the conduction band leave behind a vacancy or hole in
the valence band. This vacancy or hole is the result of an absence of a negative
charge and thus, it behaves as a positive charge. Under the action of an electric
field, a neighbouring electron fills the hole, creating the hole in its old position.
Thus the hole migrates through the solid and acts as a positive charge carrier.

Conduction in a metal
In a metal
• the valence band overlaps the conduction band
• the forbidden band does not exits.
At all temperatures, the electrons can move under the action of an electric field.
The outer electrons behave as if they are free and, thus, act as negative charge
carriers. The number of these charges does not increase with temperature
because there is no forbidden band.

The rise in temperature of the solid has a further important consequence. In the
solid, the atoms are held in a lattice and above absolute zero, the atoms in this
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 Insulators

The wide forbidden band means that the very great majority of electrons in the
valence band do not have sufficient energy to enter the conduction band.
Therefore, there are very few charge carriers and the resistance is very large.
When an insulator is heated to high temperatures, some electrons may have
sufficient energy to enter the conduction band, then electrical breakdown of its
Lattice vibrations do increase with temperature. Thus, these vibrations cause an
resistance will occur.
increase in the hindrance to the movement of the electrons. The resistance
increases and current decreases. In general, this change in resistance is relatively
small. Example
Use the band theory to explain why the resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor
decreases with increasing temperature.
Solution
As temperature increases, electrons in the valence band gain energy and jump
the forbidden band into the conduction band. Under the action of an electric
field, the electrons in the conduction band can move. At the same time a vacancy
called a hole is created in the valence band when an electron jumps to the
conduction band. Under the action of an electric field, a neighbouring electron
will fill and the hole and create another hole in its old position. As a result the
holes created can move and therefore act as positive charge carriers. The
increase in number of charge per unit volume outweighs any hindrance effect due
to lattice vibration, leading to a decrease in resistance.

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Example
The uppermost electron energy bands in a solid are shown.

Use the band theory to explain the dependence on light intensity of the
resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR).
Solution
When light intensity increases on an LDR, electrons in the valance band absorb
photons and are able to cross the forbidden band into the conduction band
where they produce a current under the action of an electric field. The vacancies
left behind in the valence band are called holes. Under the action of an electric
field, these holes are replaced by other electrons in the valance band and
therefore the holes act as positive charge carriers. The overall result of increasing
the light intensity leads to an increase in the number of charge carriers and
therefore the resistance decreases.

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