Implicit Differentiation

Definition 2.7.1

A relation g( x, y)  0 is said to define the function y  f (x) implicitly if, for x in the domain of
f , f ( x, f ( x ))  0. f , g( x, f ( x))  0

Examples 2.7.1

In the relations x2  y 2  25  0 and x2 y  sin xy  0 is written implicitly as a function of x.

dy
How can we find at least at a certain point, if y is written implicitly as a function of x in some
dx
relation. The Implicit Differentiation method answers this concern.

Example 2.7.2

dy
Find if y is written implicitly as a function of x in the relation xy  1.
dx

Solution:

One way is to find y as a function of x from the given equation. Solving for y, we get

1
y .
x

Finding the derivative of y, yields

dy  1
 . . . . . . (1)
dx x 2

For most function written implicitly it is not easy to solve y . Here we will use a different
method, which is called Implicit Differentiation method.

Let’s return to the above equation. Consider y as a function of x .

xy  1.
Differentiating both sides with respect to x , yields

d d
( xy )  ( 1 )
dx dx

Using product Theorem for left side derivative

dy
yx 0
dx

dy
Solving for dx , we get

dy  y
 . . . . . .( 2 )
dx x

1 1
Observe that y  . If we replace in place of y ( 2 ) , we get
x x

dy  1
 ,
dx x 2

which is the same result in (1)

We can use the following guidelines for implicit differentiation

a. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x .

dy
b. Collect all terms involving on the left side of the equation and move all other terms to
dx
the right side of the equation.

dy
c. Factor out of the left side of the equation.
dx

dy
d. Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by the left hand facto that doesn’t
dx
dy
contain .
dx
Example 2.7.3

dy
Find dx if xy  x y  3x  5 .
3 2 2 2

Solution:-

Let us use implicit differentiation. We take the derivative of the equation treating y as a function
of x, yields

d d d d
( x y 3 x 2 y 2 3 x 2 )  ( 5 )  ( y 3  x ( y 3 )  (2xy2  x 2 ( y 2 ))  6 x  0
dx dx dx dx

dy dy
 y 3  x3 y 2 .  2 xy2  x 2 2 y  6 x  0
dx dx

dy
Thus, solving for from the last equation. We get
dx

dy 6 x  y 3  2 xy2

dx 3xy2  2 x 2 y

Example 2.7.4

Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle x 2  y 2  25 at a point (3,4).

Solution:

dy
We use Implicit differentiation to find dx . Replacing 3 and -4 in place of x and y respectively in

dy
the equation gives the slope of the tangent line at (3,4).
dx

x 2  y 2  25 
d 2
dx
 
x  y 2  25  2x  2 y  0
d
dx
dy
dx

dy dy x
Solving for dx we get, dx  
y.
 dy
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at ( 3,4 ) is at x  3 and y  4,
dx

3
which is equal to .
4

 Activity 7.1.1

Determine the slope of the tangent line to the graph of x  4 y  4 at he point

2 2
 2 , 1 2 .

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE

Maximum and Minimum Values

Definition 3.1

A function is said to have a maximum value on a set I if there is a number d in I such

that for all in I. (see Figure 3.1). we call the maximum value of f on I.
Similarly, the function is said to have a minimum value on I if there is a number c in I such that
for all in I. we call the minimum value of f on I. A value of f that is either a
maximum value or a minimum value on I called an extreme values, (or extremum) of f on I
If the set I is the domain of f , then the maximum value of f on I , when it exists, is called the
absolute maximum value of f. Similarly, the minimum value of f on its domain when it exists
is called the absolute minimum value of f .

A function f may or may not have extreme values on a set I, depending on f and on I. For
1
example if f ( x)  Then on the interval [0,1], the function f has the maximum value
x 1
1
f (0)  1 and the minimum value f (1)  . However, on the open interval (0,1) f has neither a
2
maximum nor a minimum value because f does not assume either o or 1 on the open interval
(0,1).

The following theorem which is called the maximum-minimum value theorem (the Extremum
value Theory) is one of the important theorems in calculus: It guarantees the extreme values.

Theorem 3.1 (Maximum-Minimum value Theorm)

Let f be continuous on a closed, bounded interval [a,b]. Then has a maximum and a
minimum value on [a,b].

Restatement of the Theorem

Suppose f is a continuous function on [a,b]. Then there are at least two numbers c,d in [a,b]
such that m  f (c) is the minimum value of f and m  f (d ) is the maximum value of f . That
is for some c, d in [a,b], m  f (c)  f (x)  f (d )  M , for all x in [a,b].

As stated in Theorm 3.1, in order for a function to have extreme values, you emphasize the
assumptions of the theorem. That is

i) The function has to be defined on a closed interval [a,b]

ii) The function must be continuous on [a,b], with end-point continuity at a

 and b as discussed in unit 1.

Note that if at least one of the conditions (i) or (ii) fails then you cannot guarantee the existence
of the extreme (maximum and minimum)of the function.

3.1.2 The Derivative at an extremum.

Theorem3.2 Let f be defined on [a,b]. If an Extreme value of f on [a,b] occurs,

at a number in (a,b) at which f has derivative, then

Definition: 3.2 (Critical number and critical point)

A number in the domain of a function f at which or does not exist is called a

critical number for the function f. The corresponding point on the graph of f is

called a critical point on that graph.

Example 3.2

Let f(x)= 4x  x 2 . To find the critical numbers we first find the derivative of f.Thus, f ' ( x)  4  2 x

.Now f ( x)  0  4  2 x  0  x  2
'

Therefore, 2 is a critical number and (2,4) is critical point on the graph

Let a function f be defined on [a,b]. Theorem 3.2 implies that the only numbers in [a,b] at which f
takes on its extreme values are the endpoints a and b and the critical numbers in (a,b). This fact
provides us with the following general method for determining the extreme values of a continuous
function on a closed interval [a,b].
Compute the values of f at all critical numbers in (a,b) and at the endpoints a and b. The
largest of those values is the maximum value of f on [a,b] and the smallest of those
values the minimum values of f on [a,b]

Most of the functions we will encounter are differentiable at all numbers in their domain. For
such function the critical numbers are just the numbers at which the derivative is 0.

Example 3.3

 3
Let f ( x)  x 3  3x  2 . Find the extreme values of f on  2,  and determine at which numbers
 2
 3
in  2,  they occur.
 2

Solution;

Since f is a polynomial function you know it is continuous in  , and in particular it is

 3  3
continuous in  2,  .Thus, by the Extremum value Theorem, f has extreme values on  2, 2 
 2
Moreover, since f is a polynomial function it is differentiable for all x in its domain, and hence
the critical numbers of f are the values of x for which f ' ( x0 )  0 . But f ' ( x)  3x 2  3

So, f ' ( x)  0 if 3x 2  3  0, that is, if x  1or x  1. Since -1 and 1 are in the

 3  3
Given Interval  2,  , we conclude that the extreme value of f in  2, 2  may occur at the end
 2
3  3
points -2 and or at the critical points -1 and 1 in  2,  . To decide which of these give the
2  2
extreme values, you compute the corresponding values of f.

 3   25 f (1)  0, f 1  4
f (2)  4, f    ,
 2 8
  3
Consequently, comparing these values, we see that the minimum values of f in  2,  is-4 and
 2
 3
it occurs at x=1 and at x=-2.The maximum value of f in  2,  is 0 and it occurs at x=-1.
 2

Example 3.4

Let f ( x)  x  x 3 . Find the extreme values of f on [0,1], and determine at which numbers in [0,1]
they occur

Solution:

Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous on [0,1]. Thus, by the Extremum value

Theorem, f has extreme values on [0,1]. Since f is differentiable, the critical numbers of f are the
values of x for which f ' ( x)  0. but f ' ( x)  1  3 x 2

1 1
3  0,1, we
1
So, f ' ( x)  0. if 1  3x 2  0, that is, if x  3. or x  3 Since
3 3 3

Conclude that an extreme value of f on [0,1] can occur only at one of the endpoints 0 and 1 or at
1
the critical number point 3  (0,1). To decide which of these give the extreme values, you
3
compute the corresponding value of f. f (0)  0, f (1)  0.

3
1  1 1  1 1 2
f  3  3   3  3 3 3.
3  3 3  3 9 9

Consequently, the minimum value of f on[0,1] is 0, and it occurs at 0 and 1. The maximum
2 1
value of f on [0,1]is 3, and it occurs at 3.
9 3
Example 3.5

Let f ( x)  2 x  3 . Find the extreme values of f on [1,3] and determine at which numbers in they

occur.

Solution.

Since f is continuous on [1,3], then by the Extremum value Theorem f has Extreme values on

 3
2 x  3 for x 
 2
[1,3]. However, Since 2 x  3  
3  2 x for x  3
 2

We see that

 3
f ( x)  f  
lim  2   lim 2 x  3  0 = lim 2(2 x  3)  2
3

3 3 3 3

2x  3
x  
2
x x  
2 x x  
2
2 2

3
f ( x)  f  
And lim  2   lim 3  2 x  0  lim  2(2 x  3)  2
3

3 3

3 3

2x  3
x  
2
x x  
2
x x  
2
2 2

3
f ( x)  f  
Therefore, lim3  2  does not exist
3
x
2 x
2

3 3
Hence, f is not differentiable at x  . This implies that is a critical number in (1,3). Then, we
2 2
conclude that an extreme value of f on [1,3] may occur at the endpoints 1 and 3 or at the critical
3
number . To decide which of these give the extreme values, we compute the corresponding
2
values of f.
 3 3
f (1)  1, f (3)  3 , f ( )  (2.  3)  0
2 2

Consequently the maximum value of f on [1,3] is 3 and it occurs at the endpoint 3 of [1,3]. The
3
minimum values of f on [1,3] is 0 and it occurs at the critical number in(1,3).
2

Local (Relative) Maxima and Minima of a Function

Definition 3.3.

i) A function has a relative (local) maximum value at c if there is some small number
such that is the maximum value of f on the interval

ii) A function f has a relative (local) minimum value at c if there is some small number
such that is the minimum value of f on the interval

A value that is either relative maximum value or relative minimum value is called a
relative (local) extreme value.

Example 3.6

Let 3x 2  x  5. Find the local extreme value (s) of f and determine at which number (s) it (they)
occur (s).

Solution.

Since f is a polynomial function, f ' ( x) exists for all x. Thus, local extreme values can occur only
at the critical numbers, that is, at numbers satisfying f ' ( x) =0. But f ' ( x)  6x  1.

1 1
Therefore, f ' ( x) =0. for x  . To show that f has a local extreme value at , we will find an
6 6
1 1
interval about .Thus choose a small positive number   1. Take for example   , Thus you
6 3
1  1 1 1 1  1 1 
will form the interval about as  6  3,  6  3    2 6  . Then calculating the values
6    
 1 1  1 11
of the function at endpoints and at the critical numbers we get f ( )  5 , f     4 and
2 4  6 12
1 1 1 11 1 1
f ( )  5 By Theorem 3.2 f ( )  4 is the minimum value of f on [ , ] and hence
6 4 6 12 2 6
1 11
f ( )  4 is local minimum value.
6 12

 1 5 1
Now, writing f ( x)  3x 2  x  5  x 2  3   2  shows that as x takes large values and
 x x  x
5
2
approach to 0. Hence, f (x) behaves like 3x 2 .Since 3x 2 becomes arbitrarily large when x
x
takes values that are large positive numbers and small negative numbers it follows that
 1 11
   4 is absolute minimum values.
 6  12

Example 3.7

Let f ( x)  x 3  3x  2. Find the local (relative) values of f and determine at which numbers they
occur.

Solution:

Since f is a polynomial function f ' ( x) exists for all x and hence local extreme values can occur

only at numbers satisfying f ' ( x)  0. But f ' ( x)  3x 2  3  3( x 2  1)  3( x  1)( x  1)

Therefore f ' ( x) =0 for x  1and x  1

You know that these numbers, x=-1 and x=1 are called critical numbers. To show that f has local
extreme values at these numbers, namely at -1 and 1, we will find intervals about-1 and 1 on
which f has local extreme values at -1 and 1. Thus choose a small positive number   0 . In
1  1 1    3  1
particular take   . Then for x=-1 consider  1 2,  1  2    2, 2 .
2    

  3  7  1  5
Calculation shows that f   , f (1)  0, f    .
 2  8  2  8
   3  1
By Theorem 3.2 f (1) is the maximum value of f on  , and thus f (1) is a local
 2, 2 
(relative) maximum value of f. similarly, for x  1consider

 1 1  1 3
1 2 ,1  2    2, 2 .
 

 1   27  3   25
so f    , f (1)  4, f    Hence f (1) is the
 2 8  2 8
1 3
minimum value of f on  , , and thus f (1) is a local
2 2
minimum value of f ( x)  x 3  3x  2. (see fig 3.8)

Example 3.8:

Find the local extreme values for the function

4x
f ( x) 
x 4
2

and discuss absolute extreme of f.

Solution:

The Derivative of f is

(4 x)' ( x 2  4)  4 x( x 2  4) '

( x 2  4) 2

4( x 2  4)  4 x(2 x) 4 x 2  16  8 x 2
 
( x 2  4) 2 ( x 2  4) 2

16  4 x 2
Thus, f 1 ( x) 
( x 2  4) 2
 16  4 x 2
The critical numbers are the solutions of the equation 2  0 or equivalently the solution
( x  4) 2

of 16  4x 2  0.

Therefore, f ' ( x)  0 for x  2 and x  2.

To see that f has a local extreme value at x=2, we will find an interval about 2 on which f has an
extreme value at 2. Thus, we consider the interval 1.5, 2.5. Computing values of f at the end
24 40
points and at the critical points, we find f (1.5) , f (2)  1, f (2.5)  . By
25 41

Theorem 3.2 f (2)=1 is the maximum value of f on 1.5, 2.5. and thus f(2)=1 is a local
 40  24
maximum value of f. Similarly, f (2.5) , f (2)  1, f (1.5)  , so that f (2)  1 is
41 25
the minimum value of f on  2.5,1.5. Thus f (2)  1 is a local minimum value of f. To see
4x
whether f has absolute extemum values consider the expression which defines f. Observe
x 4
2

that for any real number x the numerator is less than or equal to the denominator that is,
4x  x 2  4 for all x in IR.

4x 4x
But this implies that  1or  1  2  1 for all x in IR.
x 4
2
x 4

Thus, we conclude that f (2)= 1 and f(-2)=-1 are not only extreme values but they are absolute
extreme values. That is , f(2)=1 is the absolute maximum of f and f(-2)=-1 is the absolute
minimum of f.

The method used in the above examples to show that f ( x0 ) is a local extreme value of f where

x0 is a critical number may seen a bit puzzling, since it required forming an interval about x0 on

which f attains its minimum value or maximum value at x0 .In the coming subsection more
convenient and reliable method for finding local extreme values will be discussed.
Caution. The converse of theorem 3.2 is not true. That is, Theorem 3.2 does not guarantee that if
f ' ( x0 )  0, then f ( x0 ) is a local extreme value. The following example illustrates this
point.

Example 3.9.

Show that f ( x)  x 3 has no extreme value at 0 even though

f ' (0)  0

Solution: Let f ( x)  x 3 .

Then f ' ( x)  3x 2 . Thus f ' (0)  0 , but f (0)  0

Role’s Theorem and the Mean-value theorem.

Restatement
Theorm of Rolle’s
3.3 (Rolle’s Theorm. If a function f is
Theorm).

Let f bei) a Continuous on [a, b] on the closed interval [a, b] and have a derivative at all x in the
continuous function
open interval (a, b). If f (a)= f(b), then there is at least one number c in (a, b)such that
ii) Differentiable on the open interval (a, b)

Example 3.10

Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the case f ( x)  x 2  2 x  5 and [a,b]=[0,2]

Solution:

Note that

i) f is continuous on[0,2] (why)?

ii) f is differentiable in(0,2) and

 iii) f (0)=5=f(2)

Thus, according to Rolle’s Theorm, there is a number c in (0,2) for which It is easy to find c
since f ' ( x)  2x  2. Setting the derivative 2x-2=0, we see that c=1

Example 3.11

Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the case f ( x)  1  x 2 and[a,b]=[-1,]

Solution: Observe that for any number x0  (1,1),

a) (i) lim f ( x)  lim 1  x 2  1  x0  f ( x0 )

2
xx0 xx0

(ii) lim  f ( x)  lim  1  x 2  0  f (1)

x1 x1

(iii) lim f ( x)  lim  1  x 2  0  f (1)

x1 x1

Thus i) ii) and iii) shows that f is continuous on [-1,1]

x
b) Since f ' ( x)  is defined for all x in (-1,1)f is differentiable for all x in[-1,1]
1 x2

c) f (1)  0  f (1)..

Since (a) (b) and (c) are the required conditions of Rolle’s Theorm, then consequently there is at
least one number c in (-1,1) such that

c
f ' (c)  0. Thus you can find c by setting f ' (c)  0. That is   0. Thus c=0 which is the
1 c2
required c

Notice that it is necessary to assume in Rolle’s Theorm that f (a)  f (b) for an interval [a,b] in
other words the condition f (a)  f (b) cannot be eliminated from Rolle’s Thole’s Theorm.
To this and consider the following example.
Example 3.12

Let f ( x)  x. Then f ' ( x)  1 for all x in any interval (a, b). This implies that f ' (c)  0 for all c in
(a, b).

The next example shows that it is necessary to assume in Rolle’s Theorm that f is differentiable
throughout (a, b).

Example 3.13

Can Rolle’s Theorem be applied to f ( x)  x in the interval  2 ,2?

Solution: First, f (2)  2  f (2). Second, f is continuous on  2 ,2 The function, however,
fails to be differentiable on (2,2), because f is not
differentiable at 0. Not all of the hypotheses of Rolle’s
theorem hold, thus there is no need for the conclusion to hold.
Indeed, there is no number c in (-2,2) such that f ' (c)  0 as a

glance at the graph of f ( x)  x in Figure 3.11 shows.

Rolle’s Theorem asserts that if the graph of a function has a

horizontal chord, then it has a tangent line parallels to that chord. The Mean-value Theorem is a
generalization of Rolle’s Theorem, Since it concerns any chord of f, not just horizontal chords.

In geometric terms, the theorem asserts that if you draw a chord for the graph of a well-behaved
function (as in Figure 3.12)

Then somewhere above or below that

chord that graph has at least one tangent line
parallel to the chord. The above geometric
statement can be interpreted in terms of
functions. Let the end points of the chord be
 (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) The slope of the chord is then

f (b)  f (a)
ba

While the slope of the tangent line at a typical point ( x, f ( x)) on the graph is . f ' ( x). The Mean-
value Theorem then asserts there is at least one number c in the open interval(a, b) such that

f (b)  f (a)
f ' (c) 
ba

Theorm 3.4 (Mean-value Theorm): Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a,b] and
have a derivative at every x in the open interval (a,b). Then there is at least one number c in the
open interval (a,b) such that

Restatement of the Mean-value Theorm.

If a function f is

i) Continuous on the closed interval [a,b]

ii) Differentiable in the open interval (a,b)

Then there is at least one number c in (a, b) such that

f (b)  f (a)
f ' (c) 
ba

Proof: We shall prove the theorm by introducing a function to which Rolle’s theorem can be
applied. The chord through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is part of a line L whose equation is

f (b)  f (a)
y  f (a)  ( x  a). Now let g be a function
ba
defined by

 f (b)  f (a) 
g ( x)  f ( x)   f (a)  ( x  a) for a  x  b
 ba 

Notice that g (x) represents the difference between the graph of f and the line L for a given x.

f (b)  f (a)
Fig 3.13 g ( x)  f ( x)  [ f (a)  ( x  a)]
ba

Now g is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a,b), Since g is a simple combination of f,

constant function, and a linear function. Putting the numbers a and b in the expression of g above
we find that

g (a)  g (b)  0

So that by Rolle’s Theorm there is a umber c in (a,b) such that g' (c)  0

f (b)  f (a)
However g ' ( x)  f ' ( x)  for a  x  b and thus
ba
f (b)  f (a )
0  g ' (c )  f ' ( c ) 
ba

Solving for f ' (c) we obtain

 f (b)  f (a)
f ' (c) 
ba

This completes the proof of the Mean-Value Theorm.

The following example corroborates the Mean-Value Theorm for a particular function f and a
particular interval [a,b].

Example 3.14

1 f (3)  f (0)
Let f ( x)  x 3  2x. Find a number c in (0,3) such that f ' (c) 
3 30

Solution:

f (3)  f (0) 15  0
Since,   5 we seek a number c in (0,3) such that
30 30
f ' (c)  5. But f ' ( x)  x 2  2. so, c must satisfy c 2  2  5. Therefore c 2  3 and since c must be

in (0,3), we conclude that c  3.

Example 3.15

Verify the mean-value theorem for f ( x)  2 x 3  8x  1 on [1,3]

Solution:

Since f is a polynomial function, we know that it is continuous and differentiable for all x in
 , Thus f is continuous on [1,3]and is differentiable on (1,3).Therefore, by the Mean-value
Theorem, there is at least one number c in(1,3) such that

f (3)  f (1) 31  (5) 36

f ' (c)     18.
3 1 3 1 2

Let us find c explicitly. Since, f ' ( x)  6 x 2  8, c must satisfy

6c 2  8  18,
 26
That is, 6c 2  26 or c 2  .
6

13 13 13
The solutions are and - only is in (1,3).Hence, there is only one number,
3 3 3

13
Namely , that serves as the c whose existence is guaranteed by the Mean-Value Theorm.
3

Section3.4: Application one of the Mean-Value Theorem

Overview


The Mean-Value Theorm is employed so often in proving other theorms. In this
section you use the Mean-Value Theorm to prove that if two functions have
identical slopes at each number in an interval then the functions differ by a constant
on that interval. And in the next section you will study and prove theorms which are
the second consequences of the Mean-Value Theorem that will facilitate the search for extreme
values and the analysis of the graph of a function

 Section Objectives

After you complete the study of this section you will be able to:

 Prove theorems that are derived from the Mean-value theorm

 Use the Mean-value theorem and solve related problems.

3.4.1 Constant function and Antiderivatives

Theorm 3.5

i) Let f be continuous on an interval I. If for each interior point x of I, then f

is constant on I

ii) Let f and g be continuous on an interval I. If for each interior point x of

I. Then f-g is constant on I. In other words, there is a contestant c such that
for all x in I.
Proof: To prove (i) we must show that for any two numbers x1 , x2 in I with x1  x2 say x1  x2 ,
then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ). since f is differentiable on I, It follows that f is

continuous on x1 , x2  Hence we can apply the Mean-Value with Theorm a  x1 and b  x2
Therefore there is some number c in the open interval x1 , x2  such that

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )
f ' (c) 
x2  x1

Which is equivalent to f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ' (c) ( x 2  x1 ) .

Since c is I, f ' (c)  0 and therefore f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )  0 or f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )

This implies that f has the same value at all points of I, and hence f is a constant function on I,
This completes proof of part (i)

To prove part (ii) of the theorm; notice that ( f  g)' ( x)  f ' ( x)  g' ( x)  0

So f  g satisfies the conditions of part (i)

Consequently f  g is constant on I. In other words there is a constant c such that

f ( x)  g ( x)  c for all x in I. This completes the proof of the theorm.

Note that if f is a function defined on an interval I, then any function f ' ( x) such f ' ( x)  f ( x) for
each x in I is called an antiderivative of f (since f is the derivative of f on I). Thus for example
3
on any given interval, x is an ant derivative of 3x 2 and sin x is an antiderivative of cos x .

By part (ii) of Theorm 3.5, once we know a single antiderivative F of a given function, all
other ant derivatives can be ascertained by adding constant to F. for example on any interval I the
only ant derivatives of 3x 2 are the functions of the form x3  c.

Example 3.16
Use part (i) of Theorm 3.5 to show that f ( x)  sin 2 3x  cos 2 3x is constant for all real number x.

Solution:

f ' ( x)  6 cos3x  6 sin3x cos3x  0 for all x thus by part (i) of Theorm 3.5 f is a constant
function.

Example 3.17

Find the antiderivatives of the following functions

a) x 2  4x b) Sec 2 y

Solution:

1
a) Since x 3 is an antidervative of x 2 ,and  2x 2 , is an antiderivative of  4 x it follows that
3
1 3
x  2 x 2 is an antiderivtive of x 2  4x . Thus the antiderivative of x 2  4x have the form
3
1 3
x  2 x 2  c where c is any constant.
3

b) one antiderivative of Sec 2 x is tan x ,so the antiderivative of Sec 2 x have the form tan x  c
,where c is any constant.

The following example illustrates that there is precisely one antiderivative that has a
specified value at a prescribed point.

Example 3.18

 
Let f be such that f ' ( x)  cos x and f    1 . Determine the function.
2

Solution: Since f and Sinx are both ant derivatives of cos x by part (ii) of

Theorm 3.5 there is a constant c such that

f ( x)  sin x  c
for the appropriate constant c. To determine

 
c. we use the assumption that f    1 Which yields
2

  
 1  f    sin  c  1  c , c  2 and hence f ( x)  sin x  2 ///
2 2

3.4.2 Increasing and Decreasing (Monotonic) functions.

Definition 3.5

A) i) A function f is said to be increasing on an interval I provided that

whenever for all pairs of numbers in I.

ii) The function f is said to be strictly increasing on I provided that

whenever for all and in I

B) i) A function f is said to be decreasing on an interval I provided that

whenever for all pairs of numbers and in I

ii) The function

The following examplef is said to be
illustrates thestrictly
conceptdecreasing on I provided that
of the definition
whenever for all and in I.
Remark

i) If f is either increasing or decreasing on an interval I, then f is said to be monotonic on I.

Similarly, f is said to be strictly monotonic on I, If it is either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing.

ii) Graphically, if f is strictly increasing on I, then the graph of f is rising as we transverse from
left to right. However, if f is strictly decreasing on I, then the graph of f is falling down as we
transverse from left to right. (see figures 3.16 below)
 (b)

(a)

a b a b

Strictly increasing on[a, b] Strictly decreasing on [a, b]

Increasing on [a,b] Decreasing on [a, b]

Fig3.16 Graphs of functions monotonic and strictly monotonic and strictly monotonic on the
interval I=[a, b]
Theorm 3.6

Suppose that f is differentiable on an interval I.

a) i) If for all x in I then f is increasing on I

ii) If for all x an I and for a finite number of points in I then f is

strictly increasing

b) i) If for all x and I, then f is decreasing on I

ii) If for all x in I and for finite number of points in I then f is strictly
decreasing.

Proof:

We prove only a) ; The proof of b) is analogous.

i) Pick any two points x1 , x2 in I with x1  x2 .By assumption f is continuous

x1 , x2  (why?) and differentiable on (a, b). Thus,

we can apply the Mean-Value Theorem to f in order to find a number c in such that x1 , x2  such
that

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )
f ' (c) 
x2  x1

Since f ' (c)  0 and x2  x1  0 , this means that

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ' (c)( x2  x1 )  0.

Therefore f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ) and thus f is increasing on I. To prove part ii) of a) let us assume that f
is not strictly increasing on I. Since we have shown that f is increasing, this means that there are
two distinct points u and v in I such that u<v and f (u)  f (v).This in turn implies that f is
constant on [u, v], so that f ' ( x)  0 for u  x  u. In other words, it is not true that f ' ( x)  0 for
all x in I except for a finite number of points. Hence if f ' ( x)  0 except for a finite number of
points in I, then f is strictly increasing on I Thus completes the proof (a).

The following examples illustrate the use of theorem 3.6.

Example 3.20

1 3
Let f ( x)  x  x  1. Find the interval on which f is strictly increasing and the interval on
3
which f is strictly decreasing.

Solution:

Since f is a polynomial function it is differentiable on  , .Thus for all x t  ,  we have

f ' ( x)  x 2  1

Now, Factoring and using the analytic or the sign chart method we consider the sign of f ' ( x) in

the respective intervals. Now f ' ( x)  x 2  1  ( x  1) ( x  1). observe that the zeros of f ' are -1
and 1.

From the sign chart we see that

i) f ' (x)  0 on (, 1)  (1, )

ii) f ' ( x)  0 on (1,1) .

Thus by Theorem 3.6, f is strictly increasing on (,  1]  [1, ) and f is strictly decreasing on [-
1,1].

Example 3.21
Let f ( x)  x 3  3x 2  3x  4. on which intervals is f strictly increasing and on which is it strictly
decreasing?

Solution:

For all x we have

f ' ( x)  3x 3  6 x  3  3( x  1) 2  0. Thus
f ' ( x) is positive except for x  1. It follows
from Theorem 3.6 a) ii) f is strictly increasing
on (, ) . (see figure3.18)

Attention! Remember that Theorem 3.6 is stated only for intervals, and thus we can apply it only
1
to intervals. To emphasize this we observe this if f ( x)  ,
x

1
then f ' ( x)    0. For all x in the domain of f. but it is
x2
not true that f is strictly decreasing on is domain, because for
each x1  , 0 and each x2 in (0, ) the inequality
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) holds (see fig 3.19 fig) However f is strictly
decreasing on each of the intervals.