Integration by Substitution

In this chapter we expand our methods of antidifferentiation. We have encoun-

tered integrals which we have been unable to determine because we did not know
an antiderivative for the integrand. The technique we discuss below is simply
reversing the chain rule for derivatives. Remember, every derivative rule can be
reversed to create an antidifferentiation rule. Our objectives are to

• Use pattern recognition to find an indefinite integral.

• Use a change of variables to find an indefinite integral.

• Use a change of variables to evaluate a definite integral.

All are techniques for integrating composite functions. The discussion is split
into two parts: pattern recognition and change of variables. Both techniques in-
volve a so-called u-substitution. With pattern recognition we perform the substi-
tution mentally, and with change of variables we write the substitution in detailed
steps.

Pattern Recognition

Recall that the chain rule for derivatives of composite functions states:

THEOREM 3.1 (Chain Rule). If y = F (u) and u = g( x ) are differentiable then

d
[ F ( g( x ))] = F 0 ( g( x )) g0 ( x )
dx
or, equivalently,
d du
[ F (u)] = F 0 (u) .
dx dx
Notice in this set-up that
du
= g0 ( x ) (3.1)
dx
the corresponding differentials are1 1
Though du dx is a derivative and a single
entity, when working with differentials
du = g0 ( x )dx. (3.2) it is as if one can multiply each side
of (3.1) by dx to obtain the equation in
(3.2).
Reversing the chain rule, from the definition of an antiderivative, we get:
THEOREM 3.2 (Substitution). Assume F is an antiderivative of f (so F 0 = f ) and that g is
differentiable. Then letting u = g( x ) so du = g0 ( x )dx, we get
Z Z
f ( g( x )) g0 ( x ) dx = f (u) du = F (u) + C = F ( g( x )) + c. (3.3)
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 2

Once we know F is and antiderivative of f , then by definition of antiderivative

R R
we have f (u) du = F (u) + c . . . for example, cos u du = sin u + c no matter what
the differentiable function u is. This is the whole point of substitution whether it is
done mentally or written out: Convert the problem into one that we can solve ‘just
by looking at it.’
To apply Theorem 3.2 directly, we must recognize the presence of f ( g( x )) and
0
g ( x ), i.e., f (u) and du
dx . Note that the composite function in the integrand has an
outside function f and an inside function g. Moreover, the derivative g0 ( x ) must also
be present as a factor of the integrand so that (3.3) becomes:
inner deriv
Z outter
z}|{ z }| {
f ( g( x )) g0 ( x ) dx.
|{z}
inner
Z
EXAMPLE 3.1 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine cos( x3 )3x2 dx.

SOLUTION. There is a function which is literally ‘inside’ the parentheses in this prob-
lem. So the inside function is u = x3 and its derivative, 3x2 is a factor in the inte-
grand.
u du
Z z}|{ z }| {
cos( x3 ) 3x2 dx .
In other words,2 the integral can be thought of as 2
Let u = x3 and du = 3x2 dx.
Z
cos(u) du = sin u + c = sin( x3 ) + c,

where we have been careful to rewrite the answer in terms of the original variable x.
Can you do this manipulation in your head? You should be able to. Check the answer
by differentiating.
Z
EXAMPLE 3.2 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine e3t dt.

SOLUTION. We have seen this type of problem before. . . it requires a ‘mental adjust-
ment.’ In our current thinking the ‘obvious’ inside function is u = 3t. The correspond-
ing differential is du = 3 dt, so we think 31 du = dt. Mentally
1
3 du
u
Z z}|{ z}|{ Z
e 3t dt = 1 u
du = 13 eu + c = 13 e3t + c.
3e

Mental adjustment is just a simple case of u-substitution which you should be able to
do in your head. Check the answer by differentiating.
Z
EXAMPLE 3.3 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine e3 tan x sec2 x dx.

SOLUTION. Before reading further, try to do the manipulation required in your head
or with minimal scratch work.
Ok, let’s work it out—we will write down what you should be thinking. Again
there is an ‘obvious’3 inside function: 3 tan x and its derivative is 3 sec2 x. Notice that 3
Why is it obvious?
we have sec2 x as a factor in the integrand, but we are missing a factor of 3. When
we are only off by a constant factor we can make a mental adjustment and still do the
integral. Think of 3 tan x as u so 3 sec2 x dx is the differential (derivative) du, so in our
integrand we have sec2 x dx = 31 du.
1
u du
Z z }| { z 3}| {
e tan x sec2 x dx,
3

which is exactly the same as in Example 3.2. So the integral can be thought of as
Z
1 u
3e du = 13 eu + c = 13 e3 tan x + c,
 3

where we have been careful to rewrite the answer in terms of the original variable x.
For this one, you might have to write out a note or two on the substitution to com-
plete the problem, but in the end the pattern is no different than the previous one in
Example 3.2. That’s what substitution is all about—and that’s what mathematics is
all about. Recognizing patterns and taking advantage of them. Check the answer by
differentiating.
Z p
EXAMPLE 3.4 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine 12x3 3x4 + 1 dx.

SOLUTION. Start by trying to do it in your head. Find the inside function u and and
its differential du.
This time the inside function is u = 3x4 + 1 and its differential is du = 12x3 dx,
which is a factor in the integrand. So (mentally) reordering the integral and writing
the square root as a power, we think

du
Z z }| { Z
4 1/2
( 3x + 1 ) · 12x3 dx = u1/2 du = 23 u3/2 + c = 23 (3x4 + 1)3/2 + c.
| {z }
u

Check the answer by differentiating.

Z
EXAMPLE 3.5 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine (4x3 + 3x2 )4 (6x2 + 3x ) dx.

SOLUTION. Ok, this is a bit harder. Try to find the inside function u and and its
differential du. Do we have both?
The inside function is u = 4x3 + 3x2 and4 its differential is du = (12x2 + 6x ) dx. 4
Could we have let u = 12x2 + 6x since
Notice that we have 21 du = (6x2 + 3x ) dx as a factor in the integrand; we are off by a it, too, is inside a set of parentheses?
constant factor. Rethining the integral we get Why or why not?

1
u 2 du
Z z }| { z }| { Z
( 4x3 + 3x2 )4 (6x2 + 3x ) dx = 1 4
2u du = 1 5
10 u +c = 1
10 (4x
3 + 3x2 )5 + c.

Check the answer by differentiating.

6x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.6 (Recognizing the pattern). Determine dx.
x2 + 1
SOLUTION. What do you think this time?
The ‘inside’ function is less obvious. However, if we try to spot the pieces u and
du, it is pretty clear that that we want u to be the higher-degree term. If we let u
be the denominator, u = x2 + 1, then the differential du = 2x dx. Notice that we
have 3du = 6x dx as the numerator in the integrand; we are off by a constant factor.
Rethinking the integral we get

3du
z }| {
6x dx 1
Z Z
2
=3 du = 3 ln |u| + c = 3 ln( x2 + 1) + c.
x +1 u
| {z }
u

Check the answer by differentiating.

YOU TRY IT 3.1. Determine each of the following:

2 ln t
Z Z Z
(a) sec2 (sin x ) cos x dx (b) dt (c) ( x + 2) tan( x2 + 4x ) dx
t

Change of Variables

The process of changing variables formalizes what we were doing in the previ-
ous section. I am imagining that you were trying to do the previous problems in
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 4

your head. They get harder because we have to keep track of more things. If u is
complicated, so is du. Do we have du exactly or are we off by a constant? Then the
integral itself, even after substitution, may not be entirely obvious.
With a formal change of variables, we completely rewrite the integral in terms
of u and du (or any other convenient variable). Although this procedure can in-
volve more written steps than the pattern recognition illustrated in the previous
examples, it is useful for complicated integrands.
Let’s try some. The first few will be similar to the last few examples to illustrate
the process.
Z
EXAMPLE 3.7. Determine (3 − 2 sin x )6 cos x dx.

SOLUTION. The ‘inside’ function is literally inside the parentheses:

u = 3 − 2 sin x, so du = −2 cos x dx
1
or − du = cos x dx.
2
Now, using u = 3 − 2 sin x and − 21 du = cos x dx quite literally substitute or replace the
pieces in the original integral. Rewriting (not just rethinking) the integral we get

1 1 1
Z Z
(3 − 2 sin x )6 cos x dx = − u6 du = − u7 + c = − (3 − 2 sin x )7 + c.
2 14 14
To keep track of the negative sign and constant factor in the integration is easier when
you write down more details rather than trying to keep it all in your head. Check the
answer by differentiating.
sin x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.8. Determine dx.
cos4 x
SOLUTION. This time the denominator is the more complicated function which is
often an indication that it is the ‘u’. So let

u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx
or − du = sin x dx.

Now replace the pieces in the original integral.

sin x 1 −3 1 1
Z Z
dx = −u−4 du = u + c = (cos x )−3 + c = + c.
cos4 x 3 3 3 cos3 x
Notice that there are two negative signs that are introduced along the way. One or the
other would be easy to lose if you try to keep all the details in your head. Check the
answer by differentiating.

3e x + 3e− x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.9. Determine dx.
( e x − e − x )3
SOLUTION. Again the denominator is the more complicated function and the ‘inside’
function is literally inside the parentheses. So let

u = e x − e− x , so du = e x + e− x dx
or 3 du = (3e x + 3e− x ) dx.

Replace the pieces in the original integral.

3e x + 3e− x
Z Z
dx = 3u−3 du = − 32 u−2 + c = − 32 (e x − e− x )−2 + c.
( e x − e − x )3
The problem ends up being very similar to the previous example. Check the answer
by differentiating.
 5
Z
EXAMPLE 3.10. Determine tan x dx.

SOLUTION. We don’t know an antiderivative for this integrand, and it does not look
like a substitution problem. However, we can rewrite the integrand.
sin x
Z Z
tan x dx = dx.
cos x
We could let u = sin x and then du = cos x dx. Notice though that we do not have
cos x dx; in our integrand we have cos1 x dx. We are not off by a constant factor so we
have to try something else. Let

u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx
or − du = sin x dx.

We saw this same substitution in Example 3.8. Now replace the pieces in the original
integral.
sin x 1
Z Z Z
tan x dx = dx = − du = − ln |u| + c = − ln |cosx | + c = ln | sec x | + c.
cos x u
Check the answer by differentiating.

The solution to Example 3.10 is important enough so that you should memorize
it so that you do not have to re-invent the solution each time you see it.
Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x | + c. (3.4)

YOU TRY IT 3.2. Fill in the blank with a function that makes this an easy problem to do and
then solve the problem: Z
3
tan(e x +1 ) dx.
Z
EXAMPLE 3.11. Here’s the other trig integral I want you to know. Determine sec x dx.

SOLUTION. Again this does not look like a substitution problem, even if you rewrite
sec x as cos1 x . I still remember my Calc II teacher in college showing us how to solve
this integral using substitution. I thought it was very neat!
Ok, the trick here (and it is a trick) is to multiply the integrand by 1 in the form
sec x + tan x
.
sec x + tan x
Now
sec2 x + sec x tan x
 
sec x + tan x
Z Z Z
sec x dx = sec x dx = dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
How does this help? Now we can use substitution. This is one of the few times where
the less complicated expression—the denominator—is actually u. Let

u = sec x + tan x, so du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x ) dx.

The numerator is precisely du. Now replace the pieces in the original integral.

sec2 x + sec x tan x 1

Z Z Z
sec x dx = dx = du = ln |u| + c = ln | sec x + tan x | + c.
sec x + tan x u
Neat! Check the answer by differentiating.

The solution to Example 3.11 is also important enough so that you should mem-
orize it so that you do not have to re-invent the solution each time you see it.
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x | + c. (3.5)
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 6

EXAMPLE 3.12. The two new integrationZ rules in (3.4) and (3.5) can themselves be used
in u-substitution problems. Determine 2x sec(4x2 + 1) dx.

SOLUTION. Ok, this time the inside function is

u = 4x2 + 1 so du = 8x dx or 14 du = 2x dx.
Ok, now we can make use of (3.5): Now
Z Z
2x sec(4x2 + 1) dx = 1
4 sec u du = 1
4 ln | sec u + tan u| + c
1
= 4 ln | sec(4x2 + 1) + tan(4x2 + 1)| + c.
(Check the answer by differentiating.)
x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.13 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine dx.
1 + x4
SOLUTION. When we try the ‘obvious’ substitution here, namely u = 1 + x4 , we see
that du = 4x3 dx. However, we don’t have a factor of x3 in the integrand. If we step
back a second, the integrand looks a bit like the derivative of an arctangent function.
The denominator consists of 1 plus something squared. The ‘something squared’ is x4 .
So suppose we let
u2 = x4 , then u = x2 , so du = 2x dx
1
or 2 du = x dx.
Now replace the pieces in the original integral.
1
x
Z Z
2 1 1
dx = du = 2 arctan u + c = 2 arctan( x2 ) + c.
1 + x4 1 + u2
Check the answer by differentiating.
x2
Z
EXAMPLE 3.14 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine √ dx.
1 − 4x6
SOLUTION. Again the ‘obvious’ substitution u = 1 − 4x6 fails because du = −24x5 dx
and we don’t have a factor of x5 in the integrand. But could this be√an arcsine prob-
lem? If the denominator
√ have the right form it must look like 1 − u2 . That
is to √
would mean that 1 − u = 1 − 4x6 . This means that u2 = 4x6 , so we must have
2

u = 2x3 . But if
u = 2x3 , then du = 6x2 dx
1
or 6 du = x2 dx.
Things have worked out: we do have an x2 in the integrand! Now replace the pieces
in the original integral.
1
x2
Z Z
6 1 1
√ dx = √ du = 6 arcsin u + c = 6 arcsin(2x3 ) + c.
1 − 4x6 1 − u2
Check the answer by differentiating.
Z
2 2
EXAMPLE 3.15 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine xe x tan(e x ) dx.
2
SOLUTION. Here the ‘obvious’ substitution seems to be u = e x because this term is
inside the parentheses. If
2 2
u = e x , then du = 2xe x dx
1 2
du = xe x dx. or
2
Now replace the pieces in the original integral.
1 1 1
Z Z
2 2 2
xe x tan(e x ) dx = tan u du = ln | sec u| + c = ln | sec(e x )| + c.
2 2 2
Notice that we have used our work in (3.4) as well as substitution to solve the prob-
lem. Check the answer by differentiating.
 7

Take-home Message
Right now you know antiderivative formulæ for a half-dozen or so types of func-
tions: logs, exponentials, a few trig and inverse trig functions, and powers. These
all have their corresponding u-substitution forms. You simply need to be on the
lookout for them. Here’s a list of the most important forms. Remember that u will
vary from problem to problem and you may need to adjust by a constant.
Z Z Z Z
(a) sin u du (b) cos u du (c) tan u du (d) eu du
1 1 1
Z Z Z Z
(e) du (f ) du (g) √ du (h) uk du
u 1 + u2 1 − u2

More Complex Substitutions

This section consists of a few more examples where substitution is used, but may
be harder to see. When you think about it for a second, at this point if you are
faced with an integral, you have only three choices: (1) you recognize the inte-
grand immediately as the derivative of one of a couple of handfuls of basic func-
tions; (2) you try substitution; (3) you are stuck. As the term progresses we will
develop additional integration techniques and you will have to become adept at
sorting out which technique applies to a given situation. But for now, if the answer
is not obvious, you have only one choice: Try substitution by identifying u and du
in the integrand.
2
Z
EXAMPLE 3.16 (Complex Pattern Recognition: Logs). Here’s a classic: Determine dx.
x ln x
SOLUTION. From the comments above, since this is not an integrand that you are
likely to recognize immediately, we need to try substitution. In several instances we
have used the denominator of an expression as u. If we try that here, u = x ln x
du = (1 + ln x ) dx which does not appear in the integrand. Looking at the expressions
as two pieces 1x and ln1x you should notice that 1x is the derivative of ln x. Let’s see
where this leads. If
1
u = ln x, then du = dx
x
2
or 2 du = dx.
x
Now replace the pieces in the original integral.

2 2
Z Z
dx = du = 2 ln |u| + c = 2 ln | ln x | + c.
x ln x u
You should check the answer by differentiating.

YOU TRY IT 3.3. These problems are similar to Example 3.16. Try them now.

ln t (ln x )3 1
Z Z Z
(a) dt (b) dx (c) dx
t x x (ln x )3

Complex Pattern Recognition: Inverse Trig Functions

Ok, I waffle back and forth on the most efficient and effective way to present this
material. Let’s plunge ahead and see where this takes us. In Examples 3.13 and
3.14 we used substitution with inverse trig functions. In each case we had an inte-
grand that had the form 1+1u2 or √ 1 2 , where u was a function of x. The key was
1− u
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 8

the “1” plus or minus something squared which reminded us of the arctangent or
arcsine functions.
The problem is a bit more complicated if we have an integrand with something
other than a 1. Here’s what I mean: Assume a > 0. Suppose our integrand in-
volves √ 21 2 , where u is some function of x. With a bit of algebra, we can rewrite
a −x
this is more convenient form:
r s  r
2 x2 x2 x2

p
2 2 2
a 2
a −x = a − 2 = a 1− 2 = a 1− 2 (3.6)
a a a
So now
1 1
Z Z
√ dx = q dx.
a2 − x2 a 1− x2
a2
x2
Now the ‘obvious’ substitution is u2 = a2
so that
x 1
u= , then du = dx
a a
1
We have a factor of a in the integrand. Substituting
1 1 1 x
Z Z Z
√ dx = q dx = √ du = arcsin u + c = arcsin + c.
a2 − x2 a 1− x2 1 − u2 a
a2
(3.7)
Since the name of the variable is irrelevant, we can write (3.7) more generally as

1 u
Z
√ du = arcsin + c. (3.8)
a2 − u2 a

Using exactly the same sort of process, we find

1 1 u
Z
du = arctan + c. (3.9)
a2 + u2 a a
Caution: First, note that you must have u and du exactly in the integrand to get
the answers in (3.8) and (3.9). Most of the time, one will need to adjust by some Should you memorize these two for-
mulæ? It will make your life easier
constant factor. Second, observe that there is factor of 1a in this antiderivative in if you do. The problem, of course,
(3.9). is that one has to remember that the
arctangent has an additional factor of 1a .
YOU TRY IT 3.4. Derive equation (3.9) using a process similar to what we did to prove (3.8).
1
Why is there a factor of a in this antiderivative but not for the arcsine function in (3.8)

The next two examples show how (3.8) and (3.9) are used.
1
Z
EXAMPLE 3.17 (Complex Pattern Recognition: Inverse Trig). Determine √ dx.
36 − 25x2
SOLUTION. Use (3.8). Here Ordinary u-substitution fails because
u = 36 − 25x2 so du = −50x dx and
2 2 2
a = 36 and u = 25x there is no ‘x’ term in the numerator.
or a = 6, and u = 5x
so du = 5 dx
1
so du = dx.
5
Now replace the pieces in the original integral.
1
1 1 u 1 5x
Z Z
√ √ 5
dx = du = arcsin + c = arcsin + c.
36 − 25x2 a2 − u2 5 a 5 6
1
Notice that we have had to adjust (3.8) by a constant factor of 5 because we did not
have du exactly in the integrand.
 9
x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.18 (Complex Pattern Recognition: Inverse Trig). Determine dx.
36 + 25x4
SOLUTION. Use (3.9). Here Ordinary u-substitution fails because
u = 36 + 25x4 so du = 100x3 dx and
a2 = 36 and u2 = 25x4 there is no ‘x3 ’ term in the numerator,
only an ‘x’.
or a = 6, and u = 5x2
1
so du = 10x dx so 10 du = x dx.

Now carefully replace the pieces in the original integral.

1
x 1 1 u 1 5x2
Z Z
10
dx = du = · · arctan + c = arctan + c.
36 + 25x4 a2 + u2 10 a a 60 6
1
Be careful! Not only did we have to adjust (3.9) by a constant factor of 10 but we have
1 1 1
to remember the additional factor of a = 6 here giving us 60 int the final answer.
1
Z
EXAMPLE 3.19 (Complex Pattern Recognition: Inverse Trig). Determine dx.
2 + 9x2
SOLUTION. Use (3.9). Here

a2 = 2 and u2 = 9x2
√
or a = 2, and u = 3x
so du = 3 dx
1
so du = dx.
3
Now replace the pieces in the original integral and use (3.9).
1
1 1 1 u 1 3x
Z Z
3
dx = du = · arctan + c = √ arctan √ + c.
2 + 9x2 a2 + u2 3 a a 3 2 2
Check the answer by differentiating.
YOU TRY IT 3.5. These problems are similar to Examples 3.18 and 3.19. Try them now.

5 1
Z Z
(a) dt (b) √ dx Answers to you try it 3.5 :
3 + 25t2 9 − 16x2
1 5t
(a) √ arctan √ + c
x
Z
3 3
EXAMPLE 3.20 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine dx.
2 + 9x2 1
(b) arcsin
4x
+ c.
4 3
SOLUTION. Do you see what’s going on here?5 Don’t get fooled by all the inverse 5
“Oh, look out!” She Came in Through
trig problems we’ve been doing. This is simpler substitution leading to a log integral. the Bathroom Window—The Beatles.
Here

u = 2 + 9x2 so du = 18x dx
1
so du = x dx.
18
Now replace the pieces in the original integral.
1
x 1 1
Z Z
dx = 18
du = ln |u| + c = ln(2 + 9x2 ) + c.
2 + 9x2 u 18 18
Check the answer by differentiating.
x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.21 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine dx.
2 + 9x4
SOLUTION. Now we are back to an inverse trig problem again. Here

a2 = 2 and u2 = 9x4
√
or a = 2, and u = 3x2
so du = 6x dx
1
so du = x dx.
6
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 10

Replace the pieces in the original integral and use (3.9).

1
x 1 1 u 1 3x2
Z Z
6
dx = du = · arctan + c = √ arctan √ + c.
2 + 9x4 a2 + u2 6 a a 6 2 2
Check the answer by differentiating.
x+1
Z
EXAMPLE 3.22 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine √ dx.
9 − x2
SOLUTION. If the numerator of in the integrand were just x, we’d have an ordinary
substitution problem (do you see why?). If the numerator were just 1 we’d have an
arcsine problem (right?). Well, what we have is both. We can rewrite the integral as
the sum of two integrals, each of which we can solve as just described.
x+1 x 1
Z Z Z
√ dx = √ dx + √ dx For the first integral in the sum, let
9 − x2 9− x2 9 − x2
Z 1 Z
1 u = 9 − x2 so du = −2x dx
2 √
= − 1/2 du + dx 1
u a2 − x 2 so − du = x dx.
x 2
= −u1/2 + arcsin + c and in the second a2 = 9 or a = 3.
a
p
2 x
= − 9 − x + arcsin + c
3
Check the answer by differentiating.
sec2 (4x )
Z
EXAMPLE 3.23 (Complex Pattern Recognition). Determine dx.
9 + tan2 (4x )
SOLUTION. If the denominator were just 9 + tan(4x ) we could try a straightforward
u-substitution and end up with a natural log, since the derivative of 9 + tan(4x ) is
4 sec2 (4x ) which we (almost) have in the numerator. But notice that we can think of
9 + tan2 (4x ) as a2 + u2 , so what about an arctangent?

a2 = 9 ⇒ a = 3 u2 = tan2 (4x ) ⇒u = tan(4x )

du = 4 sec2 (4x ) dx so 14 du = sec2 (4x ) dx

Now substituting we find

sec2 (4x ) 1 1 1 1 u
Z Z
2
dx = dx = · · arctan +c
9 + tan (4x ) 4 a2 +u 2 4 a a
 
1 tan(4x )
= arctan +c
12 3
Check the answer by differentiating.
YOU TRY IT 3.6. These integrals are similar looking and are done using substitution. How-
Answers to you try it 3.6 :
ever, the answers are quite different. Work each out.
p
(a) −2 4 − t2 + c
2t 2t t+4
Z Z Z
(a) √ dt (b) √ dt (c) √ dt 1
4 − t2 1 − 4t4 4 − t2 (b) arcsin 2t2 + c
2
YOU TRY IT 3.7. Now try this pair. p t
(c) − 4 − t2 + 4 arcsin + c
2
ex ex
Z Z
(a) dx (b) dx Answers to you try it 3.7 :
5 + ex 5 + e2x
(a) ln(5 + e x ) + c
One Last Type of Substitution 1
(b) √ arctan √ + c
ex
5 5
There are lots of tricky substitutions that can be discussed. Later in the term, we
will use trig functions as a substitutions for x. That would seem to make things
more complicated, but by that point in the term we will have developed more
techniques to handle complicated trig integrals. For the moment we examine one
last, less than obvious substitution.
 11
x
Z
EXAMPLE 3.24 (Unusual Substitution). Determine √ dx.
x−1
SOLUTION. The usual substitution works, but it has a twist. As usual we let u be the
inside function

u = x − 1 so du = dx

But what do we do with the x in the numerator? Well,

u = x − 1 so x = u + 1.

Carefully replace the pieces in the original integral.

x 1 u−1
Z Z Z Z
√ dx = √ · (u − 1) du = du = u1/2 − u−1/2 du
x−1 u u1/2
2 3/2
= u + 2u1/2 + c
3
2( x − 1)3/2
= + 2( x − 1)1/2 + c.
3
This is a bit messy, but you should be able to spot similar substitutions.
Z √
3
EXAMPLE 3.25 (Unusual Substitution). Determine x x + 1 dx.

SOLUTION. This problem is very similar to the previous one. However, we will use a
different type of substitution to solve it. This same method could also be used to solve
the previous problem. Instead of letting u = x + 1 which is the inside function, let u
be the entire root:
√
u = x + 1 so cubing gives u3 = x + 1
3

so u3 − 1 = x
and 3u2 du = dx

Wow! I like the way we get dx here! Now we can substitute. Carefully replace the
pieces in the original integral.
Z √ Z Z
x x + 1 dx = (u3 − 1) · u · 3u2 du = 3u6 − 3u3 du
3

= 73 u7 − 43 u4 + c = 37 ( x + 1)7/3 − 43 (+1)4/3 + c.

Slick!

YOU TRY IT 3.8. Return to Example 3.24. Carry out a substitution in the style of Exam-
ple 3.25 to solve the problem. You should get the same answer.

Change of Variables for Definite Integrals

When using u-substitution with definite integrals it is often convenient to deter-

mine the limits of integration for the variable u rather than having to convert the
antiderivative back to a function of x. Here’s the theorem that describes the pro-
cess.
THEOREM 3.3 (Change of Variables for Definite Integrals). If the function u = g( x ) has a continu-
ous derivative on the closed interval [ a, b] and f is continuous on the range of g, then
Z b Z g(b)
f ( g( x ) g0 ( x ) dx = f (u) du.
a g( a)

A few examples will illustrate how this works.

x2
Z 1
EXAMPLE 3.26 (Substitution and Definite Integrals). Determine dx.
0 2 + 3x3
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 12

SOLUTION. Here

u = 2 + 3x3 so du = 9x2 dx
1
so du = x2 dx.
9
Now change the limits using u = 2 + 3x3 .
Lower limit: When x = 0, u = 2 + 3(0)3 = 2
Upper limit: When x = 1, u = 2 + 3(1)3 = 5
Replace the pieces, including the limits, in the original integral.
Z 5 1
x2
Z 1 5
9 1 1 1 5
dx = du = ln |u| = [ln 5 − ln 2] = ln .

0 2 + 3x3 2 u 9 2 9 9 2
We could also convert the answer back to the variable x, as we do with indefinite
integrals, and then evaluate the integral using the original limits. If we did that here,
we would get
x2 1 5 1 1 1 1 5
Z
dx = ln |u| = ln |2 + 3x3 | = [ln 5 − ln 2] = ln ,
 
2 + 3x 3 9 2 9 0 9 9 2
which is the same answer we got earlier.
Z π
EXAMPLE 3.27 (Substitution and Definite Integrals). Determine sin 2x cos 2x dx.
0
SOLUTION. Here we can let u be either sin 2x or cos 2x. If we use the former,

u = sin 2x so du = 2 cos 2x dx
1
so du = cos 2x dx.
2
Now change the limits.
Lower limit: When x = 0, u = sin 2(0) = 0
Upper limit: When x = π/2, u = sin 2(π/2) = sin π = 0
Since the upper and lower limits of integration are the same now, we know that the
answer is 0. Z 0
1
Z π
sin 2x cos 2x dx = u du = 0.
0 0 2
Z 3 p
EXAMPLE 3.28 (Substitution and Definite Integrals). Determine x 9 − x2 dx.
0
SOLUTION. This is another simple substitution problem.

u = 9 − x2 so du = −2x dx
1
so − du = x dx.
2
Now change the limits using u = 9 − x2 .
Lower limit: When x = 0, u = 9 − (0)2 = 9
Upper limit: When x = 3, u = 9 − (3)2 = 0
Replace the pieces, including the limits, in the original integral. The new limits stay in
the same order.
Z 3 p Z 0 1
2 1 3/2 0 1
x 9 − x2 dx = 1/2
du = u  = [0 − 27] = −9.
0 9 u 3 9 3
It is worth repeating that the new limits of integration remain in the same order as the
original limits.
YOU TRY IT 3.9. Try these two problems that are a bit more theory oriented to see if you
understand u-substitution conceptually.
R4 R1
(a) If 1 f ( x ) dx = 5, evaluate 0 f (3x + 1) dx. Use u substitution.
R4 R2
(b) If 0 f ( x ) dx = 1, evaluate 0 x f ( x2 ) dx. Use u substitution.
 13

Two Trig Integrals

We begin with two key trig identities that you should memorize that will make
your life and these integrals much simpler.

Two Key Identities.

sin2 u = 1
2 − 1
2 cos 2u (Half angle formula)
1 1
cos2 u= 2 + 2 cos 2u

The half angle formulas are used to integrate sin2 u or cos2 u in the obvious way.
Z
EXAMPLE 3.0.1. Determine cos2 (8x ) dx.

SOLUTION. Use equation (1) above with u = 8x. Note the use of a ‘mental adjust-
ment.’
Z Z
cos2 (8x ) dx = 1
2 + 12 cos(16x ) dx = 12 x + 1
32 sin(16x ) + c.

Z 1/4
EXAMPLE 3.0.2. Determine sin2 (πx ) dx.
0

SOLUTION. Use equation (1) above with u = πx. Note the use of a ‘mental adjust-
ment.’
Z 1/4 Z 1/4 1/4
sin2 (πx ) dx = 1
− 12 cos(2πx ) dx = 12 x − 1
sin(2πx ) = 1
− 1
4π .

2 4π 0 8
0 0

Multi-Substitutions

Sometimes you need to use more than one substitution. Laissez les bons temps
rouler!
Z
EXAMPLE 3.0.3. Determine x2 cos2 ( x3 ) sin( x3 ) dx. Start with the obvious substitution:
u = x3 .

SOLUTION. Let u = x3 and du = 3x2 dx. We get

1
Z Z
x2 cos2 ( x3 ) sin( x3 ) dx = cos2 u sin u du.
3
Now let w = cos u and dw = − sin u du. Then
1 1 1 1 1
Z Z
cos2 u sin u du = − w2 dw = − w3 + c = − cos3 u + c = − cos3 ( x3 ) + c.
3 3 9 9 9
1
Z
EXAMPLE 3.0.4. This one is sweet: Gotta’ love math: Determine p √ dx. Start
√ 1+ 1+x
with the substitution: u = 1 + x.
√ √
SOLUTION. If we let u = 1 + x, then du = √1 so 2 1 + x du = dx So 2u du = dx.
2 1+ x
Whoa! Now
1 2u
Z Z
p √ dx = √
1+ 1+x 1+u
 
2
Like Example 3.24
= (u + 1)3/2 + 2(u + 1)1/2 + c
2
3
4 √ √
= (1 + 1 + x ) − 4(1 + 1 + x )1/2 + c.
3/2
3
YOU TRY IT 3.10 (Integral Mixer). Evaluate these definite integrals. A number of techniques are
required. Switch the limits of integration when appropriate. Answers to you try it 3.10 :
π
(a) 2 (b)
6
π π
(c) (d)
24 40
13 (arctan 2x )2
math 131, days 9 and 10 u-substitution 14

Z 3 Z 1 Z √3
1 1 x
(a) √ dx (b) √ dx (c) dx
0 4−x 0 4− x2 0 9 + x4
√
x9
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3
2x arctan 2x tan x
Z
(d) dx (e) dx (f ) dx (g) √ dx
0 1 + x20 0 9 + x2 1 + 4x2 0 x