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CS3492 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM LTPC

OBJECTIVES
 To learn the fundamentals of data models, relational algebra and SQL
 To represent a database system using ER diagrams and to learn normalization techniques
 To understand the fundamental concepts of transaction, concurrency and recovery processing
 To understand the internal storage structures using different file and indexing techniques whichwill
help in physical DB design
 To have an introductory knowledge about the Distributed databases, NOSQL and database
security

UNIT 1 RELATIONAL DATABASE 10

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Purpose of Database System – Views of data – Data Models – Database System Architecture
– Introduction to relational databases – Relational Model – Keys – Relational Algebra – SQL
fundamentals Advanced SQL features – Embedded SQL– Dynamic SQL

UNIT 2 DATABASE DESIGN

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Entity-Relationship model – E-R Diagrams – Enhanced-ER Model – ER-to-Relational Mapping –
Functional Dependencies – Non-loss Decomposition – First, Second, Third Normal Forms,
Dependency Preservation – Boyce/Codd Normal Form – Multi-valued Dependencies and Fourth
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Normal Form – JoinDependencies and Fifth Normal Form

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UNIT 3 TRANSACTIONS
Transaction Concepts – ACID Properties – Schedules – Serializability – Transaction support in
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SQL – Need for Concurrency – Concurrency control –Two Phase Locking- Timestamp –
Multiversion – Validation and Snapshot isolation– Multiple Granularity locking – Deadlock
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Handling – Recovery Concepts – Recovery based on deferred and immediate update – Shadow
paging – ARIES Algorithm

UNIT 4 IMPLEMENTAION TECHNIQUES 9

RAID – File Organization – Organization of Records in Files – Data dictionary Storage – Column
Oriented Storage– Indexing and Hashing –Ordered Indices – B+ tree Index Files – B tree Index Files –
Static Hashing – Dynamic Hashing – Query Processing Overview – Algorithms for Selection, Sorting
and join operations – Query optimization using Heuristics - Cost Estimation.

UNIT 5 ADVANCED TOPICS 9

Distributed Databases: Architecture, Data Storage, Transaction Processing, Query processing and
optimization – NOSQL Databases: Introduction – CAP Theorem – Document Based systems –

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Key value Stores – Column Based Systems – Graph Databases. Database Security: Security issues
– Access control based on privileges – Role Based access control – SQL Injection – Statistical
Databasesecurity – Flow control – Encryption and Public Key infrastructures – Challenges
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to:
 Construct SQL Queries using relational algebra
 Design database using ER model and normalize the database
 Construct queries to handle transaction processing and maintain consistency of the
database
 Compare and contrast various indexing strategies and apply the knowledge to tune the
performance of the database
 Appraise how advanced databases differ from Relational Databases and find a suitable

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database for the given requirement.

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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudharshan, ―Database System Concepts‖, Seventh
Edition, McGraw Hill, 2020.
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2. Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, ―Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, Seventh Edition,
Pearson Education, 2017
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REFERENCES:
1. C.J.Date, A.Kannan, S.Swa mynathan, ―An Introduction to Database Systems‖, Eighth
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Edition,Pearson Education, 2006.

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COURSE OUTCOME
At the end of course, students will be able to
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CO1 Construct SQL Queries using relational algebra

CO2 Design database using ER model and normalize the database

Construct queries to handle transaction processing and maintain consistency of the
CO3
database
Compare and contrast various indexing strategies and apply the knowledge to tune the
CO4
performance of the database
Appraise how advanced databases differ from Relational Databases and find a suitable
CO5
database for the given requirement.
CO6 To understand Query optimization using Heuristics and Cost Estimation

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UNIT I
RELATIONAL DATABASE :
Purpose of Database System – Views of data – Data Models – Database System Architecture –
Introduction to relational databases – Relational Model – Keys – Relational Algebra – SQL fundamentals
Advanced SQL features – Embedded SQL– Dynamic SQL

PART A

1. What is database?(R)
A database is a basic electronic storage with collection of interrelated data, organized to provide
efficient retrieval. Databases are organized by fields, records and files or tables.

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2. What is DBMS? (R) (NOV 2008)
A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define, manipulate,
retrieve and manage data in a database.

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3. List out some representative application of databases (U) (DEC 2007)
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications.
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 Banking
 Airlines
 Universities
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 Credit card transactions

 Telecommunication
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 Finance
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 Sales
 On-line retailers
 Manufacturing
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 Human resources

4. What is the purpose of data base system? (U) (NOV 2014)

The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and
efficient for people to storing and retrieving information.

5. What are problems caused by redundancy?(Nov/Dec-2017)

 The first is that storing values multiple times wastes space.
 The second problem is that when a field value changes, multiple occurrences need
to be updated.
 The third problem occurs if we forget to change the values in any of the records.
The database would then have inconsistent data.

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6. Describe the three levels of data abstraction? (R)(Nov/Dec-2017)

There are three levels of abstraction:
 Physical level
 Logical level
 View level

7. What is a physical level? (R)

The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.

8. What is a logical level? (R)

The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in database and
what relationship among those data.

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9. What is a view level? (R)

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The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.

10. What is a schema? (R)(MAY 2007)

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The structure of a database system, described in a formal language supported by the database
management system (DBMS), In a relational database, the schema defines the tables, the fields in
each table, and the relationships between fields and tables. Schemas are generally stored in a data
or

dictionary.
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11. What are the different types of schemas? (R)

 Physical Schema
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 Logical Schema
 External Schema
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12. What is an instance? (R)

The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an
instance of the database.

13. What do u mean by data model?(U) (MAY 2011)

Data Model can be defined as an integrated collection of concepts for describing and
manipulating data, relationships between data, and constraints on the data in an organization.

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14. What is a relational model? (R) (MAY 2010)

The Relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique Value.

15. What is an entity-relationship model? (R) (MAY 2008)

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.

16. What is object based data model? (R)

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These

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bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same methods
are grouped together into classes.

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17. What is a semi structured data model? (R)
The semi structured data model permits the specification of data where individual data items of
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the same type may have different sets of attributes.

18. What is Meta data? (R) (MAY 2008)

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Data dictionary contains Metadata-that is, data about data.

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19. What is the use of data dictionary? (R)

The DDL gets input as some instructions (statements) and generates some output. The output
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of the DDL is placed in the data dictionary.

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20. Define Relational Database. (R)

A relational database is based on the relational model and uses a collection of tables to
represent both data and the relationships among those data. It also includes a DML and DDL.

21. What are the different data models? (R) (MAY 2012)
 Relational Data Model
 The Entity-Relationship Data Model
 Object-Based Data Model
 Semi structured Data Model
22. What is a relational model? (R) (MAY 2010)
The Relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique Value.

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23. What is an entity-relationship model? (R) (MAY 2008)

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.

24. What is object based data model? (R)

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These
bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same methods
are grouped together into classes.

25. What is a semi structured data model? (R)

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The semi structured data model permits the specification of data where individual data items of
the same type may have different sets of attributes.

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26. What is Meta data? (R) (MAY 2008)
Data dictionary contains Metadata-that is, data about data.
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27. What is the use of data dictionary? (R)
The DDL gets input as some instructions (statements) and generates some output. The output
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of the DDL is placed in the data dictionary.

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28. Define Relational Database. (R)

A relational database is based on the relational model and uses a collection of tables to
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represent both data and the relationships among those data. It also includes a DML and DDL.
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29. What is data base design ? (R)

Database design mainly involves the design of the database schema. The design of a
complete database application environment that meets the needs of the enterprise being modeled
requires attention to a broder set of issues.

30. What is physical data independence? (R)

Physical data independence deals with hiding the details of the storage structure from user
applications. The application should not be involved with these issues, since there is no difference
in the operation carried out against the data.

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31. What are different access types in DML?(U)

The types of access are
 Retrieval of information stored in the database
 Insertion of new information into the database
 Deletion of information from the database
 Modification of information stored in the database

32. What is a procedural DML? (R)

Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data.

33. What is declarative DML? (R)

Declarative DMLs also referred to as nonprocedural DMLs require a user to specify what

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data are needed without specifying how to get those data.

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34. Define Assertions(R)
An assertion is any condition that the database must always satisfy.
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35. What is storage manager? (R)
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low level
data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.
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36. What are the components of storage manager? (U)

 Authorization and integrity manager
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 Transaction manager
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 File manager
 Buffer manager
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37. List out the data structure used to implement the storage manager. (R)
 Data files
 Data dictionary
 Indices

38. What is the use of embedded SQL? (U) (MAY 2012) (NOV 2014)
A fundamental principle underlying embedded SQL, which we call the dual-mode
principle, is that any SQL statement that can be used interactively can also be embedded in an
application program.

39. Write short note on OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE statements. (R)
OPEN:

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EXEC SQL OPEN < Cursor name>;

Opens the specified cursor. A set of rows is thus identified and becomes the current active set for
the cursor.
FETCH:
EXEC SQL FETCH <Cursor name>
INTO <host variable reference
commalist>; Advances the specified cursor to the next
row in the active set.
CLOSE:
EXEC SQL CLOSE <Cursor name>;
Closes the specified cursor. The cursor now has no current active set.

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40. Discuss about dynamic SQL. (R) (NOV 2014)
D ynamic SQL is a part of embedded SQL. It consists of a set of ―dynamic statements‖-

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which themselves are compiled ahead of time- whose purpose is precisely to support the
compilation and execution of regular SQL statements that are constructed at run time.
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41. What is a candidate key? (R)
Let K be a set of attributes of relvar R. Then K is a candidate key for R if and only if it
has both of the following properties: Uniqueness and Irreducibility
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42. What is a primary key? (R)

It is possible for a given relation to have two or more candidate keys. In such a case, the
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relational model has historically required that exactly one of those keys be chosen as the
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primary key
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43. What is an alternate key? (R)

It is possible for a given relation to have two or more candidate keys. In such a case, the
relational model has historically required that exactly one of those keys be chosen as the
primary key and the others are then called alternate keys.

44. What is a foreign key? (R)

A foreign key is a set of attributes of some relvar R2 whose values are required to match
values of some candidate key of some relvar R1.

45. What is a trigger? (R)

Triggered procedures are precompiled procedures that are stored along with the database and
invoked automatically whenever some specified event occurs.

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46. What are the relational operators? (R)

Union, Intersect, Difference, Product, Select, Project, Join, Divide are the relational operators.

47. Define Cartesian product. (R)

Cartesian product of two relations a and b, a TIMES b, where a and b have no common attribute
names, to be a relation with a heading that is the union of the headings of a and b and witha body
appearing in a and a tuple appearing in b.

48. What are the desirable properties of decomposition?(Apr/May-2017)

1.LosslessDecomposition
2. DependencyPreservation
3. Lack of Data Redundancy

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49. Distinguish between Key and Super Key? (Apr/May-2017)

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Key A key is a single or combination of multiple fields. Its purpose is to access or retrieve
data rows from table according to the requirement.
A superkey is a combination of attributes that can be uniquely used to identify a database
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record. A table might have many superkeys.
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PART B
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1. Explain the system structure of a database system with neat block diagram. (R) (DEC 2007), (MAY
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2010) (MAY 2012)

2. What is a data model? Explain various data model for describing the design of a database at the logical
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level. (U) (APRIL 2008), (MAY 2010)

3. Explain the different between physical and logical data independence with an example. (U)(APRIL 2008)

4. Explain the characteristics of database approach. (U)(APRIL 2008)

5. Describe the three-schema architecture. Why do we need mapping between schema Levels? How do
different schema definition languages support this architecture? (R) (DEC 2008)
1. What is the notation used in E-R diagram? Explain the E-R model structure with Example.(U)(NOV
2014)
2. Explain the role and functions of the database administrator. (R)

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3. Explain the following (R) (APRIL 2008) (NOV 2014)

i. Data Definition Language.

ii. Data Manipulation Language.
iii. Data control Language.
iv. Views

4. Develop an Entity Relationship model for a library management system. Clearly State the
problem Definition, Description, Business Rule and any assumption you make. (AP)
(MAY 2009) (NOV 2014)

10. What is Embedded SQL? Give example(R)(NOV 2016)

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11. State and explain the Architecture of DBMS.Draw the ER Diagram for banking
Systems. (Home loan applications)(Nov/Dec-2017)

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12. (i)State and explain the command DDL,DML,DCL with suitable example(7).
(ii) Justify the need of embedded SQL.Consider the relation
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Student (student no, name, mark and grade).Write the embedded SQL statement in C language to
retrieve all the students records whose mark than 90.
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13. Discuss about Tuple Relational Calculus and Domain Relational Calculus. (R) (DEC2008)
(MAY 2012)
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14.What are aggregate functions? Explain five built-in aggregate functions. (U) (MAY 2008)
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15.Consider the following relations for a company database Application.(AP)(MAY 2009)

Employee (Eno, Name, Sex, DOB, Doj, Designation, Basic_Pay, Dept_No)
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Department (DeptNo,Name)
Project (ProjNo, Name, Dept_No)

Works for (Eno,ProjNo,Date, Hours)

The attributes specified for each relation is self-explanatory. However the business rules are
stated as follows. A department can control a project. An employee can work on any
number of projects on a day. However an employee cannot work more than once on a
project he/she worked on that day. The primary key are underlined.
(i). Identify the forging keys, Develop DDL to implement the above schema.

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(ii) Develop an SQL query to list the department number and the
number of Employee in each department.
(iii) Develop a View that will keep track of the department number, the number of
employees in the department, and the total basic pay expenditure for each
department.
(iv) Develop an SQL query to list the details of employees who have worked in more
than three projects on a day.
16. Explain how dangling tuple may arise and also explain problems that they Cause. (U)
(MAY 2008)
17. Briefly present a survey on Integrity and Security. (U) (MAY 2012)
18. Create an EMPLOYEE table and write the steps for various functions in an SQL Like add,

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update, delete, save and join the various attributes of an EMPLOYEE Table. (C)(MAY 2007)
19. Explain the use of trigger with your own example. (U) (MAY 2010)

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20. What is a view? How can it be created? Explain with an example. (R) (MAY 2010)
21. Briefly present a survey on Integrity and Security. (U) (MAY 2012)
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22.Consider a student registration database comprising of the given
belowtable schema.(AP)(Nov/Dec2015)
Student File
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Student number Student name Address Telephone

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Course File
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Course Number Description Hours Professor Number

Professor File
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Professor Number Name Office

Registration File
Student Number Course Number Date

Consider a suitable example of tuples/records for the above mentioned tables and write
DML statements (SQL) to answer for the queries listed below:

(i) Which courses does a specific professor

teach?

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(ii)What courses are taught by two specific

professors?
(iii) What teaches a specific course and where is his/her office?

(iv) For a specific student number, in which courses is the student registered and what is
his/her name?

(v) Who are he professors for a specific student?

(vi) Who are he students registered in a specific course?

23. Let relations r1(A,B,C)and r2(C,D,E) have the following properties r1 has 20000 tuples r2

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has 45000 tupes ,25 tuples of r1, fit on one block and 30 tuples of r2 fit on one block .Estimate
the number of block transfers and seeks required,using each of the following join strategies for
r1∞r2:

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(i) Nested loop join
(ii)Block Nested loop join
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(iii) Merge join
(iv) Hash join (AP) (NOV 2016)
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24. Consider the relation schema given in fig1.Design and draw an ER diagram that capture
the information of this schema.(5)(Apr/May-2017)
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Employee(empno,name,office,age)
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Books(isbn,title,authors,publisher)
Loan (empno, isbn,date)
Write the following queries in relational algebra and SQL.
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(i) Find the names of employees who have borrowed a book published by McGraw- Hill.(5)

(ii) Find the names of employees who have borrowed all books published by McGraw- Hill.(5)

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UNIT II
DATABASE DESIGN
Entity-Relationship model – E-R Diagrams – Enhanced-ER Model – ER-to-Relational
Mapping – Functional Dependencies – Non-loss Decomposition – First, Second, Third
Normal Forms, Dependency Preservation – Boyce/Codd Normal Form – Multi-valued
Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form – JoinDependencies and Fifth Normal Form
PART A
1. What is entity? (R)
It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.

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2. What is relationship set? (R)
The collection (or set) of similar relationships.

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3. What is entity set? (R)
It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.
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4. What is week entity? (R) (NOV 2008)(NOV2016)
An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key, and
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its primary key compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent
entity, then it is said to be Weak Entity set.
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5. What is mapping cardinality? (R)

Mapping cardinality express the number of entities to which another
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rntity can be associated via a relationship set.

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6. What is functional dependence? (U)(Apr/May2015)

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of
attributes X and Y that are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible
tuple that can form a relation state r of R. The constraint is for any two tuples t1
and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the value of
X component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of component Y.

7. What is object oriented data model? (R)

The object –oriented data model is another data model that has seen
increasing attention. The object-oiented model can be seen as extending the E-R
model with notions of encapsulation, methods and object identity.

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8. What do you mean by functional dependencies? (U) (MAY

2010)(nov2013)(Dec2015)
Let R be a relation variable and let X and Y be arbitrary subsets of the
set of attributes of R. then we say that Y is functionally dependent on-in
symbols,
XY
(read ―X functionally determines Y,‖ or simply ― X arrow Y ‖)- if and only if
in every possible legal value of R, each X Value has associated with it
precisely one Y value.

9. What is a trivial dependency? (R) (MAY 2012)(nov 2013)

A dependency is trivial if it cannot possibly fail to be satisfied.

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10. What is a nontrivial dependency? (R) (MAY 2012)
Nontrivial dependencies are the ones that correspond to ―genuine‖ integrity

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constraints.

11. Define Heath‟s theorem. (R)

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Let R{A,B,C}be a relvar, where A,B, and C are sets of attributes. If R satisfies
the FD A B, then R is equal to the join of its projections on {A,B}and {A,C}.

12. Define first normal form.(R)

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A relvar is in 1NF if and only if, in every legal value of that relvar,
every tuple contains exactly one value for each attribute.
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13. Define second normal form.(R)

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A relvar is in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every nonkey

attribute is irreducibly dependent on the primary key.
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14. Define third normal form. (R)

A relvar is in 3NF if and only if it is in 2NF and every nonkey attribute
is nontransitively dependent on the primary key.
15. What is dependency preservation? (R)
Normalization procedure should decompose relvars into projections that are
independent in Rissanen‗s sense has come to be known as dependency preservation.

16. Define Boyce/Codd normal form. (R) (MAY 2012)

A relvar is in BCNF if and only if every nontrivial, left-irreducible FD
has a candidate key as its determinant (OR) A relvar is in BCNF if and only
if every determinant is a candidate key.
17. What is multi-valued dependence? (R)

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Let R be a relvar, and let A, B and C be subsets of the attributes of R.

Then we say that B is multi-dependent on A-in symbols, AB

18. Define Fagin theorem. (R)

Let R{A,B,C} be a relvar, where A, B, and C are sets of attributes.
Then R is equal to the join of its projections on {A, B} and {A, C} if and
only if R satisfies the MVDs AB|C.

19. Define fourth normal form. (R)

Relvar R is in 4NF if and only if, whenever there exist subsets A and B
of the attributes of R such that the nontrivial MVD AB is satisfied, then

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all attributes of R are also functionally dependent on A.

20. What is a join dependency? (R)

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Let R be a relvar, and let A, B,…. .Z be subsets of the attributes of R.
Then we say that R satisfies the JD
*{A, B …Z}
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if and only if every legal value of R is equal to the join of its projections on A,
B,……Z.
or

21. Define fifth normal form. (R)

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A relvar R is in 5NF-also called projection-join normal form(PJ/NF)-if and

only if every nontrivial join dependency that is satisfied by R is implied by the
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candidate key(s) of R, where

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a. The join dependency *{A, B,…….Z} on R is trivial if and only if atleast

one of A, B,…Z is the set of all attributes of R.

b. The join dependency *{A, B,…….Z} on R is implied by the candidate

key(s) of R if and only

22. What is denormalization? (R)

Let R1, R2,….., Rn be a set of relvars. Then denormalizing those
relvars means replacing them by their join R, such that for all i (i=1, 2,….., n)
projecting R over the attributes of Ri is guaranteed to yield Ri again.

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23. What is normalization? (R) (MAY 2010)

Normalization is the process of structuring relational database schema
such that most ambiguity is removed.

24. What are the aspects of relational model?(R)

The Three aspects of relational model are:

 Structural aspect: The data in the database is perceived by

the user as tables, and nothing but tables.
 Integrity aspect: Those tables satisfy certain integrity constraints.
 Manipulative aspect: The operators available to the user for
manipulating those tables- for example, for purposes of data

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retrieval – are operators that derive tables from tables. Of
those operators, three particularly important ones are select,

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project and join.
25. Mention the important points about relational databases. (R)
A set of important points about relational databases:
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a. Relational databases store data in the form of tables (logically).
b. The rows of a table are called as tuples.
c. The columns of a table are known as attributes.
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d. Every attribute has a data type associated with it.

e. Every attribute has a domain which provides the set of all possible
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values that can be stored as values for that attribute.

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f. Tables are called as relations.

g. The table names are called as relational variable
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26. What is a catalog? (R)

The catalog contains detailed information, sometimes called
descriptor information or Metadata, regarding the various objects that
are of interest to the system itself.
27. What do you mean by weak entity set? (MAY 2010) (R)
A weak entity is an entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its attributes
alone; therefore, it must use a foreign key in conjunction with its attributes to
create a primary key. The foreign key is typically a primary key of an entity it is
related to.

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28. What is the difference between Data Integrity and Data Security? (NOV 2013)
(U)
Data integrity and data security are two different aspects that make sure
the usability of data is preserved all the time. Main difference between integrity
and security is that integrity deals with the validity of data, while security deals
with protection of data. Backing up, designing suitable user interfaces and error
detection/correction in data are some of the means to preserve integrity, while
authentication/authorization, encryptions and masking are some of the popular
means of data security. Suitable control mechanisms can be used for both
security and integrity.

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1. Which operators are called as unary operators and why are they called so
(NOV 2013) (U)

an
An operator that takes a single operand in an expression or a statement.
The unary operators in C# are +, -,!, ~, ++, -- and the cast operator.
iya
2. What is an Entity? (R)
It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.
or

3. What is a query? (NOV2013) (R)

p

A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.

w.

4. Define query language? (R)

A query language is a language in which user requests information from thedatabase.
ww

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PART B

1. What is the notation used in E-R diagram? Explain the E-R model structure with
Example.
(U)(NOV 2014)
2. Develop an Entity Relationship model for a library management system. Clearly
State the problem
Definition, Description, Business Rule and any assumption you make. (AP)
(MAY 2009) (NOV 2014)
3. Develop an Entity Relationship model preparation staff (chef) and finalize the

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customer‗s bill. The Food preparation staffs (Chefs), with their touch-display interfaces to the
system, are able to view orders sent to the kitchen by waiters. During preparation, they are able
to let the waiter know the status of each item, and can send notifications when items are

an
completed. The system should have full accountability and logging facilities, and should
support Supervisor actions to account for exceptional circumstances, such as a meal being
iya
refunded orwalked out on. (AP) (Dec2015)
4. Distinguish between lossless-join decomposition and dependency preserving
decomposition(7)
or

5. State and explain the architecture of DBMS.Draw the ER diagram for banking
systems.(Home loan Application)(13)(Nov/Dec-2017)
p
w.
ww

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UNIT III
TRANSACTIONS
Transaction Concepts – ACID Properties – Schedules – Serializability –
Transaction support in SQL – Need for Concurrency – Concurrency
control –Two Phase Locking- Timestamp – Multiversion – Validation and
Snapshot isolation– Multiple Granularity locking – Deadlock Handling –
Recovery Concepts – Recovery based on deferred and immediate update
– Shadow paging – ARIES Algorithm

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PART – A

1. Define recovery in a database system.(R)

an
Recovery in a database system means, primarily, recovering the database itself;
that is, restoring the database to a correct state after some failure has rendered the
iya
current state incorrect, or at least suspect.

2. What is a transaction? (MAY 2010) (R)

or

A transaction is a logical unit of work; it begins with the execution of a

BEGIN TRANSACTION operation, and ends with the execution of a
p

COMMIT or ROLLBACK operation.

w.

3. What is a commit point? (R)

A commit point corresponds to the end of a logical unit of work, and

ww

hence to a point at which the database is supposed to be in a correct state.

4. Discuss the ACID properties. (R) (MAY 2010) (NOV 2014)(Dec2015)

ACID properties are

a. Atomicity: Transactions are atomic

b. Correctness: Transactions transform a correct state of the
database into another correct state, without necessarily preserving
correctness at all intermediate points
c. Isolation: Transactions are isolated from one another. That is,
even though in general there will be many transactions running
concurrently, any given transaction‗s updates all connected from

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all the rest, until that transaction commits. Another way of saying
the same thing is that, for any two distinct transactions A and B ,
A might see B‗s updates or B might see A‗s updates, but not both.

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an
iya
p or
w.
ww

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d. Durability: Once a transaction commits, its updates persist in the

database, even if there is a subsequent system crash.

5. What is a system failure? (R)

System failures (e.g., power outage), which affect all transactions
currently in progress but do not physically damage the database. A system
failure is sometimes called a soft crash.

6. What is a media failure? (R)

Media failures (e.g. head crash on the disk), which do cause damage to
the database or some portion thereof, and affect at least those transactions
currently using that portion. A media failure is sometimes called a hard crash.

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7. What is a check point record? (R)
The checkpoint record contains a list of all transactions that were in

an
progress at the time the checkpoint was taken.

8. Expand ARIES. (R)

iya
The name ARIES stands for ―Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation
Exploiting Semantics.‖
or

9. What are the three broad phases of ARIES? (U)

ARIES operates in three broad phases:
 Analysis: Build the REDO and UNDO lists
p

 Redo: Start from a position in the log determined in the analysis

w.

phase and restore the database to the state it was in at the time of the
crash.
ww

 Undo: Undo the effects of transactions that failed to commit.

10. What is a two-phase commit? (U)

Two-phase commit is important whenever a given transaction can
interact with several independent ―resource managers,‖ each managing
its own set of recoverable resources and maintaining its own recovery
log.‖

11. What is the need for save points? (U)

It might be possible for a transaction to establish intermediate save
points while it is executing, and subsequently to roll back to a previously
established save point, if required, instead of having to roll back all the way to
the beginning.

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12. Define concurrency (MAY 2012) (R)

Concurrency refers to the fact that DBMSs typically allow many
transactions to access the same database at the same time.

13. What are the three problems that any concurrency control mechanism must
address? (R)
The three problems are:

 The lost update problem

 The uncommitted dependency problem
 The inconsistent analysis problem
14. What is the last update problem? (U)
Transaction A retrieves some tuple t at time t1; transaction B retrieves

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that same tuple t at time t2; transaction A updates the tuple at time t3; and
transaction B updates the same tuple at time t4; Transaction A‗s update is lost

an
at time t4, because transaction B overwrites it with-out even looking at it.

15. What is the uncommitted dependency problem? (U)

iya
The uncommitted dependency problem arises if one transaction is
allowed to retrieve-or, worse, update-a tuple that has been updated by another
transaction but not yet committed by that other transaction.
or

16. What is deadlock? (NOV 2014) (R)

p

Deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are in a

simultaneous wait state, each of them waiting for one of the others to release
w.

a lock before it can proceed.

ww

17. What is serializability? (NOV2016) (NOV 2014) (R)

Serializability is the generally accepted ―criterion for
correctness‖ for the interleaved execution of a set of transactions; that is,
such an execution is considered to be correct if and only if it is serializable.

18. State the two-phase locking theorem (R)

Two –phase locking theorem is ―If all transactions obey the two-phase
locking protocol, then all possible interleaved schedules are serializable‖.
19. State the two-phase locking protocol. (MAY 2012)(NOV 2013) (R)
The two-phase locking protocol is as follows
i. Before operating on any object a transaction must acquire a
lock on that obje
ii. After releasing a lock, a transaction must never go on to
acquire any more locks

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20. What is an isolation level? (R)

The isolation level that applies to a given transaction might be defined
as the degree of interference the transaction in question is prepared to tolerate
on the part of concurrent transactions.

21. What do you mean by phantom problem? (R)

If transactions operate at less than the maximum isolation level is the
so-called phantom problem

22. What is an intent locking protocol? (U)

The intent locking protocol, according to which no transaction is
allowed to acquire a lock on a tuple before first acquiring a lock-probably an
intent lock on the relvar that contains it.

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23. List the four conditions for Deadlock(U) (NOV 2016)

an
A deadlock situation can arise if and only if the following four conditions hold
simultaneously in a system-
iya
Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource is held in a non- sharable mode that is only
one process at a time can use the resource. If another process requests that resource,
the requesting process must be delayed until the resource has beenreleased.
or

Hold and Wait:There must exist a process that is holding at least oneresource and is
p

waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being held by other
w.

processes.

No Preemption: Resouces cannot be preempted; that is, a resource can only be

ww

released voluntarily by the process holding it, after the process has completed its
task.

Circular Wait: There must exist a set {p0, p1,. ............... pn} of waiting processes
such that p0 is
waiting for a resource which is held by p1, p1 is waiting for a resource which
is held by p2,.....................................................................................................
pn-1 is waiting for a resource which is held by p n and pn is waiting for a resource
which is held by p0.

24. What is a shadow copy scheme?

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It is simple, but efficient, scheme called the shadow copy schemes. It is based o n
making copies of the database called shadow copies that one transaction is active
at a time. The scheme also assumes that the database is simply a file on disk.

25. What type of locking needed for insert and delete operations (April/May-
2017)

When you execute an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, the database server
uses

exclusive locks. An exclusive lock means that no other users can update or delete the
item until the

database server removes the lock.

PART – B

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1. Why is Recovery needed? Discuss any two Recovery Techniques.(U)
(MAY2009) (MAY

an
2012)
2. Write a relevant example discuss two phase Looking. (U)(MAY 2009)
iya
3. What is Deadlock? List and discuss the four conditions for Deadlock. (R)

(MAY 2009)(MAY 2012) (NOV 2014) (NOV2016)

or

4. Give an example of a Scenario where two Phase Locking leads to

p

Deadlock.(AN)(MAY 2009)
w.

5. Explain testing for serializability with respect to concurrency control

schemes. How will you determine, whether a schedule is serializble or not.
(U)(MAY 2008)
ww

6. Explain the following protocols for concurrency control :(R)(MAY 2008)

a. Look based protocols.
b. Time stamp based protocols.

7. Describe the three most common concurrent transaction execution

problems.(R)(MAY 2007)
8. Explain how concurrency control can be used to avoid such problems?(U)
(MAY 2007)(NOV 2014)

9. Write a note on the following :

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a. Two-phase locking protocol (2PL).(U)(NOV 2016)

b. Lock based protocol.(U)
10. Explain the deferred and immediate-modification version of the log based
Recovery scheme.
(U)(MAY 2007)
11. Write short notes on shadow paging.(R)( DEC 2007)
12. Describe about the testing of serializability. (U)( DEC 2007) (MAY 2012)
13. What is concurrency control? How is it implemented in DBMS? Explain. (R)(DEC
2007)
14. Explain various recovery techniques during transaction in detail. (R)(MAY 2007)

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15. Explain the two-phase commit and three-phase commit protocols.(R)(Dec2015)
16. Consider the following schedules. The actions are listed in the order
they are scheduled, and prefixed with the transaction name.(AN)

an
(Dec2015)
S1:T1:R(X),T2:R(X),T1:W(Y),T2:W(Y),T1:R(Y),T2:R(Y)
iya
S2:T3:W(X),T1:R(X),T1:W(Y),T2:R(Z),T2:W(Z),T3:R(Z)
For each of the schedule, answer the following questions:
(i) what is the precedence graph for the schedule?(2)
(ii) is the schedule conflict –serializable?if so,what are all the conflict
or

equivalent serial schedules?(7) (iii)is the schedule view-serializable?if so,

what are all the view equivalent serial schedules?(7)
p
w.

17. Consider the

following two transactions:
ww

T1:read(A)
Read(B);
If A=0 t he

B:=B+1;
Write (B).
T2:read(B);
Read (A);
If B=0 then A:=A+1;
Write (A).
Add lock and unlock instruction to transactions T1 and T2,so that they observe
the two phase locking protocol. Can the execution of these transactions result in
a deadlock?(AP) (NOV 2016)

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UNIT IV
IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES
RAID – File Organization – Organization of Records in Files – Data dictionary Storage –
Column Oriented Storage– Indexing and Hashing –Ordered Indices – B+ tree Index Files –
B tree Index Files – Static Hashing – Dynamic Hashing – Query Processing Overview –
Algorithms for Selection, Sorting and join operations – Query optimization using Heuristics
- Cost Estimation.

PART – A

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1. What is cache memory?(U)
The cache is the fastest and most costly form of storage. Cache

an
memory is small; its use is managed by the computer system hardware.

2. What is main memory?(U)

iya
The storage medium used for data that are available to be operated on
is main memory. The general-purpose machine instructions operate on main
memory. Although main memory may contain many megabytes of data, or
or

even hundreds of gigabytes of data in large server systems, it is generally too

small for storing the entire database. The contents of main memory are
p

usually lost if a power failure or system crash occurs.

w.

3. What is flash memory? (MAY 2010)(U)

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
ww

a. Data in flash memory survive from power failure

b. Reading data from flash memory takes about 10 nano-secs (roughly as
fast as from main memory), and writing data into flash memory is more
complicated: write-once takes about 4-10 microsecs.
c. To overwrite what has been written, one has to first erase the entire bank
of the memory. It may support only a limited number of erase cycles (104
to 106).
d. It has found its popularity as a replacement for disks for storing small
volumes of data (5- 10 megabytes).

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4. What is magnetic disk storage?(U)

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Primary medium for long-term storage.
 Typically the entire database is stored on disk.

an
 Data must be moved from disk to main memory in order for the data to
be operated on.
 After operations are performed, data must be copied back to disk
iya
if any changes were made.
 Disk storage is called direct access storage as it is possible to read
data on the disk in any order (unlike sequential access).
or

 Disk storage usually survives power failures and system crashes

5. What is optical storage?(U)
p

The most popular form of optical storage are CD-ROM (compact –

w.

disk read – only memory), WORM (write-once read-many)disk (for archival

storage of data), and Juke box(containing a few drives and numerous disks
ww

loaded on demand).

6. What is tape storage?)(U)

Tape storage used for primarily for backup and archival data.
 Cheaper, but much slower access, since tape must be read
sequentially from the beginning.

 Used as protection from disk failures.

7. Draw the storage device hierarchy. (MAY 2010)(R)

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Cache

Main memory

Flash memory

Magnetic disk

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Optical disk

an
Magnetic tapes
8. What is SAN architecture?(R)
iya
In the storage area network (SAN) architecture, large numbers of disks
are connected by a high-speed network to a number of server computers.
or

9. What is NAS?(R)
Network attached storage (NAS) is an alternative to SAN. NAS is
p

much like SAN, except that instead of the networked storage appearing to be
a large disk, it provides a file system interface using networked file system
w.

protocols such as NFS or CIFS.

10. Define access time(R)

ww

Access time is the time from when a read or write request is issued to
when data transfer begins.

11. Define seek time.(R)

To access data on a given sector of a disk, the arm first must move so
that it is positioned over the correct track, and then must wait for the sector to
appear under it as the disk rotates. The time for repositioning the arm is
called the seek time.
12. Define average seek time.(R)
The average seek time is the average of the seek times, measured over a
sequence of random requests.

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13. Define rotational latency time.(U)

Once the head has reached the desired track, the time spent waiting for the sector to
be accessed to appear under the head is called the rotational latency time

14. Define average latency time.(U)

Average latency time of the disk is one-half the time for a full rotation of the disk.

15. Define data-transfer rate.(U)

The data-transfer rate is the rate at which data can be retrieved from or stored to the
disk.

16. What is RAID? (NOV 2014)(R)

A variety of disk organization techniques, collectively called redundant arrays

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of independent disks (RAID), have been proposed to achieve improved
performance and reliability.

an
17. What are the factors to be taken into account in choosing a RAID level?(R)
The factors to be taken into account in choosing a RAID level are
 Monetary cost of extra disk-storage requirements
iya
 Performance requirements in terms of number of I/O operations
 Performance when a disk has failed.
 Performance during rebuild(that is, while the date in a failed disk are
or

being rebuilt on a new disk)

p

18. What is heap file organization?(R)

w.

Any record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is space for the record.
There is no ordering of records. Typically, there is a single file for each relation.
ww

19. What is sequential file organization?(R)

Records are stored in sequential order, according to the value of a―search key‖
of each record.

20. What is hashing file organization?(R)

A hash function is computed on some attribute of each record. The result ofthe hash
function specifies in which block of the file the record should be placed,

21. What is a multitable clustering file organization?(U)

A multitable clustering file organization is a file organization that stores related records
of two or more relations in each block. Such a file organization allows us to read records that
would satisfy the join condition by using one block read.

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22. What are the two basic kinds of indices?(U)

The Two basic kinds of indices are
 Ordered indices
 Hash indices
23. What are access types?(U)
The types of access that are supported efficiently. Access types can include
finding records with a specified attribute vale and finding records whose attribute
values fall in a specified range.
24. What is access time?(U)
The time it takes to find a particular data item, or set of items, using the

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technique in question.

25. What is insertion time?(U)

an
The time it takes to insert a new data item. This value includes the time it takes
to find the correct place to insert the new data item, as well asthe time it takes to
iya
update the index structure.

26. What is deletion time?(U)

The time it takes to delete a data item. This value includes the time it takes to find
or

the item to be deleted, as well as the time it takes to update the index structure.
p

27. What is space overhead?(U)

w.

The additional space occupied by an index structure. Provided that the amount of
additional space is moderate, it is usually worth-while to sacrifice the space to
achieve improved performance.
ww

28. What is a search key? (R)

An attribute or set of attributes used to look up records in a file is called a searchkey.

29. What is an clustering index (or) primary index? (NOV 2014)(U) Clustering
index is an index whose search key also defines the sequential orderof the file.
30. What is an nonclustering index (or) secondary index?(U)
Indices whose search key specifies an order different from the sequential order of
the file are called nonclustering indices.

31. What is an index-sequential file?(U)

All files are ordered sequentially on some search key. Such files, with a clustering
index on the search key, are called index-sequential files.

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32. What is a dense index? (U) (MAY 2012)

An index record appears for every search-key value in the file. In a
dense clustering index, the index record contains the search-key value and a
pointer to the first data record with that search-key value. The rest of the
records with the same search-key value would be stored sequentially after the
first record, since, because the index is a clustering one, records are stored on
the same search key. Dense index implementations may store a list of
pointers to all records with the same search-key value; doing so is not
essential for clustering indices.

33. What is a sparse index? (U) (MAY 2012)

An index record appears for only some of the search-key values. as is true

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in dense indices, each index record contains a search-key value and a pointer
to the first data record with that search-key value. To locate a record, we find
the index entry with the largest search-key value that is less than or equal to

an
the search-key value for which we are looking. We start at the record pointed
to by that index entry, and follow the pointers in the file until we find the
desired record.
iya
34. What is a multilevel indices?(U)
Indices with two or more levels are called multilevel indices.
or

35. What is a balanced tree?(U)

Balanced tree in which every path from the root of the tree to the leaf of
p

the tree is of the same length.

w.

36. Write the querying a B+ tree.(AP)

Procedure find (value V)
ww

Set C = root node

While C is not a leaf node begin
Let Ki= smallest search-key
value, if any, greater than V If
there is no such value then begin
Let m = the number
of pointers in the
node Set C= node
pointed to by Pm
End End
Else set C= the node pointed to by Pi

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If there is a key value Ki =V

Then pointer Pi directs us to the
desired record or bucket Else no
record with key value k exists.
37. Define hashing.(R)
Hashing allow us to avoid accessing an index structure. It provides a way of
constructing indices.

38. Define a bucket.(R)

The term bucket to denote a unit of storage that can store one or
more records. A bucket is typically a disk block, but could be chosen
to be a smaller or larger than a disk block.

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39. Define hash function.(U)
A hash function h is a function from K to B. Let h denote a hash function

an
40. What are the two different purposes of hashing?(R)
Hashing can be used for two different purposes.
 Hash file organization
iya
 Hash index organization
or

41. What is a hash index?(R)

A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated pointers, into a
hash file structure.
p
w.

42. What is dynamic hashing? (R) (NOV 2014)

Dynamic hashing techniques allow the hash function to be modified
dynamically to accommodate the growth or shrinkage of the database.
ww

43. What are the steps involved in query processing?(R)

The steps involved in processing a query are
 Parsing and translation
 Optimization
 Evaluation
44. Write the nested-loop join algorithm.(U)
For each tuple tr in r do begin
For each tuple t s in s do begin
Test pair (tr, ts) to see if they satisfy the join condition If

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they do, add tr.t s to the

result
End
End

45. Write the block nested-loop join and its algorithm.(U)

Block nested-loop join, which is a variant of the nested – loop join where every
block of the inner relation is paired with every block of the outer relation.

For each
block
Br of r

.in
do
begin

an
For
each
block
iya
Bs of s
do
begin
or

For each
tuple tr
p

in Br
w.

do
begin
For
ww

each
tuple ts
in Bs
do
begin
Test pair (tr, ts) to see if they
satisfy the join condition If
they do, add t r.ts to the result.
End

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End
End
End

46. What is an indexed nested-loop join?(U)

Indexed nested loop join can be used with existing indices, as well as with
temporary indices created for the sole purpose of evaluating the join.

47. What is a merge join?(U)

The merge-join algorithm can be used to compute natural joins and equi-joins.

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48. What is a hash-join?(U)
The hash-join algorithm can be used to implement natural joins and equi-joins.

an
49. What are the contents of DBMS catalog?(R)
The DBMS catalog stores the following statistical information about database
iya
relations:

 nr,the number of tuples in the relation r

or

 br, the number of blocks containing tuples of relation r

 lr, the size of a tuple of relation r in bytes
p

 fr,the blocking factor of relation r-that is,the number of tuples of

w.

relation r that fit into one block

 V (A,r),the number of distinct values that appear in the relation r
for attribute A. This value is the same as the size of (r).If A is a
ww

key for relation r,V(A,r)is nr

50. What is a slotted page sheet.draw the diagram(R) (NOV 2013)
Record id = <page id, slot #>

Can move records on page without changing rid; so, attractive for
fixed-length records too. Page is full when data space and slot
array meet.

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... 2Rid =(i,2)

Rid = (i,1)

16
24

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slots SLOT DIRECTORY

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51. What is a histogram?(U)
In histogram the values for the attribute are divided into a number of
ranges, and with each range the histogram associates the number of tuples whose
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attribute value lies in that range.

52. What is an index record?(U)

An index record, or index entry, consists of a search – key vale and
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pointers to one or more records with that value as their search-key value.
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53. Define mean time to failure(MTTF)(R)

w.

Mean time to failure is a measure of the reliability of the disk. The

mean time to failure of a disk is the amount of time that, on average, we can
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expect the system to run continuously without any failure.

54. What is mirroring?(R)
The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every
disk. This technique is called mirroring.
55. How dynamic hashing differ from static
hashing? (U) (DEC2015) Static Hashing
 A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more records (a bucket is
typically a disk block).
 The file blocks are divided into M equal-sized buckets, numbered
bucket0, bucket1... bucketM- 1.Typically, a bucket corresponds to one
(or a fixed number of) disk block.
In a hash file organization we obtain the bucket of a record directly from
its search-key value using a has

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Dynamic Hashing
 Good for database that grows and shrinks in size
 Allows the hash function to be modified dynamically
 Extendable hashing – one form of dynamic hashing
 Hash function generates values over a large range —typically b-bit integers,
with b = 32.
 At any time use only a prefix of the hash function to index into a table of bucket
addresses.
 Let the length of the prefix be i bits, 0 _ i _ 32.

56. Disadvantages of B TREE over B+ TREE(R)(NOV 2016)

In a B tree search keys and data stored in internal or leaf nodes. But in B+-

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tree data store only leaf nodes.
Searching any data in a B+ tree is very easy because all data are found in leaf
nodes. In a B tree, data cannot be found in leaf nodes.

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In a B tree, data may be found in leaf nodes or internal nodes. Deletion
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of internal nodes is very complicated. In a B+ tree, data is only found in
leaf nodes. Deletion of leaf nodes is easy.
Insertion in B tree is more complicated than B+ tree.
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B+ trees store redundant search key but B tree has no redundant value.
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In a B+ tree, leaf nodes data are ordered as a sequential linked list but in B
tree the leaf node cannot be stored using a linked list. Many database
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systems' implementations prefer the structural simplicity of a B+ tree.

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57. What is a query execution plan?(Apr/May-2017)

Execution plan will be generated by Query optimizer with the help of statistics
and Algebrizer\processor tree.
It is the result of Query optimizer and tells how to do\perform your
work\requirement.
There are two different execution plans - Estimated and Actual.
Estimated execution plan indicates optimizer view.
Actual execution plan indicates what executed the query and how was it done.

58. Which cost component are used most often as the basis for cost function?
(Apr/May-2017)
(i) Access cost to secondary storage

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(ii) Memory usage of cost

(iii)Storage cost

59. What is replication transparency?(Apr/May-2017)(U)

Distribution Transparency. Distribution transparency is the property of distributed
databases by the
virtue of which the internal details of the distribution are hidden from the users. The
DDBMS designer may choose to fragment tables, replicate the fragments and store them
at different sites.

60. State the Need for Query Optimization.

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 Process of selecting an efficient execution plan for evaluating the query.
 refers to the process of finding lowest cost method of evaluating a given query.

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 Need for being logically consistent because the least cost plan will always
be consistently low.
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PART B

1. Explain the security features provided in commercial query languages.(U) (MAY

2007)
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2. What are the steps involved in query processing? How would you estimate the
cost of the query? (U) (MAY 2007)
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3. Explain the different properties of indexes in detail.(U)

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4. Explain various hashing techniques.(R)

5. Explain the four important properties of transaction that a DBMS must
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ensure to maintain database.(U)(MAY 2007)

6. What is RAID? List the different level in RAID technology and explain its
Features.(R)(MAY 2007), (MAY 2010) (NOV 2014)(NOV 2016)
7. What is concurrency control? How is it implemented in DBMS?
Explain.(U)(MAY 2007)
8. Explain various recovery techniques during transaction in detail.(U) (MAY 2007)

9. Explain how the RAID systems improve performance and reliability. (U)(DEC
2007)
10. Describe the structure of B+ tree and list the characteristics of a B+tree. (U) (DEC 2008),
(MAY 2012) (MAY 2010) (NOV 2014)
11. Explain the steps involved in processing a query.(R)(DEC 2008)

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12. Describe static hashing and dynamic hashing.(U)(DEC 2008). (NOV 2014)

13. Describe in detail about how records are represented in a file and how to
organize them in a file. (AP)(MAY 2012).

14. Explain about spatial and mobile database (U)(NOV 2014)(NOV 2016)
15. With suitable digrams,discuss about the Raid
Levels(Level0,Level1,Level 0+1,level3,Level and Level5).(U)(Dec2015)

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16. Explain the Architectural components of a data ware house
and write bout data marts. (R)(Dec2015)

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17. Explain the architecture distributed database system (U)(Nov 2016)

18. Describe the benefits and drawbacks of a source driven architecture

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for gathering of data datawarehouse , as compared to a destination
driven architecture (U)(NOV 2016)

UNIT V ADVANCED TOPICS

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Unit-V Advanced Topics

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Distributed Databases: Architecture, Data Storage, Transaction Processing, Query

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processing and optimization – NOSQL Databases: Introduction – CAP Theorem –

Document Based systems – Key value Stores – Column Based Systems – Graph
Databases. Database Security: Security issues – Access control based on privileges –
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Role Based access control – SQL Injection – Statistical Database security – Flow
control – Encryption and Public Key infrastructures – Challenges

PART-A

1. What are the different aspects of security problem?(R)

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There are many aspects to the security problem. Here are some of them:
i. Legal, social, and ethical aspects
ii. Physical controls
iii. Policy questions
iv. Operational problems
v. Hardware controls
vi. Operational system supportand finally
Issues that are the specific concern of the database system itself.

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2. What is discretionary access control?(U)

In the case of discretionary control, a given user will typically have
different access rights on different objects; further, there are few inherent
limitations regarding which users can have which rights on which objects.
Discretionary schemes are thus flexible.

3. What is mandatory access control?(U)

In the case of mandatory control, by contrast, each data object is
labeled with a certain classification level, and each user is given a certain
clearance level.

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4. What are the contents of audit trail record?(R)
A typical audit trail record might contain the following information:

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 Request(source text)
 Terminal from which the operation was invoked
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 User who invoked the operation
 Date and time of the operation
 Relvar(s), tuples(s),attribute(s) affected
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 Before images(old values)

 After images(new values)
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5. What is entity integrity?(U)

No component of the primary key of any base relvar is allowed to
accept nulls are called entity integrity.

6. What are views for?(U)

There are many reasons why view support is desirable. Here are some of
them:

 Views provide a shorthand or ―macro‖ capability.

 Views allow the same data to be seen by different users in
different ways at the same time.
 Views provide automatic security for hidden data.
 Views can provide logical data independence.

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7. Define the golden rule.(R)
Golden Rule is

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No update operation must ever assign to any relvar a value that causes its relvar
predicate to evaluate to FALSE.
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Or (a little loosely):
No relvar must ever be allowed to violate its own predicate.
8. Define a distributed database system.(U)
A distributed database system consists of a collection of sites, connected
or

together via some kind of communications network, in which:

a. Each site is a full database system site in its own right but
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b. The sites have agreed to work together so that a user at any site can
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access data anywhere in the network exactly as if the data were all stored at
the users own site.
9. Define a distributed database management system.(R)(NOV 2016)
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A new software component at each site logically an extension of the

local DBMS provides the necessary partnership functionality, and it is the
combination of these new components together with the existing DBMSs that
constitutes what is usually called the distributed database management
system

10. What are the advantages of distributed databases?(U)

It enables the structure of the database to mirror the structure of the
enterprise-local data can be kept locally, where it most logically belongs-
while at the same time remote data can be accessed when necessary.
11. What is the fundamental principle of distributed database?(U)

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The fundamental principle of distributed database is to the user, a
distributed system should look exactly like a non-distributed system.

12. What are the objectives of distributed databases?(R)

The objectives of distributed databases are
1) Local autonomy
2) No reliance on a central site
3) Continuous operation
4) Location independence
5) Fragmentation independence
6) Replication independence
7) Distributed query processing
8) Distributed transaction management

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9) Hardware independence
10) Operating system independence
11) Network independence

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12) DBMS independence
13. What are the problems of distributed databases?(R)
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The problems are
 Query processing
 Catalog management
 Update propagation
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 Recovery
 Concurrency
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14. Define client/server systems.(R)

w.

A client/server system is a distributed system in which

a) Some sites are client sites and some are server sites
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b) All data resides at the server sites

c) All applications execute at the client sites, and
d) ―the seams show
15. What is OODBMS ?(U)
Object-oriented database management systems (OODBMSs) combine database
capabilities with object-oriented programming language capabilities. OODBMSs
allow object-oriented programmers to develop the product, store them as objects,
and replicate or modify existing objects to make new objects within the OODBMS.
Because the database is integrated with the programming language, the programmer
can maintain consistency within one environment, in that both the OODBMS and
the programming language will use the same model of representation

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16. What is meant by Data warehousing? (NOV 2014)(U)
A data warehouse is a relational database that is designed for query and
analysis rather than for transaction processing. It usually contains historical dataderived
from transaction data, but it can include data from other sources. It separates analysis
or

workload from transaction workload and enables an organization to consolidate data

from several sources.
p
w.

17. What is meant by data mining? (NOV 2014)(R)

The overall goal of the data mining process is to extract
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information from a data set and transform it into an understandable

structure for further use.

18. What is meant by information retrieval?(R)

An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into
the system. Queries are formal statements of information needs, for example
search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval a query does not
uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may
match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.
19. What is meant by Relevancy ranking? (NOV 2014)(U)
Relevancy ranking is the process of sorting the document results so that those
documents which are most likely to be relevant to your query are shown at the
top.

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20. Define Crawling. (NOV 2014)(R)

Web crawling is the process of search engines combing through web
pages in order to properly index them. These ―web crawlers‖ s ystematically
crawl pages and look at the keywords contained on the page, the kind of content,
all the links on the page, and then returns that information to the search engine‗s
server for indexing. Then they follow all the hyperlinks on the website to get to
other websites. When a search engine user enters a query, the search engine will
go to its index and return the most relevant search results based on the keywords
in the search term. Web crawling is an automated process and provides quick, up
to date data.
21. What is meant by XML Database?(R)
An XML database is a data persistence software system that allows data

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to be specified, and sometimes stored, in XML format. These data can then be
queried, transformed, exported and returned to a calling system.

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22. Define Data classification.(U)
Data classification is the process of organizing data into categories
for its most effective and efficient use.
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23. What is meant by Access Control? (NOV 2014)(R)
In the fields of physical security and information security, access control
is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The act of
or

accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using. Permission to access a

resource is called authorization. Locks and login credentials are two analogous
p

mechanisms of access control.

24. What is a threat in dbms?(U)
w.

When the data is been accessed by many people, the chances of data theft
increases. In the past, database attacks were prevalent, but were less in number as
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hackers hacked the network more to show it was possible to hack and not to sell
proprietary information. Another reason for database attacks is to gain money
selling sensitive information, which includes credit card numbers, Social
Security Numbers, etc.
25. What is Cryptography?(U)
Cryptography is a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular
form so that only those for whom it is intended can read and process it. The term
is most often associated with scrambling plaintext (ordinary text, sometimes
referred to as cleartext) into ciphertext (a process called encryption), then back
again (known as decryption).

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26. Define Statistical database.(R)

A statistical database is a database used for statistical analysis
purposes. It is an OLAP (online analytical processing), instead of OLTP
(online transaction processing) system. Modern decision, and classical
statistical databases are often closer to the relational model than the
multidimensional model commonly used in OLAP systems.

27. Define Clustering in DBMS. (NOV 2014)(R)

Clustering, in the context of databases, refers to the ability of several
servers or instances to connect to a single database. An instance is the collection

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of memory and processes that interacts with a database, which is the set of
physical files that actually store data.

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28. Write about the four types (Star, Snowflake, Galaxy and Fast
constellation) of Data warehouse schemas.(DEC2015)(R)
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1. STAR SCHEMA:Centralized Fact table connect the one or more denormalized data

2. SNOW FLAKE SCHEMA:Centralized Fact table connect the one or more

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normalized data

3. STAR FLAKE SCHEMA:One or more centralized fact table connect the single
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denormolized data
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4. Fact Constallation Schema : For each star schema it is possible to construct

fact constellation schema(for example by splitting the original star
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schema into more star schemes each of them describes facts on another
level of dimension hierarchies). The fact constellation architecture contains
multiple fact tables that share many dimension tables.

29. What is Association rule mining?(R)

Association rules are if/then statements that help uncover relationships

between seemingly unrelated data in a relational database or other information
repository. An example of an association rule would be "If a customer buys a
dozen eggs, he is 80% likely to also purchase milk."

Applications:

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 Cross-Marketing
 Basket Data Analysis
 Catalog design

PART B

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1. Explain in detail Data Classification in DBMS.(R)

2. Discuss in detail Access Control mechanism. (NOV 2014) (U)

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3. Explain about Distributed Databases. (NOV 2014) (U)
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4. Discuss about Data warehousing and Data Mining. (U)

5. Explain in detail Information retrieval and Relevance Ranking. (U)

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6. Describe about OODBMS and XML Database. (R)

7. Explain in detail Threats and risks in Database Management System. (R)

p
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8. Neatly write the K-means algorithm and show the intermediate results in
clustering the below given points into two clusters using K-means algorithm.
P10,0),P21,10),P3:(2,20),P4:(1,15),P5:(1000,2000),P6:(1500,1500),P7:(1
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000,1250). (U) (Dec2015)

9. Discuss About The Access Control Mechanisms And Cryptography

Methods To Secure the Databases. (Dec2015) (U)

10. What is Association rule mining?(R)(NOV 2016)

11. Suppose that you have been hired as a consultant to choose a database system
for your client‗s application .For each of the following applications, state what
type of database system (relational,persistent programming language based
OODB,object relational;do not specify a commercial product)you whould
recommend.Justify your recommendation

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i) A computer aided design system for manufacturer of airplanes

ii) A system to track contributions made to candiates for public office.

iii) an information system to support the making of movies. (AN)(Nov 2016)

12. Trace the results of using the Apriori algorithm on grocery store example to
support threshold s=33.34% and confidence threshold c=60%.Show the candidate
and frequent itemsets foreach database scan.Enumerate all the final frequent
itemsets.Also indicate the association rules that are generated and highlight the
strong ones,sort them by confidence.

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Transaction Id Items

T1 HotDogs,Buns,Ketchup

T2 HotDogs,Buns

T3 HotDogs,Coke,Chips

T4 Chips,Coke

T5 Chips,Ketchup

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T6 HotDogs,Coke,Chips

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