HOLY TRINITY UNIVERSITY

PATROLOGY II

Prepared By Behailu Bekele

7/20/23

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 Table of Content

1. The Early Apologists 1

2. The Heretical and Apocryphal Literature of The Second Century 10

3. Further Explanation on Apocryphal Books 22

4. On Early Apologies Summary of Patrology II Part I 26

5. The Opponents of Heresy in The Second Century 28

6. Oriental Writers of The 3rdcentury Part II The Scholar Origen And

Origenism 35

7. Writers Of the Third Century 42

8. Oriental And Western Writers of the 3rd Century 48

9. Golden Patristic Age 64

10. The 4th Century Main Writers of Alexandria 78

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 The Early Apologists

Introduction
 As Christianity gradually separated from Judaism and came to feel its own character
as a new faith, competing with various ethnic, philosophic, and mysterious religions
in the Roman world and facing objections and persecution.
 It began to be conscious of itself and its responsibility to give answers to the criticisms
and attacks that were made against it.
 Moreover, educated men and scholars were converted to Christianity in great
numbers. They found that truth compelled them quite naturally to enter in discussion
with pagan philosophers.
 This was the beginning of the Christian apologetic literature that soon took shape in
a series of apologies and dialogues in defense of the new religion.
 According to some academics, the apologists started by delivering petitions to Hadrian
during his visit to Athens in 124 AD.
 Around 156 A.D., St. Justin wrote to Antoninus Pius after St. Polycarp of Smyrna was
martyred.
 Not alone did clergymen defend Christianity, but also non-clergy people.
 Any Christian author, particularly in the second century, who attempted to defend
Christianity while criticizing paganism and other facets of Greco-Roman society is
known as an apologist.
 Numerous of their writings were addressed to the Roman emperors, but it's likely that
they were forwarded to government secretaries instead who had the authority to
approve or reject them.
Early apologists
 Jews, Judaeo-Christians, pagans, philosophers, and occasionally emperors and other
powerful people attacked Christianity and Christians.
1. Based on the prophecies of their Holy Scriptures, the Jews was observing the
spread of Christianity throughout the world.

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 2. Judaeo-Christianity sought to integrate faith and Christianity with Mosaic Law.
A number of unwavering converts from the Pharisees (Acts 15, for example)
insisted on the fundamental requirement of observance of Judaism.
3. Gnosticism, a pagan philosophical intellectual movement, was one of the
Church's biggest opponents. Judaeo-Christians and Montanists welcomed and
supported this.
4. The State was aware of the existence of Christianity as different from Judaism,
which led to Roman persecutions.
 Christianity and Christians were persecuted by pagan intellectuals, Jews, and even
emperors. Pagan philosophers began to criticize Christianity in the second century.
Only a few of their works are known:
 Writings criticizing the Church were mostly destroyed after Emperor Theodosius
ordered their burning around 445.
1. The speech of the famous rhetor Fronto of Cirta, the teacher of Marcus
Aurelius, against the Christians.
2. In a satire De morte Peregrini (c. 170) Lucian of Samosata, who had been a
member of the Christian community for some time, mocks the Christians for
their love of the brethren and their contempt of death.
3. The attack of the Platonist Celsus (c. 178), preserved for the greater part in
Origen’s work against him.
4. The tradition of hostility against the Christians on the part of the philosophers
was continued in the later centuries, especially among the neo- Platonists, e.g.
Prophery, Hierocles and Emperor Julian.
The Apologists set three goals for themselves:
1. They refuted widely shared slanders, taking special care to disprove the
accusation that the Church constituted a threat to the state.
2. They revealed paganism's immoralities and the myths of its divinities,
demonstrating that only the Christian has a right understanding of God and

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 the universe. As a result, they supported dogmas such as God's oneness,
monotheism, Christ's divinity, and the resurrection of the body.
3. They went further than simply refuting the philosophers' arguments,
demonstrating that this same philosophy had either never gained truth or that
the knowledge it had was only fragmented and mixed with various mistakes
because it relied solely on human reason.
• Given that Christianity is the divine philosophy and that the Logos, the Divine
Reason Himself, descends to earth, Christianity presents the absolute truth.
• Their strategy was to present Christianity as politically neutral and morally and
culturally superior to paganism in order to win over emperors and the general
populace.

Workers and apologists

• St. Quadratus, Aristides, St. Justin Martyr, Tatian, Apollinaris (bishop of Hierapolis),
Melito, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and St. Clement of Alexandria are some
of the most notable Greek apologists.
• Tertullian, St. Hippolytus of Rome, Marcus Minucius Felix, and other prominent Latin
apologists from the second century.
ARISTIDES 2nd cent
• Aristides sought to defend the existence and eternity of God, and to show that
Christians had a fuller understanding of His nature than either the Chaldeans, the
Greeks, the Egyptians or the Jews, and that they alone loved according to His
precepts.
• Aristides is strongly influenced by the “Preaching of Peter.” He sees in the Christians
a new race.
• He states that the Christians alone have the only true idea of God and they above all
the nations have found the truth. For they acknowledge God the Creator in the Only-
Begotten Son and in the Holy Spirit; and besides him they worship no other.

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ST. JUSTIN THE MARTYR
• Justin was a philosophy student who initially experimented with the Stoic, Peripatetic,
and Pythagorean schools of thought.
• He slowly began to embrace Christianity as the most traditional, authentic, and divine
of all philosophies.
• Following his conversion, which most likely took place in Ephesus, he dedicated the
rest of his life to defending the Christian faith.
• He landed in Rome and established a school there under Antoninus Pius' rule (I38–
161 AD).
• Tatian was one of his students and would go on to become an apologist.
• St. Justin was crucified in Rome.
• Justin, who earned the title "martyr" for his martyrdom testimony at Rome between
163 and 167 A.D., was born in Samaria to pagan parents.
• Justin was a prolific writer. He wrote his Apology ca. 155 A.D., addressed to the
Emperor Antoninus Pius an his colleagues; and his Dialogue with Trypho, shortly after,
which defends Christianity against the attacks of Judaism by means of a discussion
between Justin and a Jew named Trypho.
• Eusebius lists eight works of Justin - two Apologies, Against the Greeks, the
Refutation, On the Sovereignty of God, Psaltes (perhaps a hymnbook), On the Soul,
and a Dialogue against the Jews.
• He is the first Christian thinker to seek to reconcile the claims of faith and reason.
• A dialogue in which Justin seeks to convince an educated Jew named Trypho that
Christianity is true is known as The Dialogue with Trypho.
• Justin tries to show that the Jewish people's old covenant with God has been replaced
by a new one, that Jesus is both the promised Messiah and the earlier logos through
whom God revealed himself in the Scriptures, and that the Gentiles have been chosen
to take the place of Israel as God's chosen people.
• Justin makes the case that Rome is unfairly persecuting Christians in his succinct
Second Apology.

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Tatian The Syrian

• Originally from Syria or Assyria, the person had pagan parents. He received training
in Greek philosophy and eloquence.
• Between 150 and 165, he traveled to Athens and Rome to further his education. He
converted to Christianity after encountering St. Justin the Martyr in Rome.
• He later left for Syria, and it was most likely during this time that he rose to
prominence as the sect's leader, if not its founder, the Encratites (also known as the
Abstinents), a group of Christian Gnostics who discouraged marriage as adultery and
went so far as to replace wine with water during the Eucharistic service.
• Syrian author of the Diatessaron, a version of the four Gospels structured in a single
continuous narrative (Greek: "Through Four," "From Four," or "Out of Four").
• The Diatessaron provided the Syrian church's biblical-theological vocabulary for
centuries in its Syriac form; the Gospel text had been influenced by its Greek and Latin
forms.
• Tatian studied under the Roman theologian St. Justin Martyr in the second century
and later embraced Christianity.
• He rejected the intellectualism and corrupted classical Greek literary and moral
standards, favoring the "barbaric" Christian culture instead.
MELITO, BISHOP OF SARDIS
• One of the foremost luminaries in Asia in the second century is Melito, bishop of Sardis
in Lydia. He writes frequently and on a wide range of topics.
• A Syriac manuscript at the British Museum has an apology with Melito's name on it,
although it was not written by him.
• He was incorrectly credited the authorship of another Latin document from the fifth
century. De Transitu Beatae Mariae Virginis is its title.
• He sent an apology to Emperor Marcus Aurelius for the Christians in the year 170 A.D.
He claims that the Christian faith and the Empire are foster sisters.
• Homily on the Passion.
• Two books On the Passover.

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• A treatise On Christian Life and the Prophets, of probably anti-Montanistic character.
• On the Church, On the Lord’s Day, On the Faith, On Creation, On the Obedience of
Faith, on the Senses, On the Soul and Body, On Hospitality, On Baptism, On Truth,
On Faith and Christ’s Birth, On Prophecy, The Key, On the Devil, On the Apocalypse
of John, On God the Incarnate, On the Incarnation of Christ, and 6 books of Extracts
from the Law and the Prophets concerning our Savior and our entire Faith.
A letter to DIOGNETUS
• a discussion about how superior Christianity is. It conveys the tenderness of the author
in his steadfast testimony to the Christian life and defence of the religion. It is written
as open responses to his friend Diognetus's queries and is extremely factual,
straightforward, and understandable.
• In the form of a letter, the "Epistle to Diognetus" is a defence of Christianity.
• In his defense, the writer explains the following two points:
I. How can a man worship an idol made by a human hand, made of a
corruptible material, which can be stolen?!
II. The soul is discomforted by the sacrifices of animals blood.
a. Christians reveal their faith through their daily life.
b. Christian faith is a divine gift.
c. Christians are not a separate nation.
d. The nature of the church is heavenly.
e. The Church insists on loving the world faithfully.
f. Christians are subject to the state’s law.
g. The church practices communal life in everything except in the conjugal life.

ST. THEOPHILUS later 2nd cent

• St. Theophilus was the sixth bishop of Antioch in Syria
• He demonstrates the superiority of Christianity from a moral standpoint in the third
book. He demonstrates that Moses and the prophets came before any thinkers using
the world's chronology.

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• Only his Apology, written in three books and addressed to his pagan companion
Autolycus, has remained from his writings. Its goal is to demonstrate to the pagans
the superiority of the Christian conception of God and the theology of creation over
the immoral myths of the Olympian religion.

Athenaghoras the Apologist

• Became a Christian in the year 176.
• He read the Bible to refute Christianity, but the Holy Spirit overcame him so fiercely
that he turned into a supporter of the religion.
• He made the first attempt to use intellectual arguments to support this faith in his
essay on the resurrection of the dead.
• Became a Christian in the year 176.
• He read the Bible to refute Christianity, but the Holy Spirit overcame him so fiercely
that he turned into a supporter of the religion.
• He made the first attempt to use intellectual arguments to support this faith in his
essay on the resurrection of the dead.
• He wrote a plea (called “Presvia” or intercession) on behalf of Christians in 177 A.D.,
defending Christians against the false accusation of atheism, cannibalism and
Oedipedean incest. He drew the attention to their faith in God and to their peaceful
and blameless life..
• A treatise on the resurrection of the dead. He states that the resurrection of the dead
is proved by God’s omnipotence and is based on: man as a rational being is destined
for eternal survival; necessity of retribution; eternal bliss cannot be found on earth.

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 The Heretical and Apocryphal Literature of The Second Century

INTRODUCTION
• In the second century, the Church had to defend not only her right to exist against
the pagans, but also her faith against heretics. As a result, she was joined by a number
of controversialists and doctors alongside the Apologists.
• Before discussing their works, a word about the main authors and writings they had
to refute should be said. We will conclude the subject with a brief mention of the
Apocryphal Writings, particularly the New Testament Apocrypha, a large portion of
which, as we will discover, are of heretical provenance.
• with the sake of brevity and the fact that many of these papers are only known by
their names, we will frequently have to settle with only mentioning the titles of the
texts. The heretical literature of the second century, with the exception of a few books,
has been lost, both as a result of the Church's war on it and because such
uninteresting works were naturally ignored. When the cults disintegrated, their literary
works vanished quickly.
• Judeo-Christianity, Gnosticism, and Montanism (including paganism, Judaism,
philosophy in outside) were three significant heretical movements that either attacked
the Church or flourished inside her confines throughout the second century.

JUDEO-CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
• Judeo-Christianity, also known as Ebionitism in its purest and most obviously heretical
form, originated from an excessive adherence by some Jewish Christians to the rituals
and laws of the Mosaic Law.
• These Christians believed that certain rituals that the Gospel had disregarded were
still necessary for salvation and saw Jesus as the human Messiah that the Jews had
been waiting for. Their main location was in the region around Pella, beyond the
Jordan. The Ebionites, Essenians, and Elkesaites are a few of the sects they founded.

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Who are ebonites?

• The term "Ebionites" refers to a Jewish Christian cult that flourished in the first
decades of the Common Era and saw poverty as a blessing. It is derived from the
Hebrew word "Ebyonim," which means "the poor" or "poor ones."
• The Ebionites adopted an adoptionist Christology, viewing Jesus of Nazareth as a
simple man who was selected by God to be the messianic "prophet like Moses"
because of his holiness in abiding by the Law of Moses.
• The majority of Ebionites maintained that Jesus was born the natural son of Joseph
and Mary, sought to end animal sacrifices through prophetic proclamation, and died
on the cross because they rejected as heresies the orthodox Christian beliefs in Jesus'
divinity, virgin birth, and substitutionary atonement that were accepted by the early
Church.

Who are essences

• According to Jewish historian Josephus, there were thousands of Essenes living

throughout Roman Judaea.
• They were less numerous than the other two main sects at the time, the Pharisees
and the Sadducees. The Essenes were a group of people who resided in different
towns but who came together in communal settings to practice simplicity, daily
immersion, and voluntary poverty.
• Their priestly class was celibate. The majority of academics contend they broke away
from the priests of Zadokite.

Who are Elcesaites?

• The Elcesaites, Elkasaites, Elkesaites, or Elchasaites were an ancient Jewish Christian

group that existed between 100 and 400 CE in Lower Mesopotamia, which was then
Asoristan in the Sasanian Empire. This cult, which had its roots in Transjordan,
practiced numerous baptisms for purification and leaned Gnostic.

Judeo Christian lit

• We must start by mentioning SYMMACHUS' writings among the Ebionite texts.

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• He is best known for translating the Old Testament into Greek (between 161 and
211), but he also wrote commentaries on a corrupted gospel of St. Matthew, the so-
called Journeys of Peter, an interpolated Acts of the Apostles that was used by the
sect's adherents and contained the Ascents of James, and—most importantly—the
Clementine Romances, which have been preserved.
• The main goal of the book is to present an analysis of Peter's purported theological
teaching. Of course, this doctrine is Ebionite. Simply put, Christian revelation is a
restoration of Mosaic revelation, which itself was a restoration of early revelation.
• The Book of Elkesai (Elxai), delivered to Rome by a certain Alcibiades in 220-230, was
credited to Elkesai (Elxai), the (controversial) founder of the Elkesaites sect. St.
Epiphanius cites a book by Jexa, Elkesai's brother, that was also used in a religious
organization.

GNOSTIC LITERATURE
• The term "Gnostics" was used to refer to a variety of sects, all of which claimed to
have a deeper understanding of Christian revelation than the simple faithful and the
established Church and to have doctrines and tendencies that were frequently in sharp
contrast.
• These groups focused their attention on two key issues above all others: the cause of
evil and how redemption was accomplished. Every group discussed these issues and
worked to uncover the enigma.
• Gnostic literature was extensive. Because the Gnostics often professed that men must
figure out their salvation by knowledge (gnosis), they were naturally led to write out
a large portion of their teachings and hidden traditions for the use of their adepts.
• However, very little of this literature survives, with only five or six entire works and a
few of fragments incorporated in the writings of heresy historians.
• Only the main works are mentioned in the following sketch.
• We will discuss the Gnostic sects in the following order: Syrian Gnosis, Alexandrine
Gnosis, Marcionism, and Encratism. This categorization is just tentative and

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 problematic in certain areas, although it may be accepted in the absence of a better
one.
• It is well known that ancient authors unanimously acknowledge Simon Magus as the
father of Gnosticism.
• St. Hippolytus provides passages and an interpretation of Revelation, the book used
by the Simonians.
• The Nicolaites had some Books of Ialdabaoth, a book called Noria, a Barkabbas
Prophecy, a Gospel of Perfection, and a Gospel of Eve, which appears to be an
apocalypse.
• The Nicolaites an early Christian group referenced twice in the New
Testament's Revelation 2:6, 15]. The mainstream early Christian Church
regarded them as heretical. They were recognized in Ephesus and Pergamum.
• Ialdabaoth, In numerous Gnostic sects and movements, is a hostile God and
the creator of the material world, sometimes portrayed as a theriomorphic,
lion-headed serpent. He is characterized as the Demiurge and false god who
imprisons souls into corporeal bodies in the material world.

o The Nicolaites an early Christian group referenced twice in

the New Testament's Revelation 2:6, 15]. The mainstream
early Christian Church regarded them as heretical. They
were recognized in Ephesus and Pergamum.
o Ialdabaoth, In numerous Gnostic sects and movements, is
a hostile God and the creator of the material world,
sometimes portrayed as a theriomorphic, lion-
headed serpent. He is characterized as the Demiurge and
false god who imprisons souls into corporeal bodies in the
material world.

ALEXANDRINE GNOSIS
• The three great leaders Basilides, Valentine, and Carpocrates are the initial
representatives of this Gnosis, followed by a large number of more or less distinct
sects without leaders who have been given the collective term Ophites.

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 1. BASILIDES preached a theology in Alexandria between the years of 120 and
140, which, according to his adherents, he learned from a certain Glaukias, St.
Peter's interpreter. Isidorus, one of his sons, carried on the teaching following
his father's passing. In addition to a Gospel, 23 or 24 volumes of commentary
on it, and a few odes that Origen and the Muratorian Fragment mention,
Basilides also penned a Gospel. Three writings were left behind by his son,
Isidorus: On the Second Soul, which is the soul of a person when it is affected
by passions; Ethica; and an Exposition of the Prophet Parchor in at least two
books.
2. CARPOCRATUS was the Alexandrine Gnostics leader. He lived at the same
time as Valentine and Basilides. We don't know if he ever wrote anything.
Clement of Alexandria referenced his son EPIPHANES' work On Justice, which
he bequeathed to us before his untimely death at the age of seventeen.7 He
is an outspoken communist supporter. Numerous Carpocratian works are
mentioned by St. Irenaeus in his work Globo.
• The numerous subsidiary sects that are descended from the Alexandrine Gnosis and
referred to as Ophites, or "Brethren of the Serpent," The first group to adopt the name
Gnostics was the Ophites.
3. Valentinians among all the Gnostic sects, they were the most significant and
well-known. Valentine, who claimed to have studied under a certain Theodas,
a close student of St. Paul, was actually an Egyptian.
• He first spread his beliefs in Egypt before traveling to Rome with Pope Hyginus and
staying there from roughly 135 to 160 until the election of Pope Anicetus. He was
repeatedly expelled from the Church until finally retiring to the Isle of Cyprus.
• Tertullian lauds Valentine's sagacity and oratory. His Letters, Homilies, and Psalms are
known to early writers, but he does not appear to have penned the Gospel of Truth,
which, according to St. Irenaeus (iii, II, 9), was in use among his sect's adherents.
• This religion quickly spread throughout the Roman Empire and split into two
subgroups, known as the Western or Italian branch and the Eastern branch, which
both insisted that the Savior's body was pneumatic rather than psychic.

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 4. The Encratites do not seem to have formed a distinct sect. They were found
nearly everywhere and marked by their tendency to reject as sinful both
matrimony and the use of meat
5. Marcion of Pontus, born 135 (a. d.), formed a sect that spread and was strong
enough to persist for many years. His death occurred no later than the year
170.The Law, the work of a just God, and the Gospel, the work of a good God,
are opposed in Marcion's system. In defense of his beliefs, he wrote a book
called Antitheses.

MONTANISTIC LITERATURE
• Although St. Hippolytus claims that the authors of Montanism wrote many books, we
are only aware of a small number of these works.
• According to Tertullian, Montanistic groups sent letters to Rome to request
recognition. These letters were most likely written between 173 and 180, during the
start of the Montanistic movement.
• Eusebius mentions a letter titled Catholic that was written by a certain THEMISON in
response to the apologist Miltiades' anti-Montanistic book. Additionally, there is a
strong likelihood that PROCLUS authored something. Under Pope Zephyrinus (198–
217), he defended Montanism in Rome, while the priest Caius argued against him.

APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
1. Christian Apocrypha of The Old Testament
2. The Apocrypha of The New Testament
3. Apocryphal Acts of The Apostles
4. Apocryphal Epistles
5. Apocryphal Apocalypses

Apocryphal
• When applied to a book, the term apocryphal or hidden may simply suggest that the
author and the source of his work are unknown.

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• In ecclesiastical parlance, it signifies that this book has been banned from formal
usage in the Church and is not available to the faithful. An apocryphal book is an
uncanonical book that, in addition to lacking ecclesiastical sanction, is frequently
regarded by the Church as more or less legendary and disseminating problematic or
incorrect teachings.
• The Biblical Apocrypha's objective is to provide a new treatment of the canonical
books' historical or doctrinal data by completing or amplifying them.
• They are naturally split into the Apocrypha of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha
of the New Testament, depending on whether they deal with the period preceding or
following Christ's arrival.
• At first, it was too sacred and hidden for anyone to know about. It must be kept secret
from the general public and only available to sect initiates.
• Such writings typically appeared under the names of Apostles and devout followers of
Jesus in order to win approval. The definition of the word "apocryphal" evolved when
it was realised that these attributions were erroneous; it came to denote spurious,
false, and something to be rejected.
• Writings of unknown origin that were wrongly attributed to one or more authors,
writings that contained helpful information along with doctrinal errors, writings that
were prohibited from being read aloud in church because they were not canonical,
and writings that were heretical or used by heretics were all considered to be
apocrypha by the Fathers.

The Fathers used the term Apocrypha for:

✓ writings of unknown origin falsely attributed to one or another
✓ author;
✓ writings containing useful facts along with doctrinal errors;
✓ writings not allowed to be publicly
✓ read in church, since not canonical; and
✓ writings that were heretical or used by heretics.

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 Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament
• The first set's authors are mostly Jews, though several of these works have been
modified by Christian writers.
• Among the Jews and the Protestant churches the term ‘Apocrypha’ conventionally
refers to those books that are included in the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate (with
trivial differences) but not in the Hebrew Bible or Protestant canon.
• Old Testament Apocrypha was referred to as "apocrypha" by the Protestant reformers,
but this usage is unique to them as the so-called Old Testament Apocrypha is as much
a part of the canon in the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches and in the Roman
branch of the Western Church as Genesis, Kings, Psalms, or Isaiah. These works are
referred to in these churches as "deuterocanonical books," not "Apocrypha."

Question? And OT Apochrypas

• What are the Ethiopian oldtestament deuterocanonical books? Mention all
• The Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament
o Third Book of Esdras:
• Gives a reconstruction of the story of the decline and fall of the kingdom
of Judah from the time of Josiah. It was written in the 2nd century, before
Christ.
o Fourth Book of Esdras:
• A continuation of the Third Book of Esdras, written in the Christian era;
composed about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem.
o Book of Enoch: General resurrection of Israel.
o Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: The last words of the twelve sons of
Jacob.
o Apocalypse of Baruch.
o Ascension of Isaiah.
• As a result, Christian interpolations can be discovered in the Fourth Book of Esdras,
the Book of Henoch, the Assumption of Moses, the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs, the Apocalypse of Elias, the Apocalypse of Sophonias, the Apocalypse of

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 Baruch, the Books of Adam, and the Books of Moses. the Sibylline Oracles, and so on.
Others are wholly the work of Christian writers, as witnessed previously in relation
with Gnostic literature. The Odes of Solomon fall into this group. These forty-two odes
were recently unearthed in a Syriac manuscript from the XVIth or XVIIth century.
They are a constant hymn of praise to God for saving the soul. Their melodic
inspiration and beauty are astounding.
• The speaker in these odes, however, is not always the same fictitious character;
sometimes it is the converted Christian, sometimes the elect triumphant in paradise,
and sometimes Jesus Christ Himself. The tone is intimate and personal. There is no
mention of the church hierarchy, the sacrifice of the Redeemer, or the tone is intimate
and personal.

THE APOCRYPHA OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, THE GOSPELS

• The authors of the New Testament Apocrypha are obviously Christians. Formally,
these texts, like the canonical New Testament literature, consist of the Gospels, Acts
of the Apostles, Epistles, and Apocalypses.
• We can separate them into two groups based on their origin and propensity. The first
group is of heretical, primarily Gnostic, provenance and aims to teach a very specific
doctrinal error, namely, that Jesus Christ and His Apostles taught opposite to those of
the Church.
• The second is of orthodox origin and written with the goal of edifying; hence, elements
from the life of Christ, the Blessed Virgin, the Apostles, and St. Joseph that are missing
from official texts are added.
• Whatever their origins, these Apocrypha share two characteristics. The first is the
oddity and strangeness of their narratives, which are riddled with uncalled-for
wonders and miracles. The many actors walk around in an imaginary world where the
fantastic reigns supreme.

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• The second difference is the variety of their texts. People modified and added to these
texts to suit their own interests because they were not consecrated by the authority
of the Church but were freely circulated.

The Gospel of Hebrew

• The authors of some of the Apocryphal Gospels are identified, while those of others
are not. The earliest of them is the Gospel of the Hebrews, which was mentioned by
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and St. Jerome and was likely also known
to Hegesippus and St. Ignatius of Antioch.
• Unfortunately, their citations are vague
• This devout group of Judeo-Christians known as the Nazaraeans used the Gospel of
the Hebrews.
• It was written in Aramaic and closely resembles St. Matthew's canonical account.
• The fact that Clement of Alexandria quoted this apocryphal gospel demonstrates that
it was written in the middle of the second century. It would, however, date at least
from the end of the first century if, as St. Jerome claims, St. Ignatius cited it in his
Letter to the people of Smyrna.

The gospel of Ebomites

• was in use among the erroneous Judeo-Christians, as seen by St. Epiphanius' citations,
which show that it incorporates their erroneous teachings. It was a compilation of the
canonical Gospels, according to Bardenhewer, and it is the same as the Gospel of the
Twelve Apostles, which Origen identified as being heretical.2 At the close of the
second or the start of the third century, it was written in Greek.

1. Apocryphal Gospels:
• Gospel According to the Hebrews; of the Egyptians; of Peter; — Matthias; Thomas;
Andrew; Barnabas; Bartholomew; Nicodemus (including the Acta Pilati- Acts of
Pilate); Judas Iscariot; Cerinthus; Valentinus; Eve; Apelles; Basilides; the Ebionite
Gospel; Protoevangelium of James, John; Thomas; Philip; Matthew; of Thaddaeus;

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 The Arabic Gospel of the Childhood of Jesus; The Arabic History of Joseph the
Carpenter.

2. Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles

• Acts of John; of Thaddaeus; of Andrew; of Thomas; of Peter; of Paul (Paul and
Thecla); of Peter and Paul; Preaching of Peter and Paul; of Philip; of Andrew and
Matthias.

3. Apocryphal Epistles of the Apostles:

• The Epistola Apostolorum (a post-resurrection ‘dialogue between Christ and His

disciples); The Epistles of St Paul (Epistle to the Laodiceans, to the Alexandrians - Paul
and Marcion, Third Epistle to the Corinthians; Correspondence between St Paul and
Seneca - eight short letters of Seneca and six shorter replies of St Paul, poor in diction
and style, mentioned by St Jerome. The legend of Seneca’s conversion, on which
these letters are based, owes its origin to the ethico-theistic character of Seneca’s
writings); The Epistle of the Disciples of St Paul: (a) The Epistle of Barnaba (b) Epistola
Titi Discipuli Pauli, de Dispositione Sanctimonii.

4. Apocryphal Apocalypses:
Apocalypse
• Apocalypse of Stephen; of Thomas; of St John; of the Virgin; of Peter; of Paul;
Ascension of Isaiah. Next
✓ Opponents of Heresy in 2nd century
✓ Oriental writers of the 3rd Century

✓ western writes of the 3rd century

✓ Golden age of patristic Literature 313-461
✓ heterodox literatures
✓ writers of Alexandria

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Assignment
Groups Topics on
One St. Basil the great,
Two St. Gregory Nyssa,
Three St. Gregory of Nazianzus
Four St. Ephiphanius,
Five St. Ephraim the Syrian

Assignment details
• The life of the saint
• His works
• His contribution to the Orthodox world
• Your self-reflection
• Page limitation= 6-8 excluding of the cover and content pages
• Times new roman
• Double or 1.5 space with font 12
• Using and mentioning Ethiopian source is mandatory
• It must be presented
• The due date is august 26/2023
• Send via e mail, laekewengel@gmail.com
• The presentation day is September 1 up September 7

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 Further Explanation on Apocryphal Books
• Apocrypha (hidden) may have different Understanding and interpretation
regardding on how it is used to the Old or New Testaments and whether it is being
used by Roman Catholics, Protestants or in Oriental and Eastern Orthodox
Christians.
• For most of us, the term apocrypha refers to any collection of scriptural texts (the
apocryphal books always speak along with spiritual books, or follow the form of
spiritual books) that falls outside the Canonical ecclesiastical legislation
• Since most English language bibles are from non-Orthodox sources, they sometimes
are subtitled with Apocrypha meaning that it includes the Old Testament, so
called Deuterocanonical Books that in the Orthodox Church are considered to be
genuine parts of the Bible.

The Orthodox Deuterocanonical Books

• Catholics accept only 46/7 bools in OT
• Protestants accept 39 OT books
• Apocryphal meaning Hidden
• Deuterocanonical meaning second canon
• The Apocrypha( called by Protestant followers) /Deuterocanonical Books
(which is stated by the Orthodox world) are books of the Old Testament
• that are accepted by the Orthodox Christian Church but are not accepted by
Protestants as part of its official canonical contents, but of close association with the
Bible.

Why we accepted them?

• Our contemporary Bible is the Septuagint bible
• The church affirmed this book in her canon
• They were included in the Septuagint which was in use at the time of Jesus, and the
authors of the New Testament.
• They are not called apocrypha by the Orthodox Church.

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• What are the deuterocanonical books of the EOTC?

Proto and Deutro

• Protocanonical books - the books that were basically accepted as Canonical from
the beginning of the Christian movement. These are the books of the current
standard Hebrew Bibe.
• Orthodox Bible contains certain other Scriptures besides that normally found in the
Hebrew bible and most English language Bibles.
• Sometimes these books are given the title Deutero-canonicalas contrasted to Proto-
canonical to distinguish the first (or proto) canonical books from those that came
later (deutero second).
• This term is to be preferred over Apocrypha since that word may have negative
meanings.

Some Apocryphal books

• There are examples of apocryphal/ false books from the Old Testament,
• Those books are: Assumption of Moses, Ascension of Isaiah, Apocalypse of Elijah,
the wrong Book of Enoch/the right one is found in Ethiopia , Testament of
the Twelve Patriarchs.
• These books are not in the Old Testament canon of any church.

New Testament Apocryphal Books

• Starting from the first century, numerous false writings about Christ the Lord and
His disciples were produced in huge amount.
• These were the so-called apocryphal books (not to be confused with the Old
Testament apocrypha), also known as pseudoepigrapha.
• These false writings carried the names of the apostles and introduced into Christian
circles many fanciful and legendary stories about the childhood of Christ, the life of
the Virgin Mary and the activities of the apostles.
• With the pseudoepigrapha, there also appeared the false teachings of Gnosticism,
the Christian heresy which transformed Christianity into a kind of spiritualistic,

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 dualistic, intellectualistic philosophy. The Christians of the Orthodox faith had to
contend with these false teachings.

Reading Assignment
• See the difference between the Oriental Deuterocanonical books
• See the difference between the Jew, Ethiopian and the Catholic old Testament bible.
• Try to know about proto and deuterocanonical meaning
• What are the Ethiopian deuterocanonical books

EOTC Bible
A. The Holy Books of the Old Testament
The Holy Books of the Old Testament
1. Genesis 17. Tobit 32. Daniel
2. Exodus 18. Judith 33. Hosea
3. Leviticus 19. Esther 34. Amos
4. Numbers 20. I Maccabees 35. Miche
5. Deuteronomy 21. II and III Maccabees 36. Joel
6. Joshua 22. Job 37. Obadiah
7. Judges 23. Psalms 38. Jonah
8. Ruth 24. Proverbs 39. Nahum
9. I and II Samuel 25. Tegsats (Reproof) 40. Habakkuk
26. Metsihafe Tibeb (the
10. I and II Kings 41. Zephaniah
books of wisdom)
11. I Chronicles 27. Ecclesiastes 42. Haggai
12. II Chronicles 28. The Song of Songs 43. Zechariah
13. Jublee 29. Isaiah 44. Malachi
45. Book of Joshua the son of
14. Enoch 30. Jeremiah
Sirac
46. The Book of Josephas the Son of
15. Ezra and Nehemia 31. Ezekiel
Bengorion
16. Ezra (2nd) and Ezra Sutuel

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B. The holy books of the New Testament

The holy books of the New Testament

1. Matthew 13. I Thessalonians 25. James
2. Mark 14. II Thessalonians 26. Jude
3. Luke 15. I Timothy 27. Revelation
28. Sirate Tsion (the book of
4. John 16. II Timothy
order)
5. The Acts 17. Titus 29. Tizaz (the book of Herald)
6. Romans 18. Philemon 30. Gitsew
7. I Corinthians 19. Hebrews 31. Abtilis
8. II Corinthians 20. I Peter 32. The I book of Dominos
9. Galatians 21. II Peter 33. The II book of Dominos
10. Ephesians 22. I John 34. The book of Clement
11. Philippians 23. II John 35. Didascalia
12. Colossians 24. III John

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 On Early Apologies Summary of Patrology II Part I
Difference between apologists and church fathers

• Our Apologists worked on the boundaries that divide the Church from the world as they
defended the Christian faith against idolaters, assaults and misconceptions of the
fundamental tenants of the Christian faith, whilst our Apostolic Fathers were concerned with
the interior life of the Church. The Christian faith was offered by the apologists as the
Triune God doctrine that is true and correct.
• The majority of apologists' works called on the Roman government to learn about
Christianity and understand its doctrines.

Early apologists
1. Quadrates, who wrote his Apologia to Hadrian the Emperor in 123 and 124 AD while he
was visiting Asia Minor, is the first apologist. Unfortunately, only a little portion of his
Apologia has survived, and it is cited in Eubsabius of Casera's chronicle.
2. The second Apologia is dedicated to Aristides, an Athens born philosopher active during the
reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. In this Apologia, the various aspects of Christianity were
addressed, and it was claimed that Christian dogma is the "unique truth.“
3. The philosopher St. Justin Martyr was born in Naples, Palestine. His parents worshipped
idols. He received philosophical instruction from several different schools, and after realizing
that none of the studied ideologies could fully satiate his soul, he decided to become a
Christian. He started a school in Rome when Antonius Pious was in power. In 163 AD, he
was crucified. The first Apologia was written to defend Christians from attacks and to
present the truths he felt to be true about Christianity. Additionally, he gave a detailed
explanation of both baptism and the Eucharist. The second Apologia, which is believed to be
a supplement to the previous one, is shorter than the first. Over the course of two days, St.
Justin and the Jewish philosopher Trypo engaged in a dialectical discussion.
4. One of St. Justin's followers in Rome was Tatian. He came from Syria originally. The four
Holy Gospels were presented in harmony in his renowned book, "Diatessaron." Another
work by Tatian featured his dialogue regarding the Greeks' fight against idolatry.

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5. In 177 AD, Athenagoras of Athens penned an Apologia in which he defended Christians
from attacks by idolaters who contrasted Christianity with atheism. He published a second
book about the Resurrection.
6. Theophilus of Antioch authored an Apologia to Otolilgoc defending Christianity against
atheism (180 AD).
7. Letter of Diagnotes was a manuscript describing the superiority of the Christian dogma over
that of the Jews and idolaters.

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 THE OPPONENTS OF HERESY IN THE SECOND CENTURY
Anti Gnostic
• The Church, to refute heretics, had to prove herself the sole custodian of the truth,
to oppose especially the teachings of the Gnostics on the unity of God, redemption,
and to discuss the sources and criteria of the teachings of the Church.
• This literature greatly surpassed the apologetic writings as a foundation for theology.
In other words the bishops and Church councils excommunicated the heresiarchs and
their followers, and issued decisions and pastoral letters in order to warn the believers.
• Some theological writers took upon themselves the task of exposing the errors of the
heretics and of explaining the true Church doctrines.
• St Justin wrote against all heresies and Marcionin particular; St Theophilusof Antioch
attacked Gnosticism; Miltiades refuted Montanistsand Gnostics; also Apollinarisof
Hierapolis; Melitoof Sardis.

• In the apostolic age, before the appearance of the Gnostic movement as a school (or
schools), or as separate sects, the apostles dealt with false teachings similar to the
Gnostic systems, as in 1 John and the pastoral epistles.
• Gnosticism was the most influential of the early heresies. The term is generic and
embraces a great variety of teachings.
• Gnosticism designates a complex religious and philosophical movement that started
probably before Christianity and flourished from about 100 to 700. There were many
Christian, Jewish and pagan Gnostic sects that stressed salvation through a secret
“knowledge” or “Gnosis”
• The term “Gnostics” was first applied by 2nd and 3rd century patristic writers to a
large number of teachers, such as Valentinus, Basilides, and many others.
• “Knowing” God to Jews meant acknowledging that Yahweh was God and recognizing
the acts of God. Indeed, the Septuagint describes God as the “God of knowledge” (1
Sam. 2:3), and the word “gnosis” is used to denote this.
• The representative and teacher of gnosis is the pious sage and Servant of the Lord
(Is. 53:11), and gnosis is denied to the worldly-minded and to sinners.

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GNOSTIC TEACHINGS

• Most of the Gnostic schools were thoroughly dualistic, setting an infinite chasm
between the spiritual world and the world of matter.
• Their systems were based on the inseparable division and antagonism between the
Demiurge or “creator god” and the supreme unknowable Divine Being.
• Usually Gnostics divided men into two or three classes:
o The “spiritual” (pneumatics) are those who have illuminated souls. The
o “carnal” (hylics) or “material,” are slaves of matter, and are earthbound.
o The Gnostics add a psychic, intermediate class.
• They claimed to possess secret knowledge by a sudden illumination that enabled them
to understand the ways of God, the universe, and themselves.
• They claimed that they alone know the unutterable mysteries of the spirit.
• For them Christ either temporarily inhabited a human being (Jesus) or assumed a
merely phantasmal human appearance.
• The Gnostics and their Orthodox opponents hotly debated the relationship between
the Old and New Testaments.
• The Gnostic’s dualist view of creation led to two opposing attitudes toward marriage
and sexuality: the extreme of a rigorous and negative asceticism on the one hand,
and a dissolute antinomianism on the other. Both repudiate nature; the one through
abstention and the other through excess.

OUR CONCEPT OF CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE

• The Incarnate Word of God is the Source of knowledge.

• Knowledge is received through the Church, as the body of Christ, especially by
participation in the Eucharist.
• Knowledge is revealed in our inner man, if it has been purified and sanctified by the
Holy Spirit.

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• The knowledge of God and His eternal glory can be realized partially in this World,
through our unity with the Father in His Only Begotten Son, by the work of the Holy
Spirit, and completed in the kingdom of God.

List of Christian Gnostics According to J Quasten

o Basilides.
o Ptolemy.
o Bardaisan.
o Marcus.
o Marcion.
o Julius Cassianus.
o Isidore.
o Heracleon.
o Harmonius.
o Carpocrates.
o Apelles.
o Other Gnostics.
o Valentinus.
o Florinus.
o Theodotus.
o Epiphanes. 1
o The Encratites.

Classification of Gnosticism

1. The Syrian Type: eg. Saturninus (or Saturnilus). 120.

2. The Egyptian Type: eg. Basilides,. 130.
3. The Judaizing Type: eg. Cerinthus and Ebionites, late 1st century.
4. The Pontic Type: eg. Marcion, ca. 160

I. ANTI GNOSTIC WRITERS

• There is some whose memory has been better preserved or whose names have even
remained famous in the Church. Such are, in the second century, Hegesippus and St.
Irenaeus.
1. HEGESIPPUS 110 –180
• A Jew born in Syria or Palestine and converted to Christianity. Some mentioned
“Probably he was a Palestinian Jew, born c. 110”

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• He visited various churches and came to Rome in the time of bishop Anicetus (156-
167) and survived bishop Eleutherus (174-189) possibly.
• He returned home (174-179) and compiled his Memoirs (hypomnemata) from notes
taken on his travels.
• He died under Commodus (180-192).
• Hypomnemata: More probably the work was a polemical writing aiming at proving
the official Church teaching against the Gnostics.
• It encompassed five books, but is almost entirely lost. We are able, however, to form
some idea of the work with the aid of indications and citations furnished by Eusebius.
• He insists on the continual succession of bishops as a guarantee of apostolicity of their
doctrine. (Hegesippuswas so interested in the traditions of the churches and in the
succession of the bishops who guaranteed their integrity.)
• He drew up a list of the Jewish and first Gnostic sects. He was middling, insightful as
an observer, and a good, reliable witness to tradition.

II. ST. IRENAEUS

• The most important of the theologians of the 2ndcentury. St. IRENAEUS was born in
or near Smyrna c. 135-140. Polycarp was then bishop of that city, and from his
childhood Irenaeus listened to his discourses and received his instructions and learned
of the Johannine tradition
• The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he was probably born ca. 140. For reasons
not known, St Irenaeus left Asia Minor and went to Gaul. He studied and taught at
Rome before moving to Lyons.
• In 177, as a presbyter of the Church of Lugdunum in Lyons, he went on a mission to
bishop Eleutherus of Rome to urge toleration with regard to adherents of Montanism
in Asia Minor.
• On his return in 178, he succeeded Photinus (who had died in the persecution of
177/8) as bishop of a Greek speaking Christian community.

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• Three circumstances relative to his activities as a bishop are known:
1. he combatted the Gnostics,
2. he labored in the evangelization of the country about Lyons,
3. he interceded (c. 190-191) with Pope Victor I in the question of the Paschal
observance, in order to preserve peace between the Church of Rome and the
churches of Asia.
o Pope Victor I, excommunicated the Asiatics in the Paschal controversy; St
Irenaeus wrote to a number of these bishops and to Victor himself exhorting
them to make peace. Irenaeus bishop of Lyons was a pastor concerned with
• His main work is protecting Christians against Gnosticism.
• In opposition to Gnostic dualism, Irenaeus teaches that there is but one God who is
the Creator of the world and the Father of Jesus Christ, that there is one divine
economy of salvation and one revelation. The visiblecreation is good, not evil, and the
body will rise again.
• According to him, although the Gnostics thought that they could arrive at saving
knowledge through human effort, true salvation is attained only through faith in what
God has revealed and in what He has done.
• Irenaeus was the first great theologian, who emphasized the role of the Church, the
canon of Scripture, and the religious and theological tradition.
• Among Irenaeus’ writings is the Demonstration, or Epideixis, a work on the apostolic
preaching. It explains Christian doctrine and then proves it from Old Testament
prophecies.
• Against Heresies or Adversushaereses.
• Book 1 refutes Gnostic arguments by reason.
• Book 2 sets forth the traits of false Gnosis and the history of Gnosticism.
• Book 3 refutes Gnosticism from the teaching and tradition of the apostles.
• Book 4 refutes it from the sayings of Jesus.
• Book 5 treats the things to come containing remarks on Millenarianism with a Chiliastic
tendency.

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• He was interested in philosophy only insofar as it could help one to penetrate more
deeply into what one believed. He taught that human thinking is powerless to know
God and his dispensation for the salvation of all people.
• His major writing, Against Heresies, describes and refutes the teachings of Gnostics,
who claimed to have secret teachings unknown to most Christians. But Revelation,
according to Irenaeus, is public and common to all Christians. No secret tradition
replaces the Church’s tradition.
• Irenaeus said:
o NO KNOWLEDGE EXCEPT JESUS CHRIST, WHO WAS CRUCIFIED FOR
US, THAN THAT BY SUBTLE QUESTIONS AND HAIRSPLITTING
EXPRESSIONS, HE SHOULD FALL INTO IMPIETY.

III. ANTI-MONTANISTIC AND OTHER WRITERS

A. Other writers against Montanism are the Asiatic APOLLONIUS, 196-197, the Roman
priest CAIUS, who denied that the Apostle John was the author of the Apocalypse,
and even of the fourth Gospel, in order to deprive the heretics of one of their main
arguments.
B. B.DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH (171)
➢ An outstanding writer among the non-Roman bishops. Eusebius gives a description
of his eight letters to different Christian communities.
➢ The heretics to whom he refers, must be the disciples of Marcion and Montanus.
C. SERAPION OF ANTIOCH1(99, 211)
➢ The eighth bishop of Antioch. His episcopate corresponded more or less with the
reign of Septimus Severus (b. 146 -d. 211).
➢ It is interesting that a large fragment of the Apocryphal Gospel of St Peter,
discovered at Akhmim, Egypt in 1886, corresponds exactly to Serapion’s
description. It is on the whole Orthodox, but contains strange ideas inspired by
Docetism.

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 ➢ His letter to Pontius and Caricus deals with the Montanistic heresy, and states that
the so-called new prophecy of this false order is abominated in the whole of
Christendom,
➢ throughout the world. In another letter addressed to the Church of Rhossus in
Cilicia he deals with the Apocryphal Gospel of St Peter

THE 2NDCENTURY AND 3RDCENTURY SCHOOL OF THEOLOGIES ALSO

STUDIED IN THIS PART BUT WE SEE THEM CHRONOLOGICALLY.

Oriental writers of the 3 rd Century Alexandrian writers clement, Origen

Dionysius of Alexandria, pamphilus, St
Oriental writers of the 3rd Century Gregory
thaumatugrus Methodius
western writes of the 3 rd century Tertullian, St. Cyprian, Augustine
roman writes, Hippolytus, Novatian,
Victorinus

MID EXAM (study areas)

➢ Read about St. Justin the Martyr
➢ Discuss about the main opponents of the church
➢ What are the main intentions of the apologists?
➢ Discuss about the role of Church fathers and apologists
➢ Read about the father of Gnosticism and Syrian Gnosticism
➢ The difference between Deuterocanonical and Apocrypha
➢ Classification of Gnosticism
➢ Read about St. Irranius5 CHOICES
✓ 5 TRUE/ FALSE
✓ 5 MATCHING
✓ OUT OF 30 %

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 Oriental Writers of the 3rdCentury Part II, the Scholar Origen and Origenism

Life of Origen
• He was born into a devout Christian family. He was born of Christian parents in Egypt,
apparently at Alexandria, in 185 or 186 and received his first training from his father
• Leonides, his father, was a good scholar and pious man who was killed for his Christian
faith during Septimius Severus' persecution in 202. While his father was imprisoned,
Origen wrote to him, encouraging him to confront martyrdom.
• He rented libraries for the night in order to peruse their literature. St Jerome
complimented Origen's love of reading, saying that he read when eating, strolling,
resting, and so on.
• As a result, his knowledge was unrivaled, and his intellectual dominance was
undeniable. He was an educator.

Education
• Later he became a disciple of Pantaenusand Clement.
• When seventeen or years of age he displayed such talent and learning that he gave
lessons in grammar, and at the age of eighteen, was selected by the bishop
(Demetrius) to be the successor of Clement in the headmastership of the catechetical
school of Alexandria.
• When Pope Demetrius (12th Pope of Alexandria) heard of his popularity, he named
him dean of the Alexandrian School of Philosophy. He spread its fame and thinking,
and he became a teacher to many bishops and priests, as well as many men, women,
children, and the elderly. Initially, he hired facilities to host the school, but when he
had to move from one location to another, he held his lectures outside (in the open
or near the river).
Teaching
• As a result, he began his career as a teacher. It is divided into two parts: from about
204 to 230, Origen taught at Alexandria, with a few breaks; from 232 till his death,
he taught at Caesarea in Palestine.

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• Origen taught and studied philosophy at age 25, attending the Neo-Platonist school
of AmmoniusSaccas. He meditated on the sacred Scriptures and learned the Hebrew
language. He traveled to Rome in 212 and returned to Palestine in 215 or 216. He
returned to Alexandria in 218-219, where secretaries and copyists were abundant,
allowing Origen to multiply his works and writings.
• Origen, banished from Alexandria, moved to Caesarea and began his second career.
He escaped Maximinus' persecution, traveled to Athens and Arabia, and was tortured
during Decianpersecution. He was set free but died in Tyreat the end of his sixty-ninth
year.

His Academic Thinking and Works

• Early on, Origen was given the last name Adamantius(man of steel) to denote,The
strength of his logic, as described by Eusebius; the longevity of his works, as described
by St. Jerome; and, we may add, to denote his unwavering ardor and diligence.
• Origen had a voracious mind.though more extensive than profound, tremendous
knowledge and curiosity. He understood every philosophical,His time's theological and
scriptural understanding
• In fact, even in antiquity, Origen was the most prolific writer to ever write for the
Church. St. Epiphanius(315-403) claims to have authored 6,000 books, the collection
amassed by the priest Pamphylusat Caesarea is included in Eusebius' list of his writings
is 2,000 books.
• More than 800 titles are not listed in the St. Jerome catalogue, which is incomplete.

Disagreement within the Church

• Origen was excommunicated by Pope Demetrius' council because of his
(a) Theological errors and
(b) Acceptance of priestly ordination in Palestine despite being ineligible
for the office due to his willful castration of his body.
• He lived out the rest of his days in Palestine, where he founded a prestigious and
important theological institution.

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• A synod convened by Pope Demetrius (188–232) resulted in Origen's
excommunication from the Church of Alexandria. In 231 a second synod exposed him
of the priesthood. When Pope Demetrius passed away in 232, he went back to
Alexandria, but Pope Heraclas, who had previously worked with Origen, continued the
excommunication.
• Origenism was rejected at the Alexandrian Council in the year 400, and Pope
Theophilusexiled the Origenistmonks known as "the Tall Brothers."

Condemnations
• Anastasius, the Bishop of Rome, condemned Origen in Rome in the year 400. "Holding
firm, then, to this principle we've hinted at,all that Origen wrote in the past that isthat
is also rejected and condemned by our faithus."
• St. Epiphaniusspeaking at a synod in Cyprus in 402denounced Origen and his works.
• Ephraemof Antioch denounced Origenalismin 540, both a local synod and Emperor
Justinian in 543issued a decree that contained a theological treatise.accompanied by
passages from On First byOrigenGuidelines and ten heresies
• This condemnation of Origenismwas repeated in the anathemas of the Second Council
of Constantinople 553 where he listed Origen among ancient heretics. It has become
increasingly clear that some of the condemned doctrines dealing with cosmology,
anthropology and eschatology are really those of Origen drawn from his theological
treatise –On First Principles.
• Without a doubt, a significant portion of Origen's literary production has been lost.
This is due to two factors:
✓ first, the size of the work itself, which was so large that one had to choose
what to transcribe because it couldn't all be duplicated; and
✓ Second, the criticisms, which damage the reputation of the writer and diminish
the value of his publications.
• The only Latin translations that remain now for more than half of what has been saved
date from the fourth or fifth centuries.
• Defense by His Proponents

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• Mistakes were due to dictation / transcription.
• He had other writings contrary to the sited flaws
• Because of His lost works….

Classification of Origen's Work

• Mainly intellectual: Textual criticism, exegetic, apologetic, dogmatic, practical.
• Hexapla: 28-year study of the Bible manuscripts and translations:Thecomposition of
the Hexaplabegan at Alexandria and was completed at Caesarea
1. The Hebrew text of the Bible. the Hebrew text in Hebrew characters;
2. The Greek pronunciation of the Hebrew text. the Hebrew text in Greek
characters;
3. The Septuagint (ca. 250).
4 Simachos’ translation (end of 2nd century). The Old Testament was translated
into Greek by Symmachus. Origen included his translation in his Hexaplaand
Tetrapla, which contrasted the Septuagint and other Old Testament
translations side by side.
5 Aquilla’stranslation (ca. 128). Translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. the
Greek version of Aquila
6 Theodore’s translation (ca. 180) the Greek version of Theodotion.
• Interpretations of the five Books of Moses, the Song of Songs, Job, the Major and
Minor Prophets, Joshua and Psalms (The book of Psalms was written in eight columns
(octapla) because there were two more versions.)
• Against Celsus, the pagan philosopher: “Contra Celsus.”
• “The Principles” contained the majority of his flaws.
• On Prayer: part on the prayer in general; part on the Lord’s Prayer
(Origen: Prayer, Exortation to Martyrdom; JJ O’Meara, trans., Ancient Christian
Writers, No. 19 (Newman Press, New York, 1954).
• On the Resurrection (Easter).
• Exhortation to Martyrdom.
• The other Scriptural writings of Origen may be divided into three groups:

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 1. the Scholia(are brief notes, often of a purely grammatical character),
2. The Homilies (are familiar talks with the faithful on the Scriptures. The author treats
his subject from nearly all points of view), and
3. The Commentaries (He was famous in allegorical interpretation. For example, his
interpretation of the Song of Songs (differs from St Basil’s school of literal
interpretation).)

Origenism 1: Subordination
a. Hierarchy in Trinity
• Some of his errors reflect how the Greek philosophy, such as Plato's, affected him.
• He believed that the Godhead is composed of multiple levels.
• Starting at the top of the divine hierarchy, where the Father is the source, the
deity descends in a hierarchy of participation and functional subordination
through the Logos and Spirit to the archetypal ideas contained in the Logos, and
then by the process of derivation to all spiritual and rational beings, the logikoiwho,
to the extent that they participate in the Logos, have access to the divine nature.

b. The Exceedance of the Father

• Origen stated in De Principiis, 1.3.5, "The Son, being less than the Father, is superior
to only rational creatures (for He is second to the Father), and the Holy Spirit is still
less, and dwells only in the saints." In this way, the Father's power surpasses that of
the Son and the Holy Spirit, and the Son's power surpasses the power of the Holy
Spirit, who in turn surpasses the power of all other holy beings. Origen on First
Principles, by Butterworth, p. 33–4

c. The Second God?

• Therefore, even if we may refer to Him as a second God, it should be clear that we
do not mean anything other than the virtue that includes all virtues and the Logos
that includes every logos of the beings that have been created in accordance with
nature.

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• Because He alone has been absolutely able to receive the highest participation in Him
who is the very Logos, the very Wisdom, and the very righteousness Himself, we
declare that this Logos dwelt in the soul of Jesus and was linked with it in a tighter
connection than that of any other soul.(Tr. Chadwick, Origen ‘Contra Celsum’, p. 296
and 8.15) 12 (See also H Bettenson., ed., trans., The Early Christian Fathers: A
Selection of Writings of the Fathers from St Clement of Rome to St Athanasius, Oxford
University Press, London, 1956, pp. 320-226)

d. Logos a created being?

• It appears from a fragment of the De Principiis (4.4.I, or according to the old
enumeration 4.28), that Origen called the Logos a created being. This Son came
into being out of the will of the Father; He is the first-born of all creation, a created
being

Origenism 2: The Possibility of Ultimate Salvation for All

A. Satan
B. Evil doers
C. Saints with wicked
• The salvation of Satan, and the salvation of evil doers after their death.
• “No opinion of Origen’s was more vehemently opposed than this one which gave
demons and lost man a chance of restoration.
” (Butterworth, op. cit., p. 56, n.4) 14
• Origen teaches that, “after many ages and the one restoration of all things Gabriel
will be in the same state as the devil, Paul as Caiaphas and virgins as prostitutes.
” (tr. Butterworth, op. cit., p. 57, n.I) 14. 15

Pre-Existence of Souls
A. Incarnation
B. Creation
C. Redemption
• Spirits created before the bodies then sent down to unite with the bodies (Plato).

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• Christ’s soul united with His Divinity before uniting with the body in St Mary’s womb.
• Redemption was made to satisfy the devil.
• Resurrection in new spiritual bodies, not the original earthly body.
• The righteous people will turn to stars.
• God created other worlds before and after our own.

THE NEXT WILL BE

Dionysius, Pamphilus, St. Gregory thaumatagorousand Methodius in short

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 Writers of the Third Century
I. Oriental Writers

Introduction
 Until the end of the second century, the Eastern and Western Churches were both
unmistakably characterized, the first by its speculative and philosophical tendencies,
the second by its practical tastes and genius; and yet this difference was not nearly
so pronounced as it became later.
 This was possibly due to the fact that the authors had previously been mixed together.
Sts. Justin, Tatian, and Irenaeus, for example, were Eastern churchmen who came to
the West.

Why oriental and Greek

 Two fresh factors entered the picture in the third century.
1. The first was the growth of theological theory under the influence of Clement and
Origen, which was a preliminary step toward a more definite separation.
2. The adoption of Latin as the official language of the Western Church was another
parallel development that highlighted the disparity. So we'll have to deal with the
Eastern and Latin writers individually from now on, because their goals aren't
entirely the same, and their languages aren't too, even though they share the
same faith.

Oriental Church
 The only significant churches in the first and second centuries were those of Syria
and Asia Minor, including Antioch, Jerusalem, Smyrna, Ephesus, and
Hierapolis.
 Asia produced the most numerous and prominent writers in the second century,
including Papias, Polycarp, Apollinaris, Apollonius, Melito, and Irenaeus. But,
at the end of the century, a church arose that pushed itself almost immediately to the
top rank, the Church of Alexandria, which kept her dominance for more than a century
and a half.

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 Before discussing the writers of Syria and Asia Minor, we will first discuss those of
Alexandria and Egypt.

School of Alexandria
 "School" does not refer to a seminary in the modern sense of the word or a separate
structure for instruction. Without prohibiting the current believers from being genuine
thinkers, the school should present the Church's living traditional thinking, which must
endure throughout all eras. The idea of "school" is not restricted to a specific period
of time.
 The school is required to adopt a certain set of beliefs, a technique of reading the
Bible, a spirituality, a teaching methodology, a theological dialectics approach, or an
organization.
 We learn from the early Fathers of the Alexandrian school how to approach science
and philosophy and how to share the gospel with educated people. The following
Fathers of the same school show us how to defend our faith, particularly against
heretics, from a soteriological or pastoral perspective.
 According to St. Jerome, St. Mark established it as a catechetical school that accepted
applicants. must study the Bible and the Christian faith in order to be qualified for
baptism. The "first Christian academy" is what it has been called. It was started in
order to convert the educated and philosophers of the Greek world to Christianity, not
as an opponent. It was regarded as a center for advanced Christian studies.
 The School of Alexandria is the first holy scientific center in Christian history. 1 By the
second century, it had a significant impact on church life. The development of theology
as a science began with the apologetic and anti-heretical writings.
 The rule of intellectual life and progress requires that theology be developed as
systematically and extensively as possible, elevating it to the status of a science.
 In the third century, this school used science to overthrow polytheism while preserving
everything valuable in Greek science and culture.
 The Alexandrian school used the allegorical method of exegesis to interpret the Holy
Scripture, influenced by Clement and Origen.

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 Clement argued that this method should be employed since God's plenty was so great
that it would be foolish to suppose that there could only be one teaching in a given
text.
 The allegorical method was used for apologetic and theological reasons.
 Origen addressed two issues concerning the Old Testament that the early Church
faced:
1. Jews who follow the letter of the Old Testament predictions expected the Messiah
to literally fulfill these prophecies, such as He must be their King, ruling over the
entire world.
2. The Gnostics rejected the Old Testament because they were scandalized by
passages in which God is described as furious, regretful, or changing His mind.
 The school saw a second rebirth in the fourth and fifth centuries. The deans of the
institution faced numerous theological challenges while defending the Orthodox faith,
particularly against Arianism and Nestorianism.

Clement of Alexandria
 Clement was born in Athens, most likely around 150 BC, to pagan parents. His
conversion circumstances are unknown.
 It is assumed that he, like Justin, suffered by the problem of God and was drawn to
Christianity by the dignity and purity of evangelical ideas and morals.
 He went extensively in search of education from the most well-known Christian
instructors.
 Attracted by Pantaenus' lectures, he lived in Alexandria and became a priest, then a
dean of the school.
 He had to flee Egypt in 202 because to Septimius Severus' persecution, and died in
215 (possibly in Palestine or Syria).
 He was ordained a presbyter there and, after being a disciple of Pantaenus, became
his companion and fellow-teacher in 190.

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His Life
 Due to the persecution of Septimius Severus, which closed the Christian school of
Alexandria in 202 or 203, he was compelled to cease his teachings. He went to
Cappadocia, where he lived with his former follower, Bishop Alexander.
 We see him again in 211, bearing a message from Alexander to the Christians of
Antioch, in which the services he, Clement, provided in Cappadocia are mentioned.
 In 215 or 216, the same Alexander, now bishop of Jerusalem, writes to Origen and
mentions Clement's death.
 Clement must have died between the years 211 and 216. Although ancient authors
referred to him as St. Clement, his name was not accepted into Roman Martyrology.
 Clement was born with a broad and grand intellect. His personality was compassionate
and generous, and he was always eager to assist his students and readers. His
knowledge was vast; no other ancient writer, not even Origen, knew or quoted as
many pagan and Christian authors as he did.
 Without a doubt, his expertise was derived primarily through reading florilegia and
various collections of extracts. His learning is still astounding, and it demonstrates
that he had read widely and remembered much of what he had read.

Clements Main Teachings

 In Christ, Christianity provides the complete Gnosis and truth.
 He was the first Christian writer to engage contemporary notions with Christian truth.
 He held that there was no opposition between Christianity and philosophy.
 In his opinion, classical philosophy could only gain glimpses of the truth, whereas
Christianity delivers perfect knowledge and truth in Christ.
 Throughout the first two centuries, a heresy known as "Gnostics" developed in various
forms. The word "gnosis" means "knowledge" in Greek. A core Gnostic premise was
that knowledge, rather than faith might lead the soul to the Supreme God.
 St Clement demonstrated the superiority of Christian gnosis by contemplation,
obedience to the rules, and teaching from moral individuals.

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Works of St. Clement
1. Triology of St. Clement
(A trilogy is a group of three separate but related works that can be viewed as either a
single work or as three separate works.)
A. Protrepticus or The Exhortation to the Heathens (attack on paganism and
invitation to salvation).
 Written in twelve chapters, is an apologetic that is related to comparable
writings from the second century.
 The author demonstrates the worthlessness and untruthfulness of pagan
ideas,
 As well as the inability of philosophy to provide men with an adequate
teaching on God and religion.
 He comes to the conclusion that the complete truth must be derived from
the Prophets and Jesus Christ.
B. Paedagogus or Instructor (The Tutor or Instructor): Practical instructions for the
Christian conduct. In it, he wrote: “It is then, as appears, the greatest of all
lessons to know one’s self. For if one knows himself, he will know God.”
 He work is divided into three books. The first books deals with baptism and,
the second and third books of the Paedagogus deal with practical questions.
Clement makes a survey of
 the various circumstances of our everyday life
C. The Miscellanies or Stromata (Miscellaneous Studies): Christian faith vs. Greek
philosophy
 Protrepticus, Paedagogus, Stromata. Nearly all the extant works of Clement are
comprised under these three treatises, which form parts of one complete whole. The
author gives the outline of this work in the Paedagogus.
 In the Protrepticus he exhorts the pagans to abandon their errors,— then he will
convert them
 In the Paedagogus he will teach him how to lead an honest Christian life
 Finally, in a third work he will instruct him in the dogmas of the Catholic faith.

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 It was therefore a complete theology, apologetical, moral and dogmatic, that Clement
purposed to write
 This Trilogy presents his theological thought in which the Logos, the Word of God,
leads humans to reject paganism through faith, then He changes their life through
the commandments, and ultimately He elevates them to perfect understanding of
divine things.
 The program of the School of Alexandria was influenced by this understanding of the
Divine planning for our redemption. It concentrated first on conversion to Christianity,
then on commandment practice, and ultimately on educating Christians to achieve full
doctrine understanding.

Other books
2. A treatise on The Rich Person's Salvation.
3. Commentaries on Old and New Testament sections.
4. Numerous lost works,
5. Treatises that Clement speaks to as having been written or being authored by him
but of which no evidence can be found
 From a theological point of view, one of Clement's main goals was to establish the
relationships between faith and reason, as well as to demonstrate what philosophy
has accomplished to prepare the world for Christian revelation and how it must be
used in order to transform the data of this revelation into scientific theology.
 Clement's solution is, on the main, correct. He is accused of making a few mistakes
in the details of his work, which are not always proven. It would be astonishing if, in
such a wide and fresh subject, the sharpest discrimination and absolute exactness of
representation could be found everywhere.

THE NEXT WILL BE the scholar Origen

 Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as St. Clement of Alexandria
 Born: 150
 Dean: 190
 Died: 215

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 Oriental and western Writers of The 3rd Century
St. Dionysius of Alexandria Dean: 231- 246 Pope: 246- 270
• The order of Origen's successors in the headship of the Alexandrine Catechetical
School, up to the beginning of the fourth century, is probably as follows:
Heraklas(seems to have written nothing), Dionysius, Theognostus (He wrote seven
books of Hypotyposes or Essays, known to Photius), Pierius (writer of “On the Mother
of God”) , and Peter (opponent of Origen, On the Divinity, cited by the Council of
Ephesus
• St. Athanasius called him “Teacher of the Universal Church”. ™Dionysius was a man
of great executive ability and noble character. Kind and entirely devoted to his people,
combining knowledge with broad sympathy, he enjoyed universal esteem among his
contemporaries. The Oriental Church honors him as a martyr.
• He was born in Alexandria in about 190 from pagan parents. He was not Christian
until an old Christian woman sold him some scripts of St. Paul’s letters. After reading
them, he came back for more and she led him to the Church where he learned about
and converted to Christianity.
• He faced the challenge of preserving his Church in the midst of persecutions: Decian
250 and Valrian in 257. He showed leniency to heretics or apostates who repented
His works
• Issue of those who were baptized by heretics - Cyprian of Corthage vs. Stephen of
Rome.
• Issue of earthly kingdom (millennium) - Nepos, Bishop of Arsinoe (in Fayoum).
• On Nature: refutes the Epicurean materialism view of the universe. written to refute
the atomic theory of the formation of the world and to establish the Christian belief in
creation.
• Commentary on the first chapters of Ecclesiastes
• Apology: on the Trinitarian doctrine
• Letters: quoted frequently by Eusebius

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School of Caesarea
• Origen founded a new school at Caesarea in Palestine (232 AD). Here a remarkable
Christian library was soon established; it owed its growth especially to the efforts of
the later director of the school, the priest Pamphilus. ™
• It was a center of scholarship and learning. Here St. Gregory Thaumaturgus and
Eusebius of Caesarea received their theological training. ™
• Through Caesarea the Alexandrian tradition influenced the leading theologians of
Cappadocia, especially St. Basil the Great and the two Gregorys, who sought to
reconcile the spirit of Alexandria with that of Antioch.

From SYRO-PALESTINIANS, PAMPHILUS

• We didn't provide a smaller account for Pamphilus' contribution in the third century,
despite the fact that the majority of Syrian and Palestinian fathers contributed to the
church in the fourth century.
• He was one of Origen's most ardent supporters despite not knowing him personally.
He was raised by wealthy parents in Berytus, Phoenicia.
• After studying theology under Pierius in Alexandria, he settled permanently in
Caesarea, Palestine. There he was consecrated a priest, opened a theological school,
and became known for his zealous efforts to enrich the magnificent library Origen had
founded in that city
• In 309, during Maximinus' persecution, he perished as a martyr. In a biography, his
coworker and friend Eusebius portrays him as a perfect priest, decorated with all
qualities.

ST GREGORY THAUMATURGUS Bishop of Neo-caesarea

• His birth name was Theodore, was born to wealthy, pagan parents in Neo-Caesarea
(Pontus) about the year 213. He was about to travel to Berytus in Phoenicia after
finishing his studies in literature and law. He first studied rhetoric after his parents
passed away, then law. He had intended to continue his legal studies at Beirut in 233,
but instead he and his brother traveled to Caesarea, Palestine, where they both
studied under Origen for five years.

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• He had returned to Pontus by 238. Around 240, he was appointed bishop of
Neocaesarea. With such fervor and success, he proclaimed the Gospel in towns and
rural areas, and upon his passing, only a small number of pagan communities
remained across Pontus.
• He listened to Origen there, developed a bond with him, and followed his teaching for
five years. Even though he was still a young man, he was installed as the first bishop
of Neo-Caesarea not long after his return to Pontus in 238. His life changed to that of
an apostle at this point.
• He was regarded with esteem as the founding figure of the Church of Cappadocia by
the Cappadocian Fathers in the fourth century. During the Decian persecution, he
fled.
• Around 264, he participated in the synod that condemned Paul of Samosata to
excommunication.
• St. Gregory Thaumaturgos had taught Macrina, the influential grandmother of Sts.
Basil and Gregory of Nyssa.
• The miracles that gave him the title of Thaumaturgos "Wonder worker" His
intercession was credited with a number of miracles at an early period, which
obviously demonstrates the enormous impact his holy life had on people everywhere.
• Gregory's reputation was largely based on the widely reported reports of his miracles.
• He passed away during Aurelian's rule (270–275). Gregory of Nyssa left his life behind.

His works
We have five of St. Gregory's authentic works:
1. The Thanksgiving Discourse to Origen This panegyric was spoken at Caesarea in
238 and was intended to honor Origen for his thoughtful concern before he left. It is
an intellectual oration with an honest and loving tone, and because of the details it
provides about Origen's approach and curriculum, it is a very valuable source.
• An oration he delivered on leaving the school of Origen at Caesarea.
2. Formula of faith. Gregory is said to have received a Formula of Faith from St. John
the Evangelist. This work's legitimacy doesn't seem to be in question. It is succinct

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 but extremely significant since it explains the Trinity theory. It might have been
composed in the years 260 and 265.
• Even though it is brief and only addresses the Orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, it
presents a fairly precise explanation of it. One Lord, God of Gods, True Son of
True Father, etc.,
• There is a perfect Trinity, in glory and eternity…Wherefore there is nothing either
created or in servitude, nor nothing superinduced, as if at some former period it
was non-existent, and at some later period it was introduced.
• In addition to being included in Gregory of Nyssa's biography, the Greek text of
this Creed is also surviving in a great number of manuscripts; we also have a
Latin translation by Rufinus (Hist. eccl. 7,26).
3. Canonical Epistle
ST GREGORY THAUMATURGUS BISHOP OF NEO-CAESAREA
• A Canonical Letter to the Pontus Bishops, written between 254 and 258, in
response to the Pontus invasions by the Boradi and Goths. Gregory describes how
those Christians who had committed various sins under these challenging
circumstances should be treated properly from a penitential standpoint. The Greek
canonical collection now contains this letter.
4. The Metaphases of Ecclesiastes
ST GREGORY THAUMATURGUS BISHOP OF NEO-CAESAREA
• The Septuagint text of Ecclesiastes has been paraphrased in this passage, which
is known as The Metaphrase of Ecclesiastes. Ecclesiastes, a more liberated
rendition of the ideas presented in that influential work.
5. On the Impassability and Passability of God
• This treatise, which was written to a man named Theopompus, is only available in
a Syriac translation. It is titled On the Impassability and Passability of God.The Son
of God defeated death and established the impassibility of God by His voluntary
suffering, despite the fact that God cannot be susceptible to suffering.
St. Gregory Stated the Following in His Commentary on the Annunciation to
the Holy Virgin Mary

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• Once more we have the joyful news of joy, once more the announcements of freedom,
once more the restoration, once more the return, once again the promise of rejoicing,
once more the liberation from slavery.
• In order to stop the serpent from speaking with the lady any longer, an angel
converses with the Virgin.
• The dawn was sent that should precede the light of the day. Gabriel was sent to
proclaim Him who is in the bosom of the Father, and who yet was to be in the arms
of the mother.
• The first Eve received the incorporeal servant. The light that will herald the Sun of
Righteousness was sent.

Others questionable treatises of St Gregory

6. Twelve Topics On the Faith
7. On the Subject of the Soul
8. On All the Saints
9. Four Homilies
10. On the Gospel According to Matthew
11. Spurious Writings The treatise to Philagrius on Consubstantiability.
• Also the treatise to Tatian on the Soul, and six homilies preserved in Armenian.
12. Other Works.
• A Communal Letter that deals with pastoral problems during the Gothic
invasion is extant.
• A treatise for preachers on how to interpret the Septuagint.
• A piece dedicated to Philogrius which deals with the doctrine of the Trinity is
probably authentic.
• The confession of faith attributed to him by St Gregory of Nyssa is the latter’s
own composition.
• Some Apollinarian forgeries were transmitted under his name

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Methodius
• St. Methodius' life is essentially unknown. He is not mentioned by Eusebius, probably.
St. Jerome provides the information that he was the bishop of Olympus in Syria, and
that he perished as a martyr in 311 under the reign of Diocletian.
• The writings of St. Methodius can be categorized into two groups: those that have
been preserved (at least in large part) in Greek, and those that have only been
translated into Slavonic.
• A lengthy Greek fragment of the dialogue titled "The Freedom of the Will" exists and
can be finished by a Slavonic translation. The book criticizes Gnostic dualism, which
acknowledged two principles—one good and the other bad.
• The Banquet or On Virginity is the only complete work by Methodius written
in Greek. Instead of being a dialogue, it is a sequence of discourses.
• Ten virgins take turns speaking, each praising virginity as the pinnacle of the
Christian life, the way to imitate Christ, etc.

Western writes of the 3rd century

1. Tertullian,
2. St. Cyprian,
3. St. Augustine
4. Hippolytus,
5. Novatian,
6. Victorinus

African Writers as Westerns why?

• In the third century, Origen served as the East's literary hub, the core of which
attracted everything. Almost all authors were either the great Alexandrian's allies or
enemies.
• There is no such dominant character in the West; rather, there are only geographical
divisions, leading to the formation of three distinct groups:
• the African writers,
• the Roman writers, and

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 • the smallest group the Gaul and Pannonian writers.
• The African Christian fathers, such as Tertullian, St Cyprian, Arnobius of Sicca, and
Lactantius.

The scholar TERTULLIAN

• Around the year 160, Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus was born in Carthage,
where his father was serving as a Roman official.
• Tertullian's pagan views had an impact on him growing up.
• Throughout the years 195-220, he kept writing.
• He and St. Augustine are the two greatest theologians in Western culture.
• He is the source of many technical terms used in Western theology.
• He did, in a sense, create the understandable vocabulary of western religion.

His life
• Tertullian devoured all he could get his hands on and read and studied it. His erudition
was astonishing as a result.
• Even though he wasn't a lawyer by profession, he had the mindset and spirit of one
and was quite knowledgeable about Roman law.
• He converted to Christianity between 193 and 195. We don't know what led him to
accept Christ as his Saviour, but his conversion was true and total.
• He was ordained to the priesthood in the year 200 despite being married, and he
survived through Septimius Severus' persecution up until the year 213, fighting
against paganism and heresy.
• Tertullian was a born fighter. Energetic of mind, independent of character, and very
logician, he pushed his convictions to the limit and fought all his life for what he
believed to be true, good, and right, with an iron will that forced everything to bow.
• Unfortunately, he had flaws in his characteristics. He lacks moderation, and his
thinking is flawed.
• He exaggerates principles and unconsciously distorts texts and facts; he takes
arguments at random and hurls them pell-mell at his opponent without stopping to
discriminate. His firmness is frequently accompanied by stubbornness.

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• He exaggerates Christian morality and renders it unworkable because he fails to see
truths related to those he is creating and applies them to complex circumstances.
• About 205 or 207 he became a Montanist
• When he died, he had split from the Montanists and formed his own sect, known as
the Tertullianists.
• He is the most prolific of all Latin writers, as well as the most creative and personal.
• His numerous publications include the first major corpus of Christian literature in Latin,
defending Christianity against paganism, expounding Christian theory against
Gnosticism and other heresies, particularly Marcionism, and discussing concerns in
Christian ethics.

His works
• We have 31 authentic Tertullian compositions,
• four of which date from 197-200,
• ten from 200-206,
• twelve from 206-216, and
• Five from 213-222.
• Instead of following this chronological order, we will split his writings into apologetical,
antagonistic, dogmatic, moral, and disciplinary categories, and note the lost texts at
the conclusion.

His apologetical work

• Apologeticum, a work addressed to Roman provincial governors, addresses secret
crimes among Christians and public crimes. Ad Nationes ridicules heathen
worship, Ad Scapulam focuses on persecutors, and Adversus Judaeos
discusses the rejection of God's grace by Israelites.

2. Dogmatico-Polemic Works
• His chief work was Against Marcion in five books
• Written over a period of about twelve years, 200-212.;
• Against Gnosticism;
• Against Hermogenes;

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 • Against Praxeas;
• Treatise On the Soul;
• On the Resurrection of the Flesh;
• On the Flesh of Christ.

3. Practico-Ascetical
• Two treatises On Repentance; On Humility; De cultu feminarum (on women’s dress
and ornaments);
• On Baptism; Ad uxorem (spiritual testament in which he recommends his wife not to
remarry) in twobooks; De corona (chaplet) on the incompatibility between Christianity
and military service.
Tertullian Words
• God is invisible, though He is seen; incomprehensible, though manifested
by grace; inconceivable, though conceived by human senses. In this lies His
reality, and His greatness. But as a general rule, what can be seen, grasped,
conceived, is inferior to the eyes which see, the hands which handle, the senses which
discover it: while that which is infinite is known only by itself.
• It is God’s infinity which gives us the conception of the inconceivable God; for His
overwhelming majesty presents Him to man as at once known and unknown.
• Because of His immense majesty, which renders Him to us as both known and
unknown, it is God's infinity that provides us the conception of the incomprehensible
God.
• …Foolish are those who always seek because they never find, for they seek where
nothing can be found.
• Foolish are those who always knock because the door never opens, for they knock
where there isn’t a door to open.
• Foolish are those who always ask because they won’t be heard. They ask of one who
does not hear….

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St. CYPRIAN of CARTHAGE Bishop and Martyr 200 – D. 258
• CAECILUS CYPRIANUS was born at Carthage, probably c. 210. Born in Africa to rich
pagan parents, he received the best education that was available and went on to
become a rhetorician.
• He gained renown for having the most successful career in Africa and was known as
"the nurse of pleaders" when instructing rhetoric in Carthage.
• But he was unable to find satisfaction in fleeting riches. He was entirely converted to
Christianity by Caecilianus, a respected Carthaginian priest, about the year 245.
• oon after, he was ordained as a priest, and at the beginning of the year 249, he took
Donatus' place as the bishop of Carthage. thus becoming a metropolis in North Africa.
• Even though his episcopate was only active for nine years, it was quite busy. The
Decius persecution began in 250. Out of caution and to avoid inciting the resentment
of the oppressors against the people by his presence, Cyprian fled Carthage and
sought refuge in the neighbouring country
• In the Valerian persecution, St. Cyprian was martyred and decapitated.
• He became the protagonist of numerous stories that were told about his life in the
East. It is stated that before his conversion, confession, and passion, he was a
magician who sold his soul to the devil.
• This story was known to Gregory Nazianzus (PG 35, 1169- 93), Prudentius (Perist. 13,
21-24), Eudoxia (PG 103, 537- 41), and is found in Greek, Latin, Syriac, Arabic, Coptic,
Ethiopian, and Palaeoslavonic.
• Instead of engaging in speculation, he focused on the current situation's necessities,
on pragmatic goals and interests, and on Scripture and Christian sentiments. He was
mostly an active man.
• He was usually calm and reasonable. He frequently referenced and openly borrowed
from Tertullian in his works.

His Works
• In addition to his writings, St. Cyprian left us thirteen genuine works. They are either
apologies or discussions on morality and canon law.

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• His primary aim is to write for the benefit of his readers. He has a classical writer's
symmetrical form. Although his Latin is less expressive and rich than Tertullian's, it is
more accurate, even though it occasionally shows signs of post-classical decadence
and Africanism.
• In the centuries that followed, his style was immensely loved and frequently emulated.
He's not perfect, but he's a wonderful role model.

II. APOLOGETICAL WORKS.

1. Ad Donatum
2. Ad Demetrianum
3. Quod Idola non sint Dii (The Idols are not Gods).
• To Donatus: A highly coloured, poetical description of the new life entered into by
baptismal regeneration ( 246).
• The DressTo Demetrianus: ( 252) Apologetic address to a magistrate proving that
famine, war, and plague are attributed wrongly to Christian neglect of pagan gods.
• Demetrius, a dangerous and immoral heathen, frequently defamed Christians and
irritated the Bishop with his frequent visits. Cyprian finally made up his mind to
respond.
• The majority of his writings are collections of notes, some of which are prepared to
demonstrate the falsehood of paganism and the truthfulness of Christianity while
others are taken directly from Minucius Felix and Tertullian's Apologeticum.

III. MORAL AND DISCIPLINARYWORKS

Foremost among the works of St. Cyprian on morals and discipline must be
placed the two treatises
1. De Lapsis and
2. De Unitate Catholicae Ecclesiae
• The first book's goal is to demonstrate that the Decian persecution's apostates must
make a significant atonement before being allowed to rejoin the Church.
• The second is intended to demonstrate that there can only be one real Church in the
entire world and in every diocese, that in this Church unity is only possible via the

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 communion of the faithful with one another and with the bishop, and that, as a result,
schism is among the worst of crimes.

LETTERS
• The most significant portion of St. Cyprian's writings are his letters. We are aware
that he organised them into categories and retained copies of them.
• 49 of these letters on theological and disciplinary issues are still in existence and are
all very interesting historically.
• The dates of Cyprian's letters were first attempted to be fixed by Pearson, and
subsequent critiques have rarely altered his findings.

Words of St. Cyprian

About morality
• Always remember that we have renounced the world and are living here as guests
and strangers in the meantime. Anticipate the day assigned to each of us for our
homecoming.
• There is only one medicine against such deathly sickness of the soul - to love your
neighbour.
About the church
• He can no longer have God for his Father, who has not the Church for his mother.
• If anyone could escape who was outside the ark of Noah, then he may also escape
who shall be outside of the Church.
• He cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church
• There is no salivation outside of the Church.

Western writers part two

1. Hippolytus,
2. Novatian,
3. Victorinus
HIPPOLYTUS
PRESBYTER, ROMAN RIVAL BISHOP

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• Christian literature in third-century Rome has two chief representatives, Hippolytus
and Novatian.
• It is thought that he was born towards 170-175,—where, we do not know.
• He calls himself a disciple of St. Irenaeus, but this may easily be understood of his
intellectual training through books written by the Bishop of LyonsHowever this may
be, St. Hippolytus appears c. 212 as a presbyter of the Roman Church and a
recognized scholar.
• A learned and cultivated person whose heritage derived from the Greek-speaking East,
Hippolytus became a leading theologian in the Church at Rome.
• He found himself in sharp disagreement with the bishops Zephyrinus and Callistus.
• When Bishop Callistus relaxed the treatment of penitents who had been guilty
of mortal sin, the austere and ambitious Hippolytus accused him of having
departed from the tradition of the primitive Church by his leniency. He also
accused Callistus of being a Sabellianist and a heretic.
• Hippolytus' identification is disputed in ancient sources.
• Hippolytus went too far in defending a Logos theology with subordinationistic
tendencies.
• Hippolytus and several of his followers seceded from the Church; he was elected
bishop of Rome by a small but powerful circle, becoming the first anti-pope.
• The most reasonable explanation for his classification as a bishop in primarily eastern
sources (e.g., Eusebius, HE 6.20) is that he became the bishop of a schismatic
community.
• Hippolytus caused a split and established a competing church, of which he became
bishop.
• Hippolytus is a Western theologian. He fought side by side with Tertullian against the
Gnostics and the Sabellians.
• As a preacher and a homilist he shows true oratorical ability.
• Hippolytus resembled Irenaeus in theology, Origen in scholarship, and Tertullian in
attitudes, but was inferior to all three in originality and achievement.

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• His debt to Irenaeus’ theology is seen especially in his doctrine of salvation: Christ
took on flesh and reversed the experience of Adam in order to confer immortality on
the human race.
• Hippolytus and Callistus disagreed on Christology, the essence of the Church, and
forgiveness.
• Callistus accused him of worshipping two gods because the Word (Christ) was distinct
from the Father.
• Hippolytus desired a pristine church and held a rigorist stance against forgiving anyone
who committed significant sins after receiving baptism.

His works
1. Scripturalworks.
2. Controvercial works
a) The Syntagma
b) Philosophumena
3. De Antichristo.
4. Disciplinary and Hortatory Works
5. Historical And Chronologicalworks
• His works may be divided into Scriptural, controversial, apologetical and dogmatical,
historical and chronological, and disciplinary and hortatory works.
2. The Scriptural works of St. Hippolytus are not, as a rule, cast in the form of
continuous commentaries. They are rather homilies on selected passages of the
sacred text.
3. Controversial works
a) (Against All Heresies): Against 32 heresies
b) (Refutation of All Heresies), which finds the origin of Christian heresies in
the philosophical schools of the Greeks.
4. Demonstration according to the Holy Scriptures of that which Concerns Christ and
the Antichrist

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 5. As to the Odes on all the Scriptures, we know nothing more about them than the
title given in the statue catalogue.
6. The Chronicle.The Determination of the Date of Easter.
a) It was a kind of collection of profane and sacred history and geography,
b) Easter falls on the same date every sixteenth year
Novatian
• The early life of Novatian is known to us principally through the letters of Pope
Cornelius to Fabius of Antioch, extracts of which are furnished by Eusebius. Born
probably in Italy, perhaps at Rome.
• (After the problem of possessed with evil spirit)with a Novatian was endowed with
remarkable intellectual qualities and, in spite of the opposition of the clergy and many
laymen, the then pope, Fabian, (or perhaps Pontian), ordained him to the priesthood,
and in 250 we find him holding a prominent position at Rome.
• Socrates,5 says he died a martyr's death in the persecution of Valerian (257-258)

His works
✓ He wrote on Easter,
✓ on the Sabbath,
✓ on Circumcision,
✓ on the (high) Priest,
✓ on prayer,
✓ on Jewish meats,
✓ on persecution,
✓ mentioned.
✓ and on the Trinity.
• Of all these writings there remain only two letters to St. Cyprian, the De Trinitate and
the treatise De Cibis Judaicis, just
• The De Trinitate, Novatian's masterpiece, was written before 250. It is a commentary
on a formula of faith shorter than the Apostles Creed, yet longer than the simple
baptismal formula.

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• The De Cibis Judaicis is a schismatic work of Novatian. It is a kind of pastoral letter,
addressed to the Novatian community, in which he explains allegorically the distinction
of meats among the Jews.

VICTORINUS OF pettaue
Was an Early Christian ecclesiastical writer who flourished about 270, and who was
martyred during the persecutions of Emperor Diocletian. A Bishop of Poetovio
(modern Ptuj in Slovenia; German: Pettau) in Pannonia,
• He was bishop of Pettau in Syria.
• The earliest exegete of the Latin Church.
• St Jerome says that he was not equally as familiar with Latin as with Greek, but this
does not necessarily imply that he was Greek by birth.
• St Jerome also considered him to be affected by the opinions of the Chiliasts or
Millenarians, and borrowed extensively from Origen.
• He was killed in the Diocletian persecution, most probably in 304

His work
1. The Commentary on the Apocalypse: It testifies to the chiliastic view of its author.
2. De fabrica mundi: In this work, Victorinus’ chiliastic tendency again appears clear.
3. Against All Heresies: This work is identical with the pamphlet of the same name
appended to Tertullian’s Prescription of Heretics which is believed to have been
translated by Victorinus.
4. Commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Habbakuk,
Ecclesiastes, Canticle of Canticles, and Matthew.

Critics on The westerns school of Theology

• The West generated no large schools of thought like Alexandria and Antioch, nor did
it develop a local group of outstanding theologians like the three Cappadocian Fathers.
• Its authors were often influenced by past or contemporaneous Greek (eastern)
theology.

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• Nonetheless, among the Western Fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, there are
dominating figures without equal in the East, as well as a number of minor authors of
exceptional rank.
Next
Writers of the Golden Age of patristic literature from the east and west (313–461) and
Fourth Century Heterodox literatures Furthermore, the assignment of presentation will
continue.

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 Golden Patristic Age
4th Century of Patrology
 Ancient ecclesiastical literature is said to have reached its height in the fourth century.
 There was no other time in the Patristic era when Christian literature attained such
high standards of excellence and Christian authors such spectacular recognition.
 Greater study opportunities for Christians, the splendor of religious structures and
rites, and an educated and more literate populace all accompanied the freedom the
Church experienced after the year 313 and demanded of authors and orators a more
refined and cultured language.

Golden age
 This century, at least in the writings of some authors, continued the combination of
classical form and Christian teaching that has long been an attribute of great literature.
 Finally, the disputes of this period dealt with subjects of extreme significance, which
naturally stimulated the minds engaged in them to the highest pitch.
 All of these factors led, both theologically and literarily, to this period becoming and
becoming the Golden Age of Patristic Literature for about a century and a half.
 The extensive body of writings we will have to list includes examples of exegesis,
doctrine, apology, polemics, liturgy, discipline and moral preaching, and asceticism.

West In Golden Period

 Greeks hold the top position in this major movement, excepting St. Augustine, due to
their speculative mindset, more sophisticated culture, adaptable language, and higher
creativity.
 They had minimal knowledge of and little use for Latin texts, whereas the latter knew,
translated, and extensively used Greek writings. And yet, it is a remarkable truth that
Latin formulations were ultimately chosen to resolve all disagreements.
 Rome and the West, with their optimistic outlook, ended conversations that Greek
subtleties would have drawn out indefinitely with just one phrase.
 Eusebius introduces history, and Juvencus and Prudentius introduce religious poetry.

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The Three School of Theologies
 According to different tendencies, the Greek writers of the fourth and fifth centuries
can be divided into two different schools:
✓ those from the school of Alexandria, who cultivate allegorism in exegesis and
Christology and insist on the unity of Jesus Christ,
✓ and those from the school of Antioch, who try to find the literal meaning of the
Scriptures and focus on studying the human side of our Savior.
 Some of the members of both schools were driven into heresy by these tendencies
when they were taken too far, but the greatest of these authors were able to control
them.
✓ The Cappadocians, however, are more closely associated with the school of
Alexandria due to their training than the writers of Asia Minor, who occupy a
middle ground between these two schools.
✓ Around the third century, the Antiochian school, or "exegetical school," opposed
the Alexandrian allegorizing tendencies and emphasized historical and linguistic
context in explaining Scripture. Both schools are essential for guiding individuals
towards moral lives and truth discovery. Lucian of Samosata founded the school,
whose reputation was famously established by Diodore of Tarsus.

THE SCHOOL OF ANTIOCH

 Outside of Palestine, Antioch served as the hub of Christendom.
✓ The surrounding community wholeheartedly supported St. Paul's anti-Judaizing
stance. Tradition holds that St. Peter was the city's first bishop, and by the start
of the second century, the Church was a well-established institution with the
renowned St. Ignatius serving as its bishop.
 The see attained its largest scope of authority at the end of the fourth century, placing
it third among patriarchal sees in Christendom behind Rome and Alexandria.
 Antioch's significance declined with the advent of Constantinople and the Patriarchate
of Jerusalem, and its influence with the Nestorians declined. Persians first took control

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 of the city, which was then occupied by the Arab caliphate, reclaimed by the Byzantine
Empire, and afterwards conquered by the Seljuq Turks, Crusaders, and Mamluks.
 In contrast to the mystic Alexandria school's emphasis on Christ's divinity, theologians
at Antioch emphasized Christ's humanity.

Foundation
 Its establishment was between 260-360
 Lucian of Antioch in samosota is typically regarded as its originator by modern
researchers. Diodore of Tarsus, who lived in the latter part of the 4th century, marked
the true start of the school as we know it today.
 The Antiochian School, according to Schaff, "was not a regular institution with a
continuous succession of teachers, like the Catechetical School of Alexandria, but
rather a theological tendency, more specifically a peculiar type of hermeneutics and
exegesis that had its center in Antioch." Arius "received his theological training at
Antioch in the School of Lucian," according to Quasten. His former teachers became
many of his supporters, and many patriarchal bishops joined to the various Arian
parties. However, we must not disregard the outstanding Orthodox Fathers of this
School.
 There was a lot of studying. The Bible served as the curriculum's main focus.
Dogmatic, apologetic, and ethical issues were also studied, and philosophy was
taught.
 In opposition to the School of Alexandria's exegetical approach, Diodore stated, "We
demand them to know that we prefer much more the historical comprehension of the
text than the allegorical.
 The greatest scholars of this time were St. John Chrysostom, Flavian, Diodore of
Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodore of Cyrus.
 Its decrepitude began after 430. When Nestorianism emerged, it began to decline.
Until it was destroyed, its adherents had permission to attend the School of Edessa.
Then they took 489 to Nisibis.

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 Conclusion
 Theodore of Mopsuestia, a prominent Antiochian exegete, wrote commentaries on the
Bible and was considered Orthodox. At the 5th Council of Constantinople, his writings
were anathematized, and he and Diodore were considered teachers of Nestorius. The
historico-grammatical method led to errors in Arianism, Macedonianism,
Apollinarianism, Pelagianism, and Nestorianism.

GREEK HETERODOX LITERATURE

Arians, Appolinarius, Nestorius, Macedonians
Who is Arius?
• ARIUS was born in the middle of the third century (256?) in Libya.After learning under
the martyr Lucian at Antioch, we find him in charge of the Baucalis Church at
Alexandria in 313.
• He quickly achieved the popularity that he later abused since he was naturally gifted
and well educated, austere and somber
• Arius, a Libyan priest and disciple of Lucian, developed a heresy based on theological
rationalism, claiming a simple answer to the relationship between God the Father and
God the Son, attracting many to this understanding.
• His teachings are
• the Λόγος is a created being,
• not eternal,
• differing from the Father in substance, and subject to change.
His works
• The most famous of Arius' texts is A Banquet, which was written between 321 and
325 at Nicomedia.
• Thalia's Banquet: To spread his teaching, Arius composed songs for the sea, the mill,
and the road, which he then placed to appropriate music. The Thalia included some
of these and was most likely a blend of rhyme and prose.
• It is a famous song for travelers and laborers, intended to disseminate his blunders.
Only a few citations have come to us via St. Athanasius.

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• Arius sent two letters, one to Eusebius at Nicomedia around 321 and the other to
Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, shortly before the Council of Nicea.
• two letters of Arius, one to Eusebius at Nicomedia, written c. 321,the other to
the bishop of Alexandria, Alexander, written shortly before the Council of Nicea.
• The statement of faith made by Arius to Constantine in 330 or 331 has been
duplicated by Socrates and Sozomen.
Arians believed:
1. The Logos was not eternal but created by God as an instrument for creation of the
earth.
2. The Son of God the Logos can not be truly God. He is the first of God’s creatures
3. He like the others was brought out of nothingness, not from the divine essence.
4. He differs essentially from the Father; He is a secondary God
5. There was a time when the Son of God was not.
6. The Logos holds a middle place between God and the world
7. The Holy Spirit is the first of the creatures of the Logos. He is still less God than the
Word.
8. The Logos was made flesh in the sense that He fulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of
a soul.

Conclusion of the Arian teachings

• Christ, though higher than humanity, was inferior to God,
• Non-eternal, and with a definite beginning. He was created ex nihilo, from nothing,
before the creation of the world, by nature distinct from the Father; he is the Son of
God as all men are sons of God, by adoption.
• The second creature was the Holy Spirit. The Father alone is true God.

Condemnation
• Alexander, Pope of Alexandria summoned nearly one hundred Egyptian hierarchy in a
synod in the year 318 at Alexandria. Arius was condemned, and he and his adherents
deposed

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• Arius objected the sentence and tried to gain associates among his former fellow-
students at Antioch. Eusebius of Nicomedia gave him his full support, himself a disciple
of Lucian of Antioch, Arius’ teacher he shared all his ideas. Also Eusebius of Caesarea
(semi-Arian) had a midway position between him and Alexander.
• After condemnation of a council held at Alexandria, he was forced to go into exile,
withdrawing first to Palestine, then to Nicomedia, the home of Bishop Eusebius, his
former schoolmate.
• He was condemned again at the Council of Nicea (325) and banished by the emperor
to Illyricum; he succeeded, however, in getting back into Constantine's favor and was
about to be solemnly reconciled with the Church when he died suddenly at
Constantinople, (but on the eve of the appointed day, Arius died suddenly (336), over
eighty years of age.

Semi Arianism
• Christ is of similar essence (homoiousian) with the Father, but is subordinate to Him.
• Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil of Ancyra, Gregory of Laodicea adopted this heresy

The big supporter of Arius (Eusebius)

• Eusebius was the actual political leader of the Arian party after the Nicaean Council,
and he was successful in maintaining its degree of unity up until the time of his passing
in 341-342.
• However, following his passing, and particularly around 356, doctrinal divisions that
had previously been kept under covers due to the need for conflict started to emerge.
• Three sects were formed:
• (a) pure Arians or Anomeans, who proclaimed the Son to be unlike the
Father (anomoios);
• (b) Semi-Arians, who rejected the homoousios, but came as near as possible
to orthodoxy in the substance of their doctrine, looking upon the Word as like
the Father in substance and in all things (homoiousios); and

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 • (c) The Homeans, a group that was primarily political and did not adhere to
either viewpoint but was content with the generalization that the Son was like
the Father (homoios).
Definition of the basic terms
The fundamental distinction between God and Christ is that the former
has always existed, whereas the latter was made by the former.
Anomoios
Eunomius, who was Atius' primary convert and the movement's second
head, died around 394 and the Anomoeans quickly vanished.
Homoousios God the Son and God the Father are of the same substance.
God the Son was of a similar, but not identical, essence (or substance)
homoiousios
with God the Father
Sabellianism One and the same substance
Homoousian Distinct but identical substance
Homoiousian Similar in substance
Homoianism Refuses to refer to substance.
Neo-Arianism or
Unlike in substance
heteroousians

APOLLINARIS

• Apollinaris bishop of Laodicea, Syria (315-392). He was born ca. 310-15, and died ca. 390-
92.
• The young man received a splendid education, familiarized himself with Aristotelian dialectics,
and began to teach rhetoric, at the same time performing the ecclesiastical functions of a
lector.
• A strict advocate of Nicene doctrine, he received Athanasius into his home when the latter
returned from exile in 346, and, c. 360-361, he became bishop of Laodicea, or rather of the
Orthodox Christians there, for the Arians had chosen Pelagius as their bishop.
• Apollinaris was one of the most fertile and versatile ecclesiastical writers of his days, he fought
side by side with Sts Athanasius and Basil the Great against the Arians, only to be condemned
in the end as a heretic himself.
• The received doctrine of the School of Antioch did not satisfy him as an outstanding defender
and strong defender of the Nicene doctrine against the Arians, and he desired a better solution
to exclude any mistaken tendency to interpret the close union of the divinity and humanity in
Christ as a double personality.
• The Council of Alexandria considered this doctrine in 362, but because to Apollinaris' well-
known Trinitarian orthodoxy, it wasn't until 373 that he was strongly suspected of heresy. His

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 theory was rejected by the General Council in 381 after it was condemned by Pope Damascus
in 377. Apollinaris is typically believed to have passed away between 385 and 392.

What is His Errors

• He lacked a thorough understanding of some distinctions on the issues of nature and person
that were accurately articulated afterwards and would have saved him from succumbing to
monophysitism. The distinction of being the first to bring up the Christological issue belongs
to him.
• He made the mistake of partially denying Christ's actual humanity out of his fervor for the
true Godhead of Christ and his worry about a split personality.
• According to him, the human body and irrational soul were to be found in Christ, but not the
human spirit or rational soul, the latter being substituted by the Divine Logos. As a result, He
had perfect Godhead but not entire manhood.
• He claimed that Christ could not be fully human for two reasons:
1. The metaphysical basis for this is that two perfect entities, God and man, cannot form
unity, but only a hybrid. Apollinaris believes that the marriage of entire Divinity and
whole humanity in one person is an absurdity.
2. The psychological argument is that the rational soul is the seat and heart of the power
of self-determination for good or evil, implying that Christ is capable of sin. However,
if redemption is to be completed, the Savior must be sinless.
• He believed in one incarnate nature of the God-Word.
• In denying to the person of Christ a human soul, the most important element in human nature,
Apollinaris was depriving the Incarnation and Redemption of its meaning.
• The later Orthodox doctrine surmounted this difficulty by teaching the impersonality of the
human nature of Christ, and by making the personality of Christ to reside wholly in the Logos.
• He was still alive when St Gregory of Nyssa wrote his Antirrheticus in 385 against him.
• About the life and writings of Apollinaris, see the section on Apollinaris of Laodicea under
Theologians of Antioch and Syria

His works
• Apollinaris was a fertile writer, as we shall see. The remains of his works have reached us,
partly under his own and partly under borrowed names.

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• This can be explained by the fact that, after the imperial decrees ordering the destruction of
his books, his followers, in order to preserve them, put a number of them into circulation
under the names of orthodox writers, such as Popes Julius and Felix, St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus, St. Athanasius, and others. St. Cyril of Alexandria became a victim of this
deception, and his authority added significantly to its credibility.
1. EXEGETICAL WORKS. Apollinaris, attributes to him "countless works on the Holy
Scriptures." In fact, he repeatedly mentions a commentary on Ecclesiastes, one on Isaias,
two on Osee, one on Malachias, others on other prophets, one on St. Matthew, one on
the I Epistle to the Corinthians, one on the Epistle to the Galatians and one on the Epistle
to the Ephesians. These commentaries, usually very brief, explain the text literally and
attempt to bring out in particular the moral lessons. Only a few citations and fragments
remain, and even these have not all been gathered together or edited.
2. APOLOGETICAL WORKS. We know of two apologies by Apollinaris: one was a refutation
of Porphyry in 30 books; the other, a refutation of Julian the Apostate entitled De Veritate.
3. POLEMICAL AND DOGMATICAL WORKS. The earliest polemical and dogmatical works of
Apollinaris were written in defence of the Trinitarian doctrine.
1. He had written Adversus Eunomium against Marcellus of Ancyra, once or twice
Against Origen and Against Dionysius of Alexandria. The two latter attacks were
probably directed against Subordinationism, of which these two authors were
accused. All these writings are now lost.

His Condemination
• Apollinaris’ teaching was rejected at the Synod of Alexandria in 362.
• By 377 the Western Council of Rome under Bishop Damasus condemned him, followed by the
eastern councils of Alexandria (378), Antioch (379), and Constantinople (381).
• Theodosian decrees (383-88) forbade Apollinarian worship and outlawed his adherents
• Sts Athanasius, Cyril of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa,
Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Severus of Antioch wrote refutations, and totally condemned this
heresy.

NESTORIUS AND THE NESTORIANS

The Life of Nestorius
• Born in Germanicia in 380, he studied first at Antioch and then entered the adjacent
monastery of Euprepios.

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• He successfully applied himself to preaching after his ordination. This, no likely, drew
Theodosius II's notice, for after the death of Sisinnius of Constantinople, the Emperor
appointed Nestorius as his successor (428).
• The new bishop quickly dashed the optimism he had sparked. Pope Celestine condemned him
for his Christological errors in 430, and the Council of Ephesus condemned and deposed him
again in 431.
• He then returned to his convent of Euprepios, where he resided until 435, when he was exiled,
first to Petra in Arabia, then to Oasis in Egypt. He died around 450 or so.

Errors of Nestorius
• Nestorius appears to have learned his doctrine from his master, Theodore of Mopsuestia, who
illustrated the union (or conjunction, and this word represents the Nestorian view more
precisely, and demonstrates its unacceptability) by the union of husband and wife, who
become 'one flesh' while remaining two separate natures and persons.
• Nestorius in his Episcopal sermons asserted that:
✓ There are two persons in Christ, a divine person, the Logos, dwelling in a human
person, the man Jesus.
✓ The Blessed Virgin Mary could not be called Theotokos; Mother of God.

Works of Nestorius
• The first writings of Nestorius were homilies We have the complete text of four of these and
fragments of about thirty others; ten of his letters are preserved entire, besides some
fragments. All this was written between 429 and 443.
• In 430 or 431 he replied to St. Cyril's Anathematisms with twelve counter-anathemas,
preserved in a Latin translation by Marius Mercator. After his condemnation he made an
attempt to justify his position in three apologies:
✓ the Theopaschite, written 431-435, (a few fragments still extant);
✓ the Tragedy or History, written a little later, (one fragment); and,
✓ after 449, The Book of Heraclides.
• In his Paschal letter of 429, St Cyril rejected this belief.
• Nestorius was a preacher's preacher from the moment of his ordination (10 April 428), and
he was zealous against heretics.

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• "Give me, O Emperor, the earth cleansed from heretics, and I will give thee heaven; help me
to make war against heretics, and I will help thee in the war against the Persians," he said in
his very first sermon to Emperor Theodosius the younger.

His works
A. Treatises
• Bazar of Heraclides of Damascus:
• The only treatise extant in its entirety; it was composed in his last years.
• ‘Heraclides of Damascus’ is a pseudonym which the exiled and condemned Nestorius used as
the only way of getting his book published.
• In the form of a dialogue with the Egyptian Sophronius, Nestorius gives a defense of his
teaching and a history of his life
• In his book He severely criticizes the decisions of Ephesus and the teaching of St Cyril of
Alexandria, claiming that his own belief was identical with that of Pope Leo I and Patriarch
Flavian of Constantinople, so that it would be hard to charge him, on the basis of this treatise,
with willful heresy
• The Twelve Counter-Anathemas:
✓ Written to answer the Twelve Anathemas of St Cyril; they are preserved in a Latin
translation.
• Tragedy:
✓ A work in which Nestorius seems to have given a presentation of his case; it was
probably written after the Council of Ephesus and before his exile to Egypt.
• Theopaschites:
✓ A refutation of St Cyril of Alexandria in the form of a dialogue
B. Sermons
• There must have been a considerable number of sermons extant before they were committed
to flames in 435.
C. Letters
• From the over all 15 letters we are aware of, only ten survive.

Macedonians (PNEUMATOMACHI)
• Pneumatomachi means ‘those who fight against the Spirit.’ The term was used initially in the
4th century by St Athanasius and others to describe those who did not accept the divinity of
the Holy Spirit.

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• Their heresy comes from Arianism and they are called Semi-Arians, Macedonians, or
Marathonians (Tropici).
• 5th century writers such as Sozomen, Socrates, St Jerome, and Rufinus, identify the
Pneumatomachians as Macedonians, claiming that Macedonius, a Semi-Arian bishop of
Constantinople (ca. 342-360) was the founder of the sect.
• One group not only rejected the Holy Spirit’s divinity, but also that of the Son

Council of Constantinople
• In 381, Pneumatomachians were condemned in an ecumenical council in Constantinople by
about 150 bishops
• The second ecumenical council of the Christian church, convened at Constantinople by
Emperor Theodosius I. Doctrinally, it adopted the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (also
known as the Nicene Creed), which effectively affirmed and developed the creed previously
proclaimed at the Council of Nicaea in 325 (Creed of Nicaea).
• The Council of Constantinople also finalized the Trinitarian teaching of the Holy Spirit's equality
with the Father and the Son. Among the canons adopted at the council was one that gave
the bishop of Constantinople priority over all other bishops except the bishop of Rome,
"because Constantinople is the New Rome."
Summary of the 4th Century heresies I

Their teaching Proponents

Arians
1. Only God the Father is eternal
Summary of 2. The Son had a beginning as the first and
the 4th highest created being. Arius
Century 3. The Son is not one in essence with the Origen
heresies I Father. Eusebius of Nicomedia
4. Christ is subordinate to the Father. Eudoxius
5. Christ is called God as an honorific title. Eunomius
Semi Arians Eusebius of Caesaria
Christ is of similar essence with the Father but is Basil of Ancyra
subordinate to Him. Gregory of Laodicea
Anomoeans, Eunomians
Summary of
1. Radical followers of Arius. While accepting
the 4th
that the Father and Son are united in will,
Century
asserted that they are unlike or dissimilar
heresies II Eunomius of Cyzicus , Aetius
(anomoios) in essence.
2. They viewed any similarity of essence
between the Trinity as a Sabellian denial of their
distinct identities.

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 Their teaching Proponents
Apolinarius
1. Jesus Christ had no human spirit or rational
soul, the divine Logos replaced it.
2. Jesus Christ could not have complete
humanity because two beings already perfect,
Summary of God and man, cannot product unity, but only a
the 4th hybrid.
Apollinaris bishop of Laodicea
Century 3. That the rational soul constitutes the seat and
heresies III centre of power of self-determination for good
or evil, which would attribute the possibility of
sin to Christ.
4. A complete “nature” means the same thing as
a “person”.

Nestorians
1. There are two persons in Christ, a divine Nestorius bishop of
person (the Logos) dwelling in a human person Constantinople 1. The
(the man Jesus). holy Virgin is called θeodóχoς
2. That which was formed in the womb of Mary (theodokhos–the vessel of God)
Summary of
is not God Himself, but because God dwells in not θεοτόκος (theotokos–God-
the 4th
him whom He assumed, He is called God. bearer and Mother of God). Also
Century
3. It is not God who has suffered, but God was χριστοτόκος (Christotokos–Mother
heresies IV
conjoined with the crucified flesh. of Christ not Mother of God)
2. Taught separation of the
natures and unity of reverence.
3. Denied the union of the
Natures in Christ.

Summary of Main teaching

the 4th Macedonians (Pneumatomachi)
Century -The Holy Spirit is a created being.
heresies V -Denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. Macedonius, Eustathius of
-The heresy comes from Arianism Sebaste (Proponent or founder)

The Main Heresies of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th Century Will Be Discussed at The End of the Class.
Next 4th century Main (influential) Church fathers

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 The 4th Century Main Writers of Alexandria

• Athanasius, Didymus, and Cyril are the three great theologians of the Church of
Alexandria at the period we are now studying
Saint Athanasius
An eighth century monk wrote: “If you find a book by Athanasius and have
no paper on which to copy it, write it on your shirts.”
“His disposition sufficed for the training of his spiritual children, with very little need of
words.”
St. Gregory of Nazianzus
Athanasius the Apostolic
“We do not worship a creature…But we worship the Lord of creation,
Incarnate, the Word of God. For if the flesh also is in itself a part of the
created world, yet it has become God’s body”
In his letter to Adelphius

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• Was born in the city of Alexandria, probably in 295. His parents were heathen, but he
must have been converted at an early age, for towards 318-320 we find him a deacon
of Bishop Alexander, whom he accompanied to the Council of Nicaea, in 325.
• From the moment of his episcopal consecration his history is mingled with that of Nicene
orthodoxy.
• St Athanasius is the grandest figure of the early Church after the time of the apostles.
He was raised up to complete their testimony to the eternal Logos, and to suffer like
them; hence his title, “the Apostolic.”

His Childhood and Youth

• According to Rufinus, Pope Alexander was impressed by the child Athanasius when he
was acting out baptismal rites with other children on the shore at Alexandria
• Pope Alexander ordained him a deacon at the age of 15 in 312, then a priest at the age
of 21 in 318 and appointed him as his personal secretary.
• He lived through the period of severe persecution under Diocletian (303 - 311) and
knew many of the martyrs and confessors in Alexandria. He learned from them the true
meaning of fighting for the faith.
• During his youth, St Athanasius spent time in the desert under the guidance of St
Anthony the Great. St Athanasius regarded the monastic life as martyrdom and the
monks the successors to the martyrs

His Ordination
• He accompanied Pope Alexander to the Council of Nicaea in 325. His courage, zeal,
logic, and wisdom earned him the admiration of the 318 bishops in attendance and the
envy of the Arian heretics.
• He was chosen to succeed Pope Alexander on 8 June 328 becoming the 20th Pope of
the See of St Mark.
• St Athanasius spent most of his life combating the heresy of Arius. Although Arius and
his adherents were condemned and excommunicated at the Council of Nicaea, they
continued unrelentlessly to cause trouble for St Athanasius and the Church.
• He ordained Frumentius (Abbot Salama) as the first bishop of Ethiopia in 330.

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 Exile
• The Arians saw St Athanasius as their principal foe and worked tirelessly against him.
Through intrigue, lies, conspiracy, and threats they gained a following with hierarchs
and civil authorities in the East. Eventually, they persuaded the Emperor Constantine to
send him into exile in Gaul in 335
• He was five times exiled:
o first tow Treves by Constantine at the end of 335 or in the beginning of 336, returning
to Alexandria Nov. 23, 337;
o the second time, by Constantius, Mar. 19, 340, when the intruder, Gregory of
Cappadocia, took possession of his see; he was able to re-enter Alexandria only on Oct.
21, 346, after the death of the intruder;
o the third time, he was deposed by the synods of Aries and Milan and forced to flee
before the soldiers of Constantius, Feb. 9, 356, re-entering Alexandria Feb. 21, 362,
after the Emperor's death.
o But Julian the Apostate soon found him troublesome and Athanasius was again
compelled to with draw, this time into the Thebaid desert, Oct. 24, 362, to return to his
see in less than a year, Sept. 5, 363.
o Finally, by order of the Emperor Valens, Athanasius was again compelled to travel the
road of exile, Oct. 5, 365.

Athanasius Exile
• St Athanasius‟ exile in Gaul was the first of many; during his life, he was exiled on five
separate occasions for a total of 17 years:
1. Under Constantine (335 - 337) to Treves in Gaul.
2. Under Constantius (339 - 346) visited Rome.
3. Under Constantius (356 - 362) in the Egyptian desert.
4. Under Julian (362 - 363) in the Egyptian desert; and
5. Under Valens (365 - 366) in the Egyptian desert.

Arius and his death tale

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• With St Athanasius in exile, Arius thought he could receive communion in Alexandria;
when his attempt failed, he went to Constantinople to meet the Emperor Constantine.
• Arius convinced him that he upheld the true faith of the Church, and the Emperor
accepted his statement. Eusebius and those with Arius then escorted him to the church
• Alexander, the bishop of Constantinople informed Arius he could not take part in
communion since he was a heretic, but Arius said he had been invited by the Emperor
and insisted that he would receive communion the next day. Alexander prayed fervently
that he would not see such an atrocity and asked God that his life or Arius‟ life be taken.
• What is the Ethiopian tale about his death?

The Two Deaths

Aries Death
• That evening when Arius and his supporters were parading through the city, celebrating
their victory, Arius suffered a violent hemorrhage of the bowels and died instantly.

Athanasius Death
• St Athanasius spent the last seven years of his life in Alexandria; he died on 15 May,
373.
• He presided over the Church for 46 years
• St Athanasius‟ courageous battle against the Arian heresy saved the Church from
disaster. For his life-long defense of the truth, St Athanasius is called the “Father of
Orthodoxy.
• Our transgression called forth the loving-kindness of the Word, that the Lord should
both make haste to help us and appear among men.
• the incorporeal and incorruptible and immaterial Word of God comes to our realm…He
took pity on our race, and had mercy on our infirmity, and condescended to our
corruption.

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 His Works
1. Dogmatic
• On the Incarnation (De Incarnatione Verbi Dei): Written in 318 when St Athanasius was
just 21 years of age, it is one of the most accurate and comprehensive works ever
written on the doctrine of the Incarnation to date
1. An apology for the Christian faith and a refutation of paganism.
2. (Expositio Fidei)
3. Considered the most authentic source of the history of the Church in the first half of the
4th century. St Athanasius is far superior to any other historians of the period for his
personal testimony to the facts, and for his great accuracy and use of actual documents.
4. (Apologia ad Constantium)
5. Written ca. 357 in response to the charge of cowardice circulated against him by the
Arians.
6. St Athanasius wrote of Arius and the Arian heresy

2. Apologetic
1. Against the Heathen
2. Statement of Faith
3. Apology Against the Arians
4. Apology to Constantius
5. Defense of the Nicene Council and of His Flight (de Decretis)
6. Defense of His Flight
7. History of the Arians
8. Four Discourses Against the Arians

His Works
3. Ascetic
• The Life of Anthony (vita Antoni).
• A number of Treatises on Virginity etc. The pseudo-Athanasius Life of Syncletica.
• Fragments of other treatises on virginity in Coptic, Syrian and Armenian translations.
• Sermons.

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4. exegetical
• On the interpretation of the Psalms.
• Commentary on Psalms,
• Ecclesiastes,
• Song of Songs
• Genesis, and
• St Luke

5. Letters
• In Letter V for Easter of 333, St Athanasius wrote: “Again the time has arrived which
brings to us a new beginning, even the announcement of the blessed Passover, in which
the Lord was sacrificed.
• We eat, as it were, the food of life, and constantly thirsting we delight our souls at all
times, as from a fountain, in His precious blood…He stands ready for those who thirst;
and for those who thirst there is the word of our Savior, „If any man thirst, let him come
to Me and drink.‟ ” (Jn 7:37)
1. Festal or Easter (Christian Paschal) letters
2. Four letters to Serapion.
3. Doctrinal letters on the “Teaching of Dionysius,”
4. Official Episcopal letters.
5. Personal letters.
• “The Father does all things through the Word in the Holy Spirit. Thus the unity of the
Holy Triad is preserved. Thus one God is preached in the Church, „who is over all (Ephes.
4,6), and through all, and in all‟ – „over all‟ as Father, as beginning, as fountain,
„through all‟ through the Word; „in all‟ in the Holy Spirit.”
• “For the Son is in the Father, as it is allowed us to know, because the whole Being of
the Son is proper to the Father‟s essence, as radiance from light, and stream from
fountain; so that whoso sees the Son, sees what is proper to the Father, and knows
that the Son‟s being, became from the Father, is therefore in the Father.” (Or. Arian.
3,3). 52

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 His Anti Heretical Teachings
• His Anti Heretical Teachings Against Arianism in his First Letter to Serapion St Athanasius
wrote
• Eternally begotten, the Son is of the Father‟s essence, He is co-essential to the Father,
He is homoousios. Teaching of St. Athanasius for Arianism
Against Macedonians
• “In Scripture the Spirit is nowhere called Son [of God] nor the Son‟s son. But the Son
is the Father‟s Son; the Spirit, the Father‟s Spirit; and thus there is one Godhead of the
Holy Trinity, and one faith in the Holy Trinity
• …If the Spirit were a creature He would not be included in the trinity; for the whole
Trinity is one God. Nothing alien is mingled in the Trinity, it is indivisible and of the same
nature.”

DYDIMUS THE BLINED

• He was born ca. 313, and at the age of four, lost his sight entirely.
• Another champion of the faith at Alexandria was DIDYMUS THE BLIND.
• Thanks to an insatiable thirst for knowledge and an indomitable application, he soon
found himself ranked among the most learned men of his time. St. Antony, Palladius,
Evagrius Ponticus, St. Jerome and Rufinus all came to hear him and learn from him. He
was respected by the Arians themselves. After a life devoted entirely to prayer and work,
he died very calmly, in 398, at the age of 85.
• He learned to write by means of wooden tablets in which the characters were engraved,
and invented engraved writing for the blind.
• Despite the tremendous handicap of lifelong blindness, he amassed an amazing treasure
of erudition without ever going to school. He gained a comprehensive and thorough
knowledge in philosophy, rhetoric, and mathematics
• The knowledge of which he gives proof of in his works supposes a bewildering memory.
He became so familiar with the Scriptures, that he knew them almost all by heart.
• He attracted people not only by his teachings but also by his asceticism; he lived almost
a hermit's life.

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• •St Athanasius did not hesitate to appoint him as the head of the catechetical school of
Alexandria. He was the last of its famous teachers, since that celebrated institution
closed down after his death.
• He stood in high esteem with the Egyptian anchorites; with St Anthony in particular,
who congratulated him, that, though blind to the perishable world of sense, he was
endowed with the eye of an angel to behold the mysteries of God
• He was visited by St Anthony several times and by Palladius four times.
• Among his students and friends were Sts Gregory Nazianzen, St Jerome, Rufinus,
Palladius.
• St Jerome mentions Didymus as his magister, praises his learning, and testifies to his
influence on the divines of his time in the West and in the East. Rufinus calls him “a
prophet” and “apostolic man.
• He interpreted many books of the Bible; a large number of quotations from his work still
existing. He followed Origen in the allegorical method of interpretation and textual
criticism.

His works
1. Dogmatic Works
• On the Trinity: 3 books written between 381 and 392; still existing.
• On the Holy Spirit: The Greek original lost; the Latin translation still existing. The treatise
De Spiritu Sancto, written against the Pneumatomachi,
• Contra Manie: Still existing in 18 short articles.
• Two Books against the Arians;
• Volumen Dogmatum is his work
• Lost dogmatical works

2. Exegetical Works
• Old Testament: Psalms, Job, Isaiah, Zechariah, Proverbs.
• New Testament: Gospels of Matthew and John, Acts, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians,
Ephesians

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 His Theology
• The Trinity: He concludes that there is only one operation of the three divine persons.
He uses the catchphrase “one essence, three hypostases.” He is above all, the
theologian of the Trinity.
• The Mother of God: He calls St Mary 'Theotokos', a title which originated in Alexandria,
and he addresses her as 'the perpetual virgin.'
• Original sin: All the children of Adam have inherited the original sin from their parents.
• The influence of Origen can be seen in his doctrines of Christology, the Holy Spirit,
and Anthropology
• The Trinity: He concludes that there is only one operation of the three divine persons.
He uses the catchphrase “one essence, three hypostases.” He is above all, the
theologian of the Trinity.
• The Mother of God: He calls St Mary 'Theotokos', a title which originated in Alexandria,
and he addresses her as 'the perpetual virgin.'
• Original sin: All the children of Adam have inherited the original sin from their parents.
• The influence of Origen can be seen in his doctrines of Christology, the Holy Spirit,
and Anthropology

His errors
• He defended the De Principiis of Origen; he was anathematized at the Council of
Constantinople in 553 together with Origen and Evagrius Ponticus for their doctrines of
the pre-existence of the soul and the Apokatastasis (universal salvation).
• The sixth council in 680 stigmatized Didymus as a defender of the abominable doctrine
of Origen, and the seventh repeated this in 787. 40
• As a result of the condemnations almost all of his works have perished

The End of His Life

• Didymus was an ascetic of deep piety, whose knowledge turned very readily into love.
The tone of his controversy is kindly, well-balanced, and calculated to win an opponent
rather than defeat him. His style, however, is spiritless and prolix. Obliged by reason of

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 his blindness always to dictate, he experiences difficulty in condensing and correcting
his thoughts.
• He was undoubtedly a moderate Origenist, but one that retained too well the errors of
his master. This circumstance has left a stain upon his memory, for his name appears
side by side with that of Origen in the condemnation passed upon the latter, in 680, by
the sixth general council. This condemnation is, no doubt, one reason why his works
have been so little preserved.

CYRL OF ALEXANDERIA
Fathers after St. Athanasius
• The immediate successor of St. Athanasius in the See of Alexandria,
o PETER II (373-381), and
o his second successor, TIMOTHY (381-385), left no important works.
o But his third successor, THEOPHILUS (385-412), the uncle of St. Cyril, certainly must
have written a great deal.
• Theophilus was an influential man, endowed with great intelligence and energy,
although unfortunately he made these brilliant qualities subservient to his pride,
cupidity, and malice
• The illegal deposition of St. Chrysostom will always remain a stain upon his memory.
Among his works are mentioned or cited a Paschal canon extending from 380 to 479,
exegetical and oratorical fragments, and especially letters. Some of the latter have been
preserved entire in Greek or in Latin translations by St. Jerome. Such are the Festal
Letters of 401, 402, and 404, written against Origen and Apollinaris, and a Synodal
Letter, written probably in 399 to the bishops of Palestine and the bishops of Cyprus
against Origenism. It is regrettable that St. Jerome should have put such trust in a man
so little worthy of it.
St. Cyril
• Very little is known about Cyril's childhood and youth. He was born at Alexandria,
probably c. 370-375, got his education in its Christian schools, and then, it seems,
withdrew for a time into the desert to live with the monks.
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• St Cyril was born, in Alexandria, between 375 and 380, and received his classical and
theological training besides the instruction he had received from his uncle, Pope
Theophilus.
• He studied the works of Origen, St Athanasius and Didymus the Blind, and read the
works of St Basil the Great and St Gregory of Nazianzus. Also he studied the Hebrew
and Syriac languages, but he wrote almost all his works in Greek, and perhaps little in
Coptic.
• His uncle sent, him to St Macarius‟ Monastery, where he became a disciple of St
Serapion for 5 years.
• His uncle appointed him deacon, then a priest. He accompanied him in the Synod of
the Oak, where St John Chrysostom was condemned in 403.
• He took part in the "Synod of the Oak" with his uncle, in 403, and succeeded him in
412, but not without strong opposition. Those who opposed him probably feared to see
the uncle rule again in the nephew, and a few over-severe measures which Cyril took,
as well as some unfortunate incidents, seemed at first to justify their position and were
exploited against the new patriarch.
• He succeeded Pope Theophilus in October 412.
• He fulfilled his uncle‟s advice by admitting the name of St John Chrysostom to the
diptychs.
• His real work, and the important part he played in the Church, began in 428 or 429,
with the outbreak of Nestorianism.
• Nestorius had scarcely formulated his errors when Cyril refuted them, invited the
heresiarch to retract, and, upon his refusal, appealed to Pope Celestine.
• He presided at the Council of Ephesus, in 431, and brought about the complete triumph
of the cause of orthodoxy, which was his own.
• Yet he was unable at first to overcome the resistance of John of Antioch and the Oriental
bishops. A reconciliation was effected only in 433, but it was an uncertain peace, which
it was necessary to justify and defend against the extremists of both parties.
• Cyril devoted the last years of his life to this work and died June 27, 444.

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• It would be very unfair, in judging St. Cyril, to take into account only the accusations of
his opponents and the hatred to which his conduct gave rise.
• He was by nature domineering and impatient, and the example set by his uncle served
but to develop these traits.
• Experience and divine grace tempered these disagreeable qualities little by little and
helped him to control them. When the peace of the Church required it, he was ready to
sacrifice his personal ideas and to accept even the suspicion of his friends, in order not
to prolong the break with his opponents.
• In penetration and force of mind he ranks first among the Greek Fathers.
• Among the Latin Fathers he is second to none but St. Augustine. He was a thorough
theologian, of great penetration and accuracy of judgment, and with a power of
application that doubled the worth of his natural gifts.
• Thus his influence was great and his authority officially recognized. As a writer he does
not rank so high. Forcible and precise in polemics and purely doctrinal discussions, his
style elsewhere is verbose, affected, and obscure. He was acquainted with neither the
art nor the simple eloquence of good writers; in fact, literary Byzantinism commences
with St. Cyril.
• Stormy relations were established between him and Orestes, the prefect of Alexandria
for his relentless fight against the last remnants of paganism. “The first outbreak of
violence came when a great devotee of [St] Cyril…was caught eavesdropping on the
occasion when the prefect was issuing regulations for the Jewish theatricals on the
Sabbath. Orestes…arrested his [St Cyril‟s] supposed spy, and there and then publicly
tortured him.”
• St Cyril‟s struggle with Alexandria‟s Jews dates back to the first years of his episcopate.
F. Young says, “[St] Cyril complained to the Jewish leaders, who promptly plotted
against the Christians. At night they raised an outcry that a certain Church was on fire,
and then slaughtered all the Christians who turned out to save it. [St] Cyril promptly led
a great army of Christians to the synagogues and drove all Jews out of the city

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• St Cyril is a common father for the universal Church and his Cyrillian formula one
incarnate nature of God the Word (mia physis tou Theou Logou sesarkomene) is the
cornerstone in all ecumenical dialogues on Christology
• The Greek Church regards him as the ultimate authority in all Christological questions.
He was called the „Seal of the Fathers' by Anastasius Sinaita in the 7th century, and
given the title „Doctor ecclesiae‟ in 1882.

Churches About St. Cyril

• A doxology taken from the Greek Orthodox Church
• “Hail Translucent star, defending warrior to the Holy Virgin who shouted out above all
the hierarchs at Ephesus that she was the Mother of God… Rejoice most blessed Cyril,
spring of theology and river of the knowledge of God. Never cease to intercede with
Christ on our behalf” exemplifies the high esteem held by churches other than the
Alexandrian Church.

The Syrian Church

• The Syrian Orthodox Church also venerates St Cyril in her liturgy in the Commemoration
of the Ascetic Fathers and Teachers (Malphone): particularly Mar Qoryllos (Cyril) the
Great, the high tower who is in steadfastness and with all sincerity proved that the Word
of God became man, our Lord Jesus Christ, the incarnate.

Feast Day of St. Cyril

Oriental and Eastern Orthodox
• Coptic Orthodox Church is celebrated on 3 Apip (10 July),
• Greek Orthodox Church on June 9 and again on January 19.

In westerns
• We may place first among the exegetical writings of St. Cyril the 17 books On the
Adoration and Worship of God in Spirit and in Truth, a mystical interpretation of Jewish
laws and institutions. In it he undertakes to prove that these laws and institutions were
abrogated only in the letter and not in the spirit. These general views are completed by

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 13 books of "Elegant Comments" (γλαφυρα) on selected Pentateuchal passages (7
books on Genesis, 3 on Exodus, 1 on Leviticus, 1 on Numbers and 1 on Deuteronomy).

His Works

• The many works of St. Cyril comprise exegetical, apologetical, and dogmatico-polemical
writings, homilies and letters.

1. EXEGETICAL WORKS
• We possess from him a complete commentary on Isaias, in 5 books, and a commentary
on the twelve minor prophets, with fragments on the Books of Kings, the Psalms, the
Proverbs, the Canticle of Canticles, Jeremias, Baruch, Ezechiel, and Daniel. Cyril's
exegesis of these books is allegorical.
• Literal interpretation is given greater prominence in his commentaries on the New
Testament. The principal of these are that on St. John, in twelve books, two of which
are now lost, and a commentary on St. Luke, originally in 156 homilies, almost entirely
preserved in Syriac.
• A few other fragments remain of explanations of St. Matthew, the Epistle to the Romans,
the two Epistles to the Corinthians, and the Epistle to the Hebrews.
• St. Cyril's writings on the Old Testament antedate the year 428, as apparently does also
the commentary on St. John; his other writings are of a later date.

2. APOLOGETICAL WRITINGS.
• The apologetical work of St. Cyril is represented by his treatise Against Julian, a
refutation of the books of the apostate against the Christians.
• The work was composed at the earliest in 433, and must originally have included 30
books; only the first 10 have reached us entire, together with a few Greek and Syriac
fragments of the others. Conforming to Origen's method, Cyril places before his reader
the text of his opponent and follows him step by step with his own arguments.

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3. DOGMATICO-POLEMICAL WRITINGS.
Dogmatic Writings Against the Arians
• Two dogmas in particular claimed the attention of our author, namely the Trinity and
the Incarnation.
• To the first he devoted two great treatises, the "Treasure" (Thesaurus) On the Holy and
Consubstantial Trinity, in 35 propositions, and the Seven Dialogues on the Trinity, which
represent the orthodox Trinitarian teaching of c. 420-425
• Thesaurus de sancta et consubstantiali Trinitate: A Trinitarian summa comprising
the Arian objections, their refutation and the lasting results of the controversies of the
4th century.
• St Cyril, relying particularly on St Athanasius, plainly and succinctly summarizes the
entire anti Arian polemic.

Dogmatic Writings against the Nestorians

• More numerous and important are Cyril's writings on the Incarnation.
• Immediately after the beginning of the Nestorian conflict, Cyril hastened (430) to warn
the imperial court against the error by addressing to it three memorials:
o The Book of the True Faith to the Emperor Theodosius and
o The Two Books of the True Faith to the Queens, i.e., the Emperor's wife and sisters.
• To this same year, 430, belong the five books Against the Blasphemies of Nestorius,
which blasphemies were contained in a collection of sermons published by the
heresiarch.
• Adversus Nestorii blasphemias: The first of the anti-Nestorian treatises is the Five Tomes
against Nestorius composed in the spring of 430.
• De recta fide (On the True Faith): Written shortly after the outbreak of the Nestorian
controversy.
• The twelve "Anathematisms," added by Cyril to his Synodal Letter xvii, were also
defended by him against the attacks which they called forth.
• The Twelve Anathemas or “Chapters” against Nestorius: Were written in the same year
430.

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o St Cyril found it necessary to defend them in three apologies. In the first two he refutes
two attacks which accused him of Apollinarianism and Monophysitism, one by Andrew
of Samosata, the other by Theodoret of Cyrus.
• Thus St Cyril‟s first apology Against the Oriental Bishops answers the charges of
Andrew, who represented the Syrian bishops, and the second, the Letter to Euoptius,
those of Theodoret. The third defense of the anathema is found in the brief commentary
written while St Cyril was in prison at Ephesus in August or September 431
• Apologeticus aimperatorem: This is an apology to the Emperor Theodosius II
immediately after St Cyril‟s release and his return to Alexandria. He justifies therein his
actions, both before and during the Council of Ephesus. In 431 took place the Council
of Ephesus. Warned against Cyril, Theodosius kept him under surveillance.
• The patriarch took advantage of this compulsory rest to compose, at the urgent request
of the Council, a third apology of the "Anathematisms," entitled "Explicatio Duodecim
Capitum Ephesi Pronuntiata," and on his return to Alexandria (Oct. 31, 431) justified his
entire conduct by a memorial to the Emperor, entitled Apologeticus ad Imperatorem
Theodosium (431)
• Against the Apollinarists, of another in 3 books Against Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore
of Mopsuestia and others.
• Photius seems to mention and cite a treatise of St. Cyril's addressed to Theodosius
against the Pelagians. The genuineness of the treatise De Incarnatione Domini and of
the work against the Anthropomorphists is denied with good reason.
• Scholia de incarnation Unigeniti (The Scholia on the Incarnation of the Only-Begotten):
Composed after 431, gives first an explanation of the names of Christ, Emmanuel and
Jesus, and then defines the hypostatic union as opposed to a mixture or external
association only
• Adversus nolentes confilterie sanctam Virginem esse Deiparam (Against Those That Do
Not Acknowledge Mary to Be the Mother of God): It was composed after the Council of
Ephesus.
• Quod unus Sit Christus: This dialogue on the unity of person in Christ is a thorough
refutation of the false doctrine that the Word or Logos of God did not become flesh but

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 was united only to a man, with the result that there is the true and natural Son of God
and „another one,‟ an adopted son of God, who does not share the dignity and honor
of the first

HOMILIES
• Twenty-nine Homiliae Paschales or Festal Letters of St. Cyril have been preserved; they
deal with dogmatic and moral subjects, according to circumstances. Six other homilies
were delivered by him at Ephesus on the occasion of the Council of 431, and a seventh
at Alexandria, in 433, when a reconciliation was effected with John of Antioch. Other
discourses ascribed to him are either spurious or doubtful.
• St Cyril continued the custom of the popes of Alexandria of sending every year to all the
churches of Egypt an announcement in the form of a pastoral epistle on the date of the
Feast of the Resurrection and the preceding fast.

LETTERS
• The letters of St. Cyril are even more important than his homilies. The edition of his
works gives 88, of which 17 are addressed to him. Most of them were written after the
year 428.
• •About 15 are dogmatical letters, in which the author defines, explains, and defends his
doctrine, and about 50 others are valuable for the history of the Nestorian controversy
and the Council of Ephesus. A small number deal with disciplinary questions. A Paschal
table, drawn up by St. Cyril between 412 and 417 and extending from 403 to 512, is
now lost; only its letter of envoy, addressed to the Emperor Theodosius II, is preserved
in Armenian.
• St Cyril‟s large correspondence is extremely important for the history of the relationship
between the Church and the Empire.

St Cyril and Nestorianism

• Nestorius publicly drew a plain distinction between the man Jesus, born of Mary, and
the Son of God who dwelt in Him. There were two distinct persons in Christ, the Son of
Mary and the Son of God, who were united not hypostatically but only morally.

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• Christ should be called not God but “God-bearer (Theophoron).” Subsequently, Mary
was not the mother of God, but of the man Jesus in whom the Godhead dwelt
• Nestorius and his followers criticized the wise men for their kneeling to the Child Jesus,
and preached that the divinity was separated from the humanity at the moment of
Crucifixion.
• •St Cyril sent letters to Nestorius in which he explains the nature of Christ, as the
Incarnate Son of God, one Person, and declared St Mary‟s right to be called
“Theotokos.” Nestorius said, “that which was formed in the womb of Mary is not God
Himself…but because God dwells in Him whom He has assumed, therefore also He who
is assumed is called God because of Him who assumes Him. It is not God who has
suffered, but God was conjoined with the crucified flesh…We will therefore call the holy
virgin Theodokos [the vessel of God] but not Theotokos [God bearer].
• •Afterwards a local council was held in Alexandria, and a synodical letter was sent to
Nestorius, clarifying the same doctrines mentioned in St Cyril‟s letters, and concluding
with “The Twelve Articles or Anathemas.”
• In early 430 he addressed a second dogmatic epistle to Nestorius in which he elucidated
the mystery of the Incarnation on the basis of tradition and the inalterable faith of the
Church. This epistle was subsequently approved at the Council of Ephesus.
• Finally, St Cyril released his Five Tomes Against Nestorius, which he composed in the
spring of 430
o On 22 June, 431, the Third Ecumenical Council was held at Ephesus, over which St Cyril
presided.
• Nestorius was deposed from his see and excommunicated, his doctrines were
condemned, the creed of Nicaea was reaffirmed, and formal approval was given to the
title “Theotokos.”
• The council discussed Pelagianism which holds that man can take the initial steps
towards salvation through his own efforts, independent of divine grace. The Antiochian
side attacked the decisions of the third Ecumenical Council in Ephesus in the year 431.
• John bishop of Antioch was delayed in attending on the date when the council convened.
John came into the neighbourhood of Ephesus, and sent to St Cyril a letter, which is still

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 extant, full of friendliness, setting forth the details of their delay but they were soon to
arrive within five or six days. In spite of this St Cyril waited another 16 days and then
two metropolitans of the patriarchate of Antioch came and repeatedly declared that
“John had bid them say that they were no longer to defer the opening of the Synod on
his account, but, in case it should be necessary for him to delay longer, they were to do
what was to be done.
• When John of Antioch arrived, joined by Theodoret of Cyrus and 43 delegates, a rival
meeting was held in which St Cyril and Memnon of Ephesus were deposed.
• St Cyril was jailed for two months and was then permitted to return to his see, but
Nestorius was exiled to Petra in Arabia and then to the deserts of Egypt where he died
ca. 449
• A reconciliation between John and St Cyril was finally effected in 433, but the dispute
between the Antiochian and the Alexandrian theology was temporarily stopped to
reappear in an extreme degree in the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
• The emperor himself exerted his influence to re-establish peace between St Cyril and
John of Antioch, for each represented a different theological point of view. John sent
Paul of Emesa to Alexandria with credentials for St Cyril, and a profession of faith that
was to serve as the basis of an agreement. St Cyril accepted it and sent back to Antioch
his famous letter “Laetentur caeli,” i.e. the “Formulary of Reunion of 433.”
• The problem was externally solved, but the “Reunion” itself was being taken in a
different way by the Alexandrian and the Antiochian sides

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