Christianity and Paganism

Pythagoreanism inuenced Christianity.

as pagans joined the early church.[1] The Pagan vernal

equinox celebration was 'Christianized'[1] and then referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary
or Annunciation of the Lord and celebrated as the Feast
of the Annunciation. The Germanic Pagan solstice celebrations (Midsummer festivals) are also sometimes referred to by Neopagans and others as Litha, stemming
from Bede's De temporum ratione and the re festival or
Litha was a tradition for many pagans. This pagan holiday
was basically brought in and given a name change, and
in Christianity was then associated with the nativity of
John the Baptist, which now is observed on the same day,
June 24, in the Catholic, Orthodox and some Protestant
churches. It is six months before Christmas because Luke
1:26 and Luke 1.36 imply that John the Baptist was born
six months earlier than Jesus, although the Bible does not
say at which time of the year this happened.[2]

Part of seventh century casket, depicting the pan-Germanic legend of Weyland Smith, which was apparently also a part of
Anglo-Saxon pagan mythology.

Early Christianity developed in the Roman Empire,

where many religions were practiced that are, for lack
of a better term, labeled paganism. Paganism is commonly used to refer to various, largely unconnected religions from the time period, such as the Greco-Roman religions of the Roman Empire, including the Roman imperial cult, the various mystery religions, monotheistic religions such as Neoplatonism and Gnosticism, and more localized ethnic religions practiced both inside and outside
the Empire. During the Middle Ages, the term was also
adapted to refer to religions practiced outside the former
Roman Empire, such as Germanic paganism and Slavic
paganism.

2 Inuence on early Christian theology

From the point of view of the early Christians these religions all qualied as ethnic (or gentile, ethnikos, gentilis,
the term translating goyim, later rendered as paganus) in
contrast with Second Temple Judaism.

See also: Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity and

Hellenic philosophy and Christianity

Pagan inuences on Christianity

Christianity originated in the Roman province of Judaea,
a predominantly Jewish society, with traditional philosophies distinct from the Greek thought which was dominant in the Roman Empire at the time. The conict
between the two modes of thought is recorded in the
Christian scriptures, in Pauls encounters with Epicurean
and Stoic philosophers mentioned in Acts,[3] his diatribe
against Greek philosophy in 1st Corinthians,[4] and his
warning against vain philosophy in Colossians 2:8.[5]

Further information: Hellenic philosophy and Christianity

In the course of the Christianisation of Europe in the
Early Middle Ages, the Christian churches adopted many
elements of national cult and folk religion,[1] resulting in national churches like Latin, Germanic, Russian,
Armenian, Greek, and so on. Some Pagan ceremonies
were brought in and the festivals became modern holidays
1

2
One early Christian writer of the 2nd and early 3rd century, Clement of Alexandria, demonstrated the assimilation of Greek thought in writing: Philosophy has been
given to the Greeks as their own kind of Covenant, their
foundation for the philosophy of Christ... the philosophy
of the Greeks... contains the basic elements of that genuine and perfect knowledge which is higher than human...
even upon those spiritual objects.[6]
Augustine of Hippo, who ultimately systematized
Christian philosophy, wrote in the late 4th and early 5th
century: But when I read those books of the Platonists
I was taught by them to seek incorporeal truth, so I saw
your 'invisible things, understood by the things that are
made'.[7]

ANTIQUITY

to t contemporary heresies with those combated by the

church fathers. The Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars
were certainly dualists and felt that the world was the
work of a demiurge of Satanic origin. Whether this was
due to inuence from Manichaeism or another strand of
Gnosticism is impossible to determine. Only a minority of Cathars held that The Evil God (or principle) was
as powerful as The Good God (also called a principle)
as Mani did, a belief also known as absolute dualism.
In the case of the Cathars, it seems they adopted the
Manichaean principles of church organization, but none
of its religious cosmology. Priscillian and his followers
apparently tried to absorb what they thought was the valuable part of Manichaeaism into Christianity.

3 Antiquity
Further information: Persecution of religion in ancient
Rome

3.1 Origins of Christianity

St. Augustine was originally a Manichaean.

When Christians rst encountered Manichaeism, it

seemed to them to be a heresy, as it had originated in a
heavily Gnostic area of the Persian empire. Augustine
of Hippo (354430) converted to Christianity from
Manichaeism. Until the 20th century, most of the Western worlds concept of Manichaeism came through Augustines negative polemics against it. According to his
Confessions, after eight or nine years of adhering to the
Manichaean faith (as a member of the Manichaean group
of Hearers), he became a Christian and a potent adversary of Manichaeism. It is speculated by some modern
scholars (Alfred Adam, for example), that Manichaean
ways of thinking had an inuence on the development of St. Clement I was an Apostolic Father.
some of Augustines Christian ideas, such as the nature of
good and evil, the idea of Hell, the separation of groups Main article: Origins of Christianity
into Elect, Hearers, and Sinners, the hostility to the esh
and sexual activity, and so on.
Early Christianity arose as a movement within Second
How much long term inuence the Manichaeans actually Temple Judaism, following the teachings of Jesus of
had on Christianity is still being debated. It has been Nazareth. With a missionary commitment to both Jews
suggested that the Bogomils, Paulicians, and the Cathars and Gentiles (non-Jews), Christianity rapidly spread into
were deeply inuenced by Manichaeism. However, the the greater Roman empire and beyond. Here, ChristianBogomils and Cathars, in particular, left few records of ity came into contact with the dominant Pagan religions.
their rituals or doctrines, and the link between them and By the 2nd century, many Christians were converts from
Manichaeans is unclear. Regardless of its historical ve- Paganism. These conicts are recorded in the works of
racity the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them the early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr as well as
by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried hostile reports by writers including Tacitus and Suetonius.

3.2

3.2

Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire

Persecution of early Christians in the alent to a testimonial of allegiance to the Emperor and
the established order. Decius authorized roving commisRoman Empire

sions visiting the cities and villages to supervise the exeMain article: Persecution of early Christians in the cution of the sacrices and to deliver written certicates
to all citizens who performed them. Christians were ofRoman Empire
ten given opportunities to avoid further punishment by
publicly oering sacrices or burning incense to Roman
Christianity was persecuted by Roman imperial authori- gods. Those who refused were charged with impiety and
ties early on in its history within the greater empire.
punished by arrest, imprisonment, torture, and/or executions. Christians ed to safe havens in the countryside
and some purchased their certicates, called libelli. Sev3.2.1 Persecution under Nero, 6468 AD
eral councils held at Carthage debated the extent to which
the community should accept these lapsed Christians.
Main article: Great Fire of Rome
Some early Christians sought out and welcomed
martyrdom. Roman authorities tried hard to avoid
The rst documented case of imperially-supervised perChristians because they goaded, chided, belittled and
secution of the Christians in the Roman Empire begins
insulted the crowds until they demanded their death.
with Nero (3768). In 64 AD, a great re broke out in
According to Droge and Tabor, in 185 the proconsul
Rome, destroying portions of the city and economically
of Asia, Arrius Antoninus, was approached by a group
devastating the Roman population. Nero himself was susof Christians demanding to be executed. The proconsul
[8]
pected as the arsonist by Suetonius, claiming he played
obliged some of them and then sent the rest away, saying
the lyre and sang the 'Sack of Ilium' during the res. In
that if they wanted to kill themselves there was plenty
his Annals, Tacitus (who claimed Nero was in Antium
of rope available or clis they could jump o.[12] Such
at the time of the res outbreak), stated that to get rid
seeking after death is found in Tertullian's Scorpiace or in
of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inicted the
the letters of Saint Ignatius of Antioch but was certainly
most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abomnot the only view of martyrdom in the Christian church.
[9]
inations, called Christians [or Chrestians ] by the popBoth Polycarp and Cyprian, bishops in Smyrna and
ulace (Tacit. Annals XV, see Tacitus on Jesus). SuetoCarthage respectively, attempted to avoid martyrdom.
nius, later to the period, does not mention any persecution after the re, but in a previous paragraph unrelated
to the re, mentions punishments inicted on Christians, 3.2.3 The Diocletianic Persecution
dened as men following a new and malec superstition.
Suetonius however does not specify the reasons for the Main article: Diocletian Persecution
punishment, he just listed the fact together with other
The persecutions culminated with Diocletian and
abuses put down by Nero.[10]
3.2.2

Persecution from the 2nd century to Constantine

By the mid-2nd century, mobs could be found willing to

throw stones at Christians, and they might be mobilized
by rival sects. The Persecution in Lyon was preceded by
mob violence, including assaults, robberies and stonings
(Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.1.7).
Further state persecutions were desultory until the 3rd
century, though Tertullian's Apologeticus of 197 was
ostensibly written in defense of persecuted Christians
and addressed to Roman governors.[11] The Edict of
Septimius Severus familiar in Christian history is doubted
by some secular historians to have existed outside Christian martyrology.

The Christian Martyrs Last Prayer, by Jean-Lon Grme

(1883).

Galerius at the end of the third and beginning of the 4th

century. The Great Persecution is considered the largest.
Beginning with a series of four edicts banning Christian practices and ordering the imprisonment of Christian clergy, the persecution intensied until all Christians
in the empire were commanded to sacrice to the gods or
face immediate execution.

The rst documentable Empire-wide persecution took

place under Maximinus Thrax, though only the clergy
were sought out. It was not until Decius during the midcentury that a persecution of Christian laity across the
Empire took place. Christian sources aver that a decree This persecution lasted until Constantine I, along with
was issued requiring public sacrice, a formality equiv- Licinius, legalized Christianity in 313. It was not un-

4 CHRISTIANIZATION DURING THE EUROPEAN MIDDLE AGES

by Christians against major pagan sites.[14] Pagans openly

voiced their resentment in historical works, such as the
writings of Eunapius and Olympiodorus; some writers
blamed the Christian hegemony for the 410 Sack of
Rome. Christians destroyed almost all such political
The New Catholic Encyclopedia states that Ancient, me- literature and threatened to cut o the hands of any
dared to make new copies of the oending
dieval and early modern hagiographers were inclined to copyist who
[21][22]
writings.
exaggerate the number of martyrs. Since the title of martyr is the highest title to which a Christian can aspire, this In the year 416, under Theodosius II, a law was passed to
tendency is natural. Estimates of Christians killed for ban Pagans from public employment. All this was done
religious reasons before the year 313 vary greatly, de- to coerce Pagans to convert to Christianity.
pending on the scholar quoted, from a high of almost
1,000,000 to a low of 100,000.
til Theodosius I in the later 4th century that Christianity
would become the State church of the Roman Empire.
Between these two events Julian II temporarily restored
the traditional Roman religion and established broad religious tolerance renewing Pagan and Christian hostilities.

4 Christianization during the Eu3.3 Prohibition and persecution of Paganropean Middle Ages
ism in the Roman Empire
Further information: Christianization of the Germanic
Main article: Persecution of pagans in the late Roman peoples
Empire
The Edict of Milan of 313 nally legalized Christianity,
with it gaining governmental privileges and a degree of
ocial approval under Constantine, who granted privileges such as tax exemptions to Christian clergy.[13] In
the period of 313 to 391, both paganism and Christianity
were legal religions, with their respective adherents vying for power in the Roman Empire. This period of transition is also known as the Constantinian shift. In 380,
Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church
of the Roman Empire. Paganism was tolerated for another 12 years, until 392, when Theodosius passed legislation prohibiting all pagan worship.Pagan religions from
this point were increasingly persecuted, a process which
lasted throughout the 5th century. The closing of the
Neoplatonic Academy by decree of Justinian I in 529
marks a conventional end point of both classical paganism and Late Antiquity, after which most of its scholars
ed to more tolerant Sassanid Persia.

4.1 Saxons
Main article: Saxon wars

During the Saxon Wars, the Christian Frankish king

Charlemagne waged war on the pagan Saxons for over 20
years, seeking to Christianize and rule the Saxons. During this period, the Saxons repeatedly refused Christianization and the rule of Charlemagne, and therefore rebelled frequently. In the year 782 of this period, Charlemagne is recorded as having massacred 4,500 rebel Saxon
prisoners in Verden (the Massacre of Verden), and imposing legislation upon the subjected Saxons that including the penalty of death for refusing conversion to Christianity or for aiding pagans who did the same (such as
the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae). While rebellions
continued to take place even after his death (such as that
Lay Christians took advantage of these new anti-pagan of the Stellinga), Charlemagne succeeded in laying the
laws by destroying and plundering the temples [14] groundwork for the Christianization of the Saxons, yet
Theologians and prominent ecclesiastics soon followed. was unable to reach the Scandinavians, who remained paOne such example is St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. gan.
When Gratian became Roman emperor in 375, Ambrose,
who was one of his closest educators, persuaded him to
4.2 The Anglo-Saxon conversion
further suppress paganism. The emperor, on Ambroses
advice, conscated the property of the pagan temples; The Saxons were one of the last groups to be converted by
seized the properties of the Vestal Virgins and pagan Christian missionaries and it was mainly under the threat
priests, and removed the statue of the Goddess of Vic- of death by Charlemagne and with some inclusions of
tory from the Roman Senate.[15]
pagan culture and concessions on the part of the ChrisWhen Gratian delegated the government of the eastern half of the Roman Empire to Theodosius the
Great in 379, the situation became worse for the Pagans. Theodosius prohibited all forms of Pagan worship and allowed the temples to be robbed, plundered,
and ruthlessly destroyed by monks and other enterprising Christians[16][17][18][19][20] and participated in actions

tian missionaries. The Saxon conversion was so dicult for a number of reasons including their distance from
Rome and lack of centralized polity until much later than
most other peoples; but also, their pagan beliefs were so
strongly tied into the culture in every way it made the conversion much rocky transition. Their sophisticated theology was a bulwark against an immediate and complete

5
conversion to Christianity.[23] So the new theology was returned to its native paganism.
translated into terms of Northern life.
The conversion of thelberht, king of Kent is the rst
account of any Christian bretwalda conversion and is told
by the Venerable Bede in his histories of the conversion
of England. In 582 Pope Gregory sent Augustine and 40
companions from Rome to missionize among the AngloSaxons. They had, by order of the blessed Pope Gregory, brought interpreters of the nation of the Franks,
and sending to thelberht, signied that they were come
from Rome, and brought a joyful message, which most
undoubtedly assured to all that took advantage of it everlasting joys in heaven, and a kingdom that would never
end with the living and true God.[24] thelberht was not
unfamiliar with Christianity because he had a Christian
wife, and Bede says that there was even a church dedicated to St. Martin nearby. thelberht was converted
eventually and Augustine remained in Canterbury.[25]
The Anglo-Saxon conversion in particular was a gradual process that necessarily included many compromises
and syncretism. A famous letter from Pope Gregory to
Mellitus in June 601, for example, is quoted encouraging the appropriation of pagan temples and festivals for
Christian use.

5 See also
Christian debate on persecution and toleration
Christian views on astrology
Christianity and Neopaganism
Christianity and other religions
Christ myth theory
Constantine I and Christianity
Germanic Christianity
History of early Christianity
Jesus Christ in comparative mythology
Neoplatonism and Christianity
Panbabylonism
Persecution of Christians
Sol invictus

The temples of the idols in that nation

ought not to be destroyed; but let the idols
that are in them be destroyed; let holy water
be made and sprinkled in the said temples,
let altars be erected, and relics placed. For if
those temples are well built, it is requisite that
they be converted from the worship of devils
to the service of the true God .... And because
they have been used to slaughter many oxen
in the sacrices to devils, some solemnity
must be exchanged for them on this account
.... but kill cattle to the praise of God .... For
there is no doubt that it is impossible to eace
everything at once from their obdurate minds;
because he who endeavours to ascend to the
highest place, rises by degrees or steps, and
not by leaps.
Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (1.30)

Virtuous pagan
Witch-cult hypothesis

6 References
[1] G. Barna and F. Viola (2008), Pagan Christianity?: Exploring the Roots of Our Church Practices, BarnaBooks.
[2] http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/
was-jesus-born-on-december-25-faq.htm
[3] Acts 17:1833 Passage Lookup New International
Version. BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
[4] 1 Corinthians 1:2025; Passage Lookup New International Version. BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 200911-09.
[5] Colossians 2:8; Passage Lookup New International
Version. BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
[6] Clement of Alexandria. Miscellanies 6. 8

4.3

Scandinavia

Further information: Christianization of Scandinavia

Olaf I of Norway, during his attempt to Christianize
Norway during the Viking Age, had those under his rule
that practiced their indigenous Norse Paganism and refused to Christianize tortured, maimed or executed, including seidmen, who were tied up and thrown to a skerry
at low tide to slowly drown. After Olaf Is death, Norway

[7] Augustine of Hippo. Confessions 7. 20

[8] Nero Ch 38
[9] In the earliest extant manuscript, the second Medicean,
the e in Chrestianos, Chrestians, has been changed into
an i; cf. Gerd Theien, Annette Merz, Der historische Jesus: ein Lehrbuch, 2001, p. 89. The reading Christianos,
Christians, is therefore doubtful. On the other hand, Suetonius (Claudius 25) uses the same 'e' transliteration of the
Greek Krystos, meaning the anointed one, and associates
it with a troublemaker among the Jews

[10] Nero 16

7 FURTHER READING

7 Further reading

[11] Tertullians readership was more likely to have been Christians, whose faith was reinforced by Tertullians defenses
of faith against rationalizations.

Samuel Angus, The Mystery Religions and Christianity, 1966. University Books, New York, NY. 359
pp.

[12] Droge, A.J. and Tabor, J.D. (1992:136) A Noble Death:

Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity HarperSanFrancisco. Misquoted as Groge and Tabor (1992:136) by C. Douzinas in Closs Stephens, A. and
Vaughan-Williams, N. (2009:198) Terrorism and the Politics of Response Routledge, Oxon and New York.

Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians: In the

Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD
to the Conversion of Constantine (London: Viking,
1986, ISBN 978-0-670-80848-9; Penguin Books
Ltd new edition, 2006, ISBN 978-0-14-102295-6)

[13] R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds

(New York: Houghton Miin Company, 2004) pp. 55
56.
[14] Ramsay McMullan (1984) Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100400, Yale University Press, p.90.
[15] Gratian, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909
[16] Grindle, Gilbert (1892) The Destruction of Paganism in
the Roman Empire, pp.2930. Quote summary: For
example, Theodosius ordered Cynegius (Zosimus 4.37),
the praetorian prefect of the East, to permanently close
down the temples and forbade the worship of the deities
throughout Egypt and the East. Most of the destruction
was perpetrated by Christian monks and bishops,
[17] Life of St. Martin
[18] Gibbon, Edward The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch28
[19] R. MacMullen, Christianizing The Roman Empire
A.D.100400, Yale University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-30003642-6
[20] Catholic Encyclopedia (1912) article on Theophilus, New
Advent Web Site.
[21] MacMullen, Ramsay (1997) Christianity & Paganism in
the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Yale University Press, p.4
quote: non Christian writings came in for this same treatment, that is destruction in great bonres at the center of
the town square. Copyists were discouraged from replacing them by the threat of having their hands cut o
[22] Kirsch, R. (1997) God Against the Gods, p.279, Viking
and Compass
[23] Chaney, William. Paganism to Christianity in AngloSaxon England. The Harvard Theological Review 53
(1960): 197217.
[24] Bedes Ecclesiastical History of England. Charleston:
BiblioBazaar, 2007
[25] Fletcher, Richard. The Barbarian Conversion : From Paganism to Christianity. New York: University of California P, 1999.

Gordon Laing, The Church Fathers and the Oriental

Cults, The Classical Journal (1918).
Ramsay MacMullen and Robin Lane (ed.), Paganism and Christianity 100425 C.E.:A Sourcebook.
(A primary sourcebook for interaction between Pagans and Christians from the 2nd century to 425 CE)
Lutz E. von Padberg Die Christianisierung Europas
im Mittelalter, 1998. Reclam ISBN 3-15-017015-X
(German) (History textbooks on the Christianization
of Europe are also easily available in English.)
Stanley E. Porter, Stephen J. Bedard, Unmasking the
Pagan Christ, 2006. Clements Publishing. 172 pp.
ISBN 1-894667-71-9
J. M. Robertson, Pagan Christs, 1966. Dorset Press,
New York, NY. 171 pp. ISBN 0-8216-0136-9

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