Food Research 5 (1) : 140 - 148 (February 2021)

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Spray drying conditions for protein hydrolysate of crocodile meat

1,2
Hong, P.V.C., 3Tan, H.D., 4Thanh, P.T.T., 5Cang, M.H., 1,2Don, D.L. and 3,*Thien, L.T.
1
Research Institute for Biotechnology and Environment, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
2
Biotechnology Department, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
3
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
4
School of Biotechnology, International University, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
5
Department of Chemical Engineering and Processing, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Article history:
Abstract
Received: 18 July 2020
Received in revised form: 12
August 2020
The objective of this study is to screen the effects of several parameters (i.e., drying aid
Accepted: 8 September 2020 concentration, inlet air temperatures, and feed flow rates) on the spray drying process of
Available Online: 6 crocodile meat protein hydrolysate. The results showed that the experimental parameters
December 2020 exhibited significant effects on recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins and the
Keywords:
obtained powder properties (total protein content, moisture content and antioxidant
Crocodile meat, capacity). Besides, inlet air temperature and drying aid concentration also significantly
Protein hydrolysate, impacted response variables. The conditions for maximum recovery of dry matter,
Spray drying, maximum recovery of proteins, and minimum moisture content of the spray-dried powder
Surface response,
Antioxidant activity were found at maltodextrin concentration of 19.47% (w/w), inlet air temperature of
142.71oC, and input feed flow rate of 10 mL/min. These conditions correspond to the
DOI: recovery of dry matter of 69.51%, protein recovery yield of 76.94%, powder humidity of
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.5(1).367
5.33%, and powder antioxidant activity of 1.87 mg/mL.

1. Introduction improve bioactivities and bioavailability of protein

through hydrolysis. To date, many procedures for
Crocodiles are considered to be more advanced than processing crocodile meat protein hydrolysate has been
other reptiles. However, increased crocodile quantity developed and reported in the literature. Furthermore,
requires further diversification of crocodile-based biologically bioactive peptides provide several benefits
products in order to maximize the profit of crocodile for physiological functions of organisms in the human
farming. Currently, crocodile meat, which has certain body such as antihypertensive, immunomodulation,
economical potential, is considered as a by-product and antithrombotic, antioxidative, anticancer and
marketed at a lower price compared to other kinds of antimicrobial activities (Clare et al., 2000). The
meat. According to Beilken et al. (2007), crocodile meat antioxidant activity of peptides is first released in 1960
is rich in protein, low in fat, and is nutritionally balanced by Marcuse and until now, numbers of studies have been
which is suitable for human consumption. For example, carried out to clarify its antioxidant properties (Gómez-
it has been reported that Nile crocodile meat constitutes Guillén et al., 2010). According to current knowledge, it
22% of proteins (220.8 g/kg) and only 6% of fat is known that peptides are scavengers of free radicals
(Hoffman et al., 2000). Besides, crocodile meat is and has the ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation and
inexpensive and has high biological value, which is chelate transition metal ions (Suetsuna et al., 2000;
mostly contributed by the essential amino acids existing Young et al., 2013). The antioxidant activity is affected
in the meat proteins, making the meat promising as an by several factors such as type of amino acids, their
ingredient for the manufacture of supplement foods numbers in the peptide, as well as the arrangement of
(Hoffman et al., 2000). amino acid sequences (Suetsuna et al., 2000). Based on
Since the essential amino acids, abundantly present previous studies Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Methionine,
in crocodile meat protein, are not universally digestible Cystine, Lysine and Histidine contribute to high
and absorbable (Kurozawa et al., 2011), it is necessary to antioxidant activity (Wang and De Mejia, 2005).

*Corresponding author. eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources
Email: le.trungthien@hcmuaf.edu.vn
 141 Hong et al. / Food Research 5 (1) (2021) 140 - 148

Processing treatments (e.g., heating) may influence the hydrolysates (Kurozawa et al., 2011). The feed flow
antioxidant capacity of food substances. rates also have certain influences on spray drying process
since protein hydrolysates are high hygroscopicity
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Although protein hydrolysates have some certain (Samborska et al., 2015). To improve the recovery of
potential, the preservation is quite difficult due to its high process and quality of the obtained powder for a new
protein and moisture content (Kurozawa et al., 2011). spray drying application, the effects of the
This suggests the dehydration approach since the powder aforementioned factors should be considered.
form is easier for preservation and more applicable.
Based on the properties of protein hydrolysates, two Therefore, this study is designed to study the effects
techniques are suitable to maintain the nutritional values of spray drying parameters on spray drying of protein
of the obtained powder product, namely freeze-drying hydrolysate of crocodile meat.
and spray drying. Among the two methods, spray drying
is preferred due to its superior cost-efficiency. 2. Materials and methods
Spray drying is a well-established and widely used 2.1 Materials
technique for conversion of liquid food products, Crocodile meat, the main material of this study, was
including solution and suspension, into solid and semi- obtained from Hoa Ca Crocodile Company (District 12,
solid particles (Kurozawa et al., 2011). The technique Ho Chi Minh City). Firstly, skin, grease, and bone were
comprises three main stages including (1) formation of removed. Then, the lean meat was washed carefully with
tiny droplets through the atomizing system, (2) drying of tap water to remove dirt and other contaminations. After
these droplets by hot air, (3) moving of the obtained that, the lean meat was ground, mixed and divided into 1
powder into processing recovery system (Jayasundera et kg plastic bags for storage at -20oC.
al., 2011).
2.2 Chemicals and other materials
Under the optimal conditions, spray drying is
considered as a high-efficiency process (Shabde and Maltodextrin (MD, DE=12) with a moisture content
Hoo, 2008). It is because spray drying operation could of 6.38% was purchased from Roquette Singapore Pte.
produce high-quality products that maintain almost full Ltd. Sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid (98%, Merck –
nutritional values due to the short exposure to high Germany, hydrochloric acid (37%, Merck – Germany),
temperatures. Besides, the powder products have low boric acid, copper sulfate and indicator dye – methyl red
water activity resulting in easier storage, transportation using for protein determination that was purchased from
and formulation (Jittanit et al., 2010). However, the Chinese chemicals. 2, 2’-azino-bis (3-
spray-drying operation is affected by numerous factors ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) (Sigma -
such as inlet air temperatures, feed flow rates, Aldrich, Germany), potassium persulfate, phosphate, and
compressed air pressures, types and concentration of ascorbic acid used for determination of antioxidant
carrier agents, and types of the atomizer (Obón et al., capacity were purchased from Merck Co. Ltd
2009). For instances, high inlet air temperatures impact (Germany).
total protein content and antioxidant capacity of the
2.3 Preparation of crocodile meat protein hydrolysate
protein hydrolysate powder. Nevertheless, conversion of
protein hydrolysate into powder form by spray drying The protein hydrolysis was carried out based on a
may have several problems of stickiness and high previously developed procedure (unpublished results).
hygroscopicity (Yousefi et al., 2011). This is due to a Firstly, ground crocodile meat was defrosted at room
wide range of low molecular peptides contained in temperature. Then, the meat was mixed with distilled
protein hydrolysates that results in low glass transition water (ratio of water: meat = 2:1), and the mixture was
temperature. The addition of carrier agents such as blended well by a hand blender. After that, the mixture
maltodextrin or gum Arabic, due to the presence of high was heated at 90-95oC for 15 mins to inactivate activities
molecular compounds contained within (Adhikari et al., of crocodile meat enzymes. Before the hydrolysis
2007), can reduce stickiness and hygroscopicity of the enzymes neutral (SEB, India) and Alcalase®
protein hydrolysate during spray drying (Kurozawa et (Novozymes, Denmark)) were added, the pH of the
al., 2011). Thus, the addition of the carrier agent’s help mixture was adjusted to 7.0 by Sodium hydroxide 1 N in
maintains the glassy state of protein hydrolysate during order to form a favorable medium for enzymatic activity.
drying (Bhandari et al., 1997). Besides, added carrier The total time of hydrolysis was 8 hrs. After that, the
agents also prevent the obtained powder from caking reaction was stopped by heating the solution at 85oC for
during storage (Adhikari et al., 2007). Maltodextrin was 20 mins. Then, the protein hydrolysate was filtered with
used successfully in spray drying chicken protein Whatman filter paper that has an aperture size of 11 µm.

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 Hong et al. / Food Research 5 (1) (2021) 140 - 148 142

After removing sediment, total dry matter content of the levels and spray drying parameters were obtained.
protein hydrolysate was around 5.5%. The protein
hydrolysate was concentrated to 10% of total dry matter The range and center point values of two

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content using vacuum evaporation at 80oC. After that, independent variables were based on the results of
the protein hydrolysate was divided into containers, preliminary experiments. Five levels (-α, -1, 0, 1, α) were
stored at -20oC, and thawed each time of use according explored for both, corresponding to inlet air temperature
to the quantity required. The total protein content of the of 133, 134, 140, 135 and 147oC and maltodextrin
ready-to-use hydrolysate for spray drying was around concentration of 18.6, 19, 20, 21 and 21,4% (w/w),
9.12±0.5%. respectively.

2.4 Experimental design The experimental data were fitted into a second-
order model to obtain regression coefficients. The
2.4.1 Effects of spray drying parameters on the
general second-order model utilized in the response
recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins, and the
surface analysis as follows:
obtained powder properties.
Y=ao + a1x1 + a2x2 + b1x1x2 + c1x12 + c2x22 (1)
Three preliminary experiments were carried out
separately to screen the effects of maltodextrin With ao, a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are coefficients of the
concentrations (0, 10, 20, 30, 40%, w/w), inlet air regression. x1, x2 are the coded variables in which x1 was
temperature (130, 140, 150, 160oC) and feed flow rate inlet air temperatures and x2 was maltodextrin
(5, 10, 15, 20 mL/min). The concentration of the carrier concentrations. Optimized conditions were defined as the
agent was calculated by the weight of the carrier agent points where recovery of dry matter and recovery of
and weight of feed solution. The mixture was stirred well proteins were maximized, or moisture content of the
by magnetic stirring until complete dissolution. Then, the powder was minimized.
mixture was homogenized by an ultraturax homogenizer
2.5 Analysis
(IKA T18 digital ultraturax, Germany) at 11,000 rpm for
5 mins. The homogenized mixture was defoamed by 2.5.1 Determination of moisture content and dry
using an ultrasonic bath (Elma, Schmidbaer GmbH, matter content
Germany). Spray drying was performed using a The total dry matter and moisture content were
laboratory-scale spray dryer (Lab Plant SD-Basic, Lab determined by oven method AOAC Method 2001-12 in
Plant UK Ltd., UK). The mixture (at 25oC) was fed into which total dry matter was the remained residue after
the spray drying chamber through a peristaltic pump. being evaporated by oven drying. The samples were
The spraying was supported by a compressed air pump placed in aluminum dishes and put into the oven.
set at 0.2 MPa. Samples were dried at 105oC until their weights
remained constant.
2.4.2 Optimization of inlet air temperatures and
maltodextrin concentrations for optimal recovery of 2.5.2 Determination of total protein content
dry matter, recovery of proteins and moisture
The total protein content of the obtained powder was
content of the obtained powder
determined by Kjeldahl method (Tonon et al., 2008)
The experiment was designed using surface response which bases on the total nitrogen content of the sample.
methodology (RSM) with a central composite design The process was divided into three stages: digestion,
(CCD). Two variables (parameters), namely inlet air distillation, and titration. First, samples were placed into
temperatures and added maltodextrin concentrations the block digester in which each tube contained around
were considered. The ranges of values for these two 0.5 g of the sample, 15 mL of sulfuric acid and copper
parameters were taken based on the results of previous sulfate. After digestion, the nitrogen inside samples was
single factor experiments. The feed flow rate was fixed converted into ammonium and the initial very dark
at 10 mL/min and compressed air pressure at 0.2 MPa. colored medium has become clear and blue colored.
The responses were the recovery of dry matter, recovery During distillation, the solution was distilled with a small
of proteins, and moisture content of the obtained powder. quantity of sodium hydroxide, which transfers the
ammonium salt to ammonia. The end of the condenser
Total number experimental units were calculated was dipped into 50 mL boric acid. The mixture of
with the formula: N = 2k + 2k + n (k is the factor of the ammonia and acid boric was titrated with hydrochloric
experimental unit and n is the number of experimental acid in the titration stage.
units at central level). In this experiment, k=2 and n=5.
Hence, the total number of experimental units was 13. The protein content was calculated with the formula:
After using JMP to design the experiment, the code P(%) = ((1.4 x (V-Vo) x N x f)/M (2)

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 143 Hong et al. / Food Research 5 (1) (2021) 140 - 148

Where P is the protein content in the sample (%); M using the JMP 9.0.2 software. The model adequacy was
is the weight of the sample (g); V is the volume of evaluated through the coefficient of determination (R2).
hydrochloric acid for titration of samples; Vo volume of
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hydrochloric acid for titration of the blank sample; N

3. Results and discussion
concentration of hydrochloric acid; f conversion factor
(6.25). 3.1 Effects of maltodextrin concentrations on the
recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins, and the
2.5.3 Determination of antioxidant capacity obtained powder properties
Effects of maltodextrin concentrations suggest a
In this study, antioxidant capacity was determined by
significant reduction of total protein content
the ABTS method (Re et al., 1998). The blue ABTS•+
corresponding with the increasing maltodextrin
turns into colorless ABTS-R+ when ABTS•+ reacts with
concentration due to the presence of residual
an oxidizing solution. There were three stages in
maltodextrin compounds (Table 1). After feed solution
determining antioxidant capacity. Firstly, to form free
was homogenized, maltodextrin compounds bound to
radical ABTS•+ solution 7 mM stock ABTS was mixed
dry matter compounds in protein hydrolysate. However,
with potassium persulfate. Then, the mixture was
the excessive amount of maltodextrin compounds could
incubated at room temperature for 12-16 hrs. Secondly,
result in residual maltodextrin, in turn occupying a
free radical ABTS•+ solution was diluted in phosphate
portion of the total dry matter content of powder and
solution (pH 7.4) to form solution A. Diluted free radical
reducing the total protein content.
ABTS•+ solution must have OD734nm = 0.70±0.02.
Thirdly, 50 µL sample (0 – 2000 µg/mL) was added into In contrast, recovery of proteins was increased
solution A. The reaction duration was about 30 mins. significantly when the concentrations of maltodextrin
The antioxidant capacity of the sample was expressed as increased from 0% to 10%. This can be explained by the
IC50, which is defined as the concentration of the sample higher hygroscopicity and stickiness of the control
required to inhibit ABTS radical 50%. sample, which includes 0% maltodextrin, than those of
the samples containing maltodextrin. Hence, a wide
2.5.4 Recovery of dry matter and proteins
range of peptides was stuck inside the drying chamber,
The recovery of dry matter and recovery of proteins resulting in reduced recovery yield. When the
were determined using the formulas. concentration of maltodextrin rose past 10%, the
Recovery of dry matter = (Total dry matter of powder/ hygroscopicity and stickiness were found to be declining.
(3) Thus, the recovered proteins and recovered dry matter
total dry matter of feed solution) x 100
Recovery of proteins = (Total protein content of powder/ both increased. However, as the maltodextrin
(4) concentration increased from 30% to 40%, the viscosity
total protein content of feed solution) x 100
of feed solution becomes extravagant, causing dry matter
2.6 Statistical analysis to remain in the feed solution. Then, low molecular
All the single factor experiments were carried out in peptides were stuck in the drying chamber. Therefore,
triplicate. The results were analyzed by JMP 9.0.2 (SAS the recovery of proteins was reduced when maltodextrin
Institute Inc., 2011; USA). The experimental results were concentration increased from 30% to 40%. The moisture
expressed as average values±standard deviations. content of the produced powder was found to be
Tukey’s test was utilized to compare mean values when decreasing with increasing maltodextrin concentration.
variances were found to be significant (p< 0.05). For the The increase of solid content could lead to a reduction of
optimization experiment, the significance of the equation free feed water content for evaporation, and in turn,
parameters for each response variable was analyzed by lower moisture content of the powder (Re et al., 1999).
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and RSM was performed Furthermore, maltodextrin is a high molecular compound

Table 1. Effects of maltodextrin concentrations on the recovery of dry matter, recovery of protein, and total protein content and
moisture content of the obtained powder
Total protein
Added maltodextrin Recovery of dry Moisture content Recovery of
content (% w/w)
0 60.38±1.11a 7.57±0.08d 91.74±0.08a 67.68±1.34a
10 62.52±1.02b 6.56±0.09c 54.42±0.55b 82.68±2.12b
20 68.67±0.75c 4.82±0.09b 30.82±0.49c 82.23±0.45c
30 69.15±0.39c 4.77±0.04b 21.36±0.43c 85.74±1.30c
40 73.08±0.23d 4.28±0.05a 12.8±0.54b 77.95±3.45b
Values are mean±standard deviation of triplicate samples. Values with different superscript within the column are significantly
different (Tukey’s Test, p<0.05).
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that is less hygroscopic. Thus, higher maltodextrin temperature. According to Tonon et al. (2008) and
concentration in the powder could reduce its moisture Samborska et al. (2015), the increase of inlet air
content. The recovery of dry matter was found to be temperature produces higher recovery of dry matter due

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increasing with rising maltodextrin concentration due to to higher mass and heat transfer.
the reduction of hygroscopicity and stickiness. Based on
the above results, 20% was selected as the most Based on Table 2, the IC50 of the powder obtained at
appropriate concentration for investigation of the effects 140 C, 150oC and 160oC were all lower than that those at
o

of inlet air temperatures, feed flow rates, and 130oC. Thus, the antioxidant capacity of powder at
optimization. 140oC, 150oC and 160oC were higher than the
antioxidant capacity of the sample at 130oC. As
3.2 Effects of inlet temperatures on the recovery of dry previously mentioned, the antioxidant capacity of protein
matter, recovery of proteins, and the obtained powder hydrolysate depends on its amino acids content. Thus,
properties the amino acids of the powder sample at 140oC, 150oC
and 160oC had high antioxidant capacity compared to
The results showed that the moisture content of the amino acids of the powder sample at 130oC. Besides, the
powder was reduced as the temperature increased (Table protein content of powder at 140oC and 150oC was
2). This is possibly due to higher inlet air temperature higher than protein content at 130oC. Based on the above
leading to faster heat transfer between the protein results, 140oC was the appropriate temperature for the
hydrolysate and drying air. For instances, the increase of next experiments.
temperature gradient between the protein hydrolysate
and drying air may exert driving force for water 3.3 Effects of feed flow rates on the recovery of dry
evaporation (Shabde and Hoo, 2008). matter, recovery of proteins, and the obtained powder
properties (total protein content and moisture content)
As the temperature rises from 130oC to 140oC, the
total protein content of powder and recovery of proteins The results showed that increasing of feed flow rate
increased significantly. It is due to the higher from 15 to 20 mL/min adversely affects the spray drying
hygroscopicity of low molecular peptides than those of of protein hydrolysate (Table 3). This is because the feed
maltodextrin compounds. Thus, at a lower temperature solution, when subjected to high speed, was not atomized
(130oC), the amount of sticky proteins was higher than before entering the drying chamber. Thus, the moisture
that observed at a higher temperature (140oC). The total content of the powder increased significantly due to low
protein content and recovery of proteins were reduced heat and mass transfer (Samborska et al., 2015).
when temperature increased from 150oC to 160oC due to
the heat sensitivity of proteins. Furthermore, the The recovery of dry matter was declining since dry
recovery of dry matter was increased with rising inlet air matter components were stuck in the drying chamber,
especially low molecular peptides which have high
Table 2. Effects of inlet air temperatures on the recovery of dry matter, recovery of protein, and total protein content; moisture
content and antioxidant capacity of the obtained powder
Temperature Recovery of dry Moisture content Total protein Recovery of
IC50 (mg/mL)
(°C) matter (%) (% w/w) content (% w/w) proteins (%)
130 59.92±0.58a 6.72±0.11d 24.52±0.66c 59.27±0.95a 4.134±0.056b
140 66.27±0.58b 5.49±0.15c 30.01±0.30b 77.76±0.26b 3.548±0.193e
150 69.06±0.24c 4.77±0.13b 30.77±0.45b 82.46±1.12c 3.819±0.033c
160 69.65±0.64c 4.35±0.04a 21.42±0.37a 57.64±1.23a 3.813±0.151d
Values are mean±standard deviation of triplicate samples. Values with different superscript within the column are significantly
different (Tukey’s Test, p<0.05).
Table 3. Effects of feed flow rates on the recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins and, total protein content and moisture
content of the obtained powder
Feed flow rates Recovery of dry Moisture content Total protein Recovery of
(mL/min) matter (%) (% w/w) content (% w/w) proteins (%)
5 68.92±0.76b 4.82±0.04a 29.31±0.43b 78.4±1.54b
10 67.91±0.27b 4.93±0.03a 29.34±0.64b 77.35±1.83b
15 67.15±0.80b 5.20±0.09b 29.32±0.34b 76.68±1.68b
20 50.44±0.76a 5.98±0.03c 21.22±0.32a 42.03±1.20a
Values are mean±standard deviation of triplicate samples. Values with different superscript within the column are significantly
different (Tukey’s Test, p<0.05).

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 145 Hong et al. / Food Research 5 (1) (2021) 140 - 148

hygroscopicity value. The total protein content and protein (Equation (6)), moisture content (Equation (7))
recovery of proteins were also in similar trends. and antioxidant activity (Equation (8)) of the powder
However, as revealed by the Tukey’s test, except for were 0.92, 0.89, 0.93, and 0.89, respectively. This
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moisture content, the results of the three remaining implies that there was a high correlation between
indicators were insignificantly different throughout the experimental values and predicted values. The
first three flow rate levels. Based on the value of correlations of these values were expressed in Figure 1.
moisture content, two feed flow rate levels, 5 mL/min Furthermore, the p-value of these responses was 0.001,
and 10 mL/min were suitable for the next experiment. 0.0006, 0.0029, 0.0026 (Figure 1), indicating that there
However, since 10 mL/min has shorter drying time, it were significant effects from independent variables to
was selected for the next experiment. responses. Therefore, inlet air temperatures and
maltodextrin concentrations have significant effects on
3.4 Optimization of inlet air temperatures and recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins, moisture
maltodextrin concentrations for the highest recovery of content and antioxidant activity of the powder.
dry matter and proteins, and the lowest moisture content
of the powder Furthermore, the linear regressions also showed that
there were interactions between two independents
Table 4 shows the values of recovery of dry matter, variables. These interactions also provide combined
recovery of proteins, moisture content and powder effects on processing recovery and moisture content of
antioxidant activity for each experimental attempt the powder. The effect of both inlet air temperatures and
obtained from the optimization experiment. As discussed maltodextrin concentrations were expressed by second-
in the method, the multiple linear regression analysis of order functions. Thus, the effects of independent
experimental data was distributed by these results. The variables on processing recovery and moisture content
second-order polynomial for three responses was were expressed as parabola model. For instances, in the
described by the Equation (5), Equation (6), Equation (7) investigation region, when the inlet temperatures and
and Equation (8) for recovery of dry matter (y1, %), maltodextrin concentrations increased until a certain
recovery of protein (y2, %), moisture content (y3, % w/ point, the responses will reach their optimal values.
w), and antioxidant activity IC50 (y4, %), respectively. However, reductions occur when independent variables
y1 = 67.59 + 2.67x1 – 2.66x2 – 2.51x1x2 – 2.59x12 – exceed their favorable points. In order to achieve optimal
(5)
3.19x22 responses, JMP provided critical values of independent
y2 = 76.61 + 1.69x1 – 2.85 x2 – 7 x1x2 – 5.93x12 – 8.44x22 (6) variables for all responses. The critical values are shown
2 2
in Figure 1. In addition, the predicted values of responses
y3 = 5.37 + 0.29x1 – 0.19x2 – 0.06x1x2 + 0.44x1 + 0.24x2 (7)
were also calculated. The optimal inlet air temperature
y4 = 2.02 + 0.13x1 – 0.21x2 – 0.17x1x2 + 0.19x12 + 0.12x22 (8) and maltodextrin concentration for each response also
The value of R2 measure how well of estimated calculated and these values were similar to ones of all
model fits the experimental data. The R2 value of responses. The optimal values of responses were
recovery of dry matter (Equation (5)), recovery of obtained at a temperature of 142.4oC and maltodextrin

Table 4. Effects of inlet air temperatures and maltodextrin concentrations on the recovery of dry matter and recovery of proteins
and moisture content of the obtained powder
Inlet air Maltodextrin Recovery of Recovery of total Antioxidant activity
Code Moisture
No temperatures (oC) concentrations (%) dry matter (%) protein content (%) (mg/mL)
levels content (%) y3 y4
x1 x2 y1 y2
1 a0 133 20 59.28 64.31 6.57 2.77
2 -- 135 19 60.25 57.37 6.27 2.57
3 -+ 135 21 57.74 61.9 6.64 2.38
4 0a 140 18.6 62.72 60.42 5.31 2.02
5 0 140 20 67.82 76.51 5.29 1.95
6 0 140 20 67.55 75.63 5.33 2.02
7 0 140 20 67.33 78.61 5.35 1.85
8 0 140 20 67.76 75.97 5.49 2.12
9 0 140 20 67.57 76.4 5.44 2.15
10 0A 140 21.4 58.42 57.84 6.04 2.56
11 +- 145 19 72.39 78.46 5.92 1.87
12 ++ 145 21 59.84 54.97 6.05 2.35
13 A0 147 20 64.27 63.79 5.58 2.11
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(a) recovery yield of dry matter (b) recovery yield of protein content

(c) moisture content of powder (d) powder antioxidant activity

Figure 1. Correlations between the predicted values and experimental values
concentration of 19.6% (w/w). These calculated Table 5. Validated values and predicted values of responses at
conditions were validated by performing actual spray optimal independent variables
drying attempts. The spray drying parameters for this Validated Predicted Relevant
o Responses
experiment included inlet air temperature of 142 C, the values values errors
feed flow rate of 10 mL/min, compressed air pressure of Recovery yield of dry 70.54a 69.33a 1.15
0.2 MPa, and maltodextrin concentration of 19.6% (w/ matter (%)
w). Recovery yield of protein
77.82a 77.18a 0.83
(%)
The values of relevant error were lower than 5%, Moisture content of powder
5.38a 5.31a 1.34
suggesting that there was a high correlation between (%)
validated values and predicted values. Based on the Powder antioxidant activity
1.79a 1.87a 0.08
values from Table 5 and the investigated values from (mg/mL)
previous experiments, the optimal parameters for spray Values with different superscript within the column are
drying of protein hydrolysate of crocodile meat were significantly different (Tukey’s Test, p<0.05).
inlet air temperature of 142.4oC, maltodextrin
concentration of 19.6%, and feed flow rate of 10 mL/
min. These conditions led to a product recovery of dry
matter of 69.33%, recovery of proteins of 77.18%,
moisture content of the obtained powder of 5.31% and
powder antioxidant activity of 1.87 mg/mL. The result of
dry matter recovery was similar to Kurozawa et al.
(2011) who studied the influences of process conditions
on powder property and dryer performance and found
that the product recovery at optimal conditions was 69%
(Kurozawa et al., 2011). SEM imaged of crocodile
Figure 2. SEM image of crocodile powder
powder is presented in Figure 2.

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 147 Hong et al. / Food Research 5 (1) (2021) 140 - 148

4. Conclusion (00)74983-6
The results of this study showed that the spray Gómez-Guillén, M.C., López-Cabalerro, M.E., Alemán,
FULL PAPER

drying parameters (maltodextrin concentrations, inlet air A., López de Lacey, A., Giménez, B. and Montero,
temperatures, and feed flow rates) had significant effects P. (2010). Antioxidant and antimicrobial peptide
on recovery of dry matter, recovery of proteins and the fractions from squid and tuna skin gelatin. Sea by-
obtained powder properties. Inlet temperatures had Products as a Real Material: New Ways of
significant effects on antioxidant capacity of the obtained Application, 2010, 89-115.
spray-dried powder. The antioxidant capacity, expressed Hoffman, L.C., Fisher, P.P. and Sales, J. (2000). Carcass
as IC50, of powdered obtained with spray drying at and meat characteristics of the Nile crocodile
140oC, was 3.548±0.193 (mg/mL). At feed flow rate at (Crocodylus niloticus). Journal of the Science of
10 mL/min, the optimal conditions for the highest Food and Agriculture, 80(3), 390 – 396. https://
recovery of dry matter, the highest recovery of proteins, doi.org/10.1002/1097-0010(200002)80:3<390::AID-
and the lowest moisture content of the powder were JSFA540>3.0.CO;2-G
obtained at the inlet air temperature of 142.4oC and
Jayasundera, M., Adhikari, B., Howes, T. and Aldred, P.
added maltodextrin concentration at 19.6%. The results
(2011). Surface protein coverage and its implications
of this study could help establish a preliminary
on spray-drying of model sugar-rich foods:
processing procedure for spray drying of crocodile meat
Solubility, powder production and characterisation.
protein hydrolysate. Stability of the obtained powder
Food Chemistry, 128(4), 1003-1016. https://
during storage can be studied before this powder can be
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.04.006
produced on a larger scale for product development.
Jittanit, W., Niti-Att, S. and Techanuntachaikul, O.
(2010). Study of spray drying of pineapple juice
Conflict of interest using maltodextrin as an adjunct. Chiang Mai
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Journal of Science, 37(3), 498-506.
Kurozawa, L.E., Park, K.J. and Hubinger, M.D. (2011).
Acknowledgments Spray drying of chicken meat protein hydrolysate:
This research was supported by a grant for the Influence of process conditions on powder
project: “Development if value-added food products property and dryer performance. Drying Technology,
from crocodile” from the Center for Statistics and 29(2), 163 – 173. https://
Science and Technology Information. doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2010.482711
Obón, J.M., Castellar, M.R., Alacid, M. and Fernández-
López, J.A. (2009). Production of a red-purple food
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