Literacy Instruction for Students with Significant Disabilities

Rachel Freer

Department of Education, University of Western Ontario

9482-650: Academic Learning for Students with Exceptionalities

Dr. Lori Kirkpatrick

June 21, 2024

 Literacy Instruction for Students with Significant Disabilities

Literacy among individuals with significant disabilities including Autism,

intellectual, and developmental disabilities is linked with positive outcomes in

academics, employment, independent living, and quality of life (Browder, Gibbs et al.,

2008). However, academic outcomes for this population remain poor, with these

students being the least likely to receive a diploma or engage in post-secondary

education, job training, and/or employment (Lindstrom & Lemon, 2021).

Historically, students with significant intellectual or developmental disabilities

(IDD) were not expected to learn how to read and educators often assume that children

with IDD are “not capable of learning to read beyond memorizing a limited corpus of

sight words (Allor, J. H., et al. (2018). “The "Right to Read" executive summary from the

Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC, 2002) highlights the systemic failures in

Ontario's public education system, particularly regarding the teaching of early reading

skills. The report indicates that the current system does not adequately support students

with reading disabilities, such as dyslexia, and fails to employ evidence-based teaching

methods. Additionally, students with IDD may “lack common experiences and have

fewer literacy experiences due to mobility issues, low expectations, and decreased time

in literacy activities” (Colmen-Martin et al., 2005).

This paper will explore the research, challenges, and effective methods for

teaching literacy to students with IDD, aligning with the established techniques used to

support other struggling learners (Allor, J. H., et al. (2018).

 Research indicates that there are numerous barriers for students with IDD when

acquiring literacy skills including cognitive function, behaviour, and communication

(Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020). Students with IDD often have difficulties with memory,

attention, and processing speeds, which can hinder their ability to acquire and retain

literacy skills. Additionally, concepts such as abstract thinking and transfer of skills from

one context to another are also challenging for these students (Erickson &

Koppenhaver, 2020). Coupled with cognitive ability, many students with IDD face

behavioural challenges such as lack of motivation, attention-deficit behaviors, and

oppositional defiance that can interfere with learning. Often these behaviours are

caused or exacerbated by a lack of understanding with the learning material or not

having the skills required to engage with it. Finally, students with difficulties

communicating may struggle to acquire literacy skills or lag behind their peers. Coleman

et al. (2005) found that “students especially at risk for reading difficulties are those who

lack speech” and that “lack of speech results in an inability to ask questions, request

information, and engage in interactional conversations about reading material.”

In addition to these barriers, there are varying degrees of experience,

pedagogical knowledge, and goals among teachers. Teachers' varying preparation and

attitudes regarding literacy instruction for their students are reflected in instructional

content and quality, and that “teachers with higher expectations for their students are

more likely to provide engaging, high-quality reading instruction (Lindstrom & Lemon,

2021).” Conner et al. (2005) notes that “little is known about how teachers of these

students are being trained in early literacy skills and implementing these practices in the

classroom” One study found that “25% of respondents [did] not agree very much that
all students can acquire literacy skills or should be provided with literacy instruction” and

that teachers largely do not feel they have been provided with the materials needed to

effectively engage students with IDD in literacy instruction (Conner et al., 2005) and that

as most curriculum is intended for a general classroom setting with neurotypical

students, “not many curricula are validated or targeted specifically to students with IDD

(Allor et al., 2018)” and/or teachers may not be aware of materials created with the

specific intention of supporting students with IDD. The same study also found that while

teachers report receiving substantial training in general instructional strategies, they

report less training in specific instructional strategies shown to be effective for students

with IDD, such as stimulus prompting, response prompting, system of least prompts,

error correction, or time delay (Conner et al., 2005).

Despite barriers, research indicates that there are numerous effective strategies

for literacy instruction for students with IDD, including differentiated instruction, direct

instruction, and assistive technology.

Differentiated instruction in literacy skills is a pedagogical approach that adapts

learning experiences to accommodate the diverse needs of students. It involves

adjusting various aspects of instruction, including content, process, and product, to align

with students' readiness levels, interests, and learning styles (Tomlinson, 2024). This

approach includes:

● Content Differentiation: adjusting the reading and writing material to suit

individual students' abilities. For example, some students might engage with

simpler texts, while others engage with more complex literary works.
 ● Process Differentiation: offering various methods for students to interact with

reading and writing tasks. One student might explore a literary concept through

hands-on activities, while another utilizes media resources or peer collaboration.

● Product Differentiation: providing multiple avenues for students to demonstrate

their comprehension and expression of literacy skills. For instance, one student

might create a visual representation of a story, while another writes a persuasive

essay (Troia, 2013).

For differentiated instruction in reading and writing literacy skills to effectively

support students with IDD teachers must demonstrate adaptability, creativity, and

responsiveness to their students' unique needs (Troia, 2013). By fostering an inclusive

environment, educators can create opportunities for all students to succeed in their

literacy acquisition (Tomlinson, 2024).

While differentiated instruction allows the student to have more autonomy in their

learning, direct or explicit instruction “helps students gain fluency and automaticity over

a particular concept” in which there is no rote learning and students are taught

strategies to allow them to retain information over a long period of time. Explicit

instruction “involves using highly structured and sequenced steps to teach a specific

skill (Gauthier et al., 2013) and generally involves 3 steps: modeling, guided practice,

and independent practice.

Modeling involves the teacher explicitly showing the students what concept they

will be learning and demonstrating it. The teacher also clearly states the “what, why,

how, when and where of what they are doing” as they are doing it, typically in small
steps from simple to more complex ("Explicit Instruction: A Teaching Strategy," n.d.).

Following modeling, students engage in guided practice where, with supports, they are

offered an opportunity to demonstrate that they have understood the concept or skill,

and allows the teacher to provide positive feedback as well as improvements on their

work. The final stage of explicit instruction is independent practice in which the student

has the opportunity to demonstrate their learning in new environments. This ensures

that they have mastery of the concept or skill and provides the teacher to identify any

areas where ongoing support may be needed ("Explicit Instruction: A Teaching

Strategy," n.d.). A study by Flores et. al (2013) indicates that students with IDD who

receive explicit literacy instruction had a stronger understanding of concepts and skills

and that it “may also better prepare them for participation in group situations within

general education classrooms.”

Assistive technology is another way that educators can provide students with IDD

the skills needed for literacy acquisition. Assistive technology included any device that is

“used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with

disabilities (Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020).” Erickson and Koppenhaver (2020) note

that while research suggests that the use of assistive technology “leads to strong,

positive outcomes” in learning for students with IDD, they often have limited access to it.

With regards to literacy acquisition, assistive technology can “circumvent the challenges

imposed by a variety of disabilities” as long as its use matches the needs and goals of

the individual learner (Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020). For early learners where

communication is the main goal, assistive technology can use symbols or pictures to

provide students with core vocabulary knowledge, while more advanced learners may
use assistive technology to produce larger font, convert text to speech (and vice versa),

and support spelling accuracy, amongst other uses (Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020).

Ultimately, literacy acquisition for students with intellectual and developmental

disabilities is challenging, but not impossible. Literacy is crucial for these students as it

correlates with improved academic outcomes, employment opportunities, independent

living, and an enhanced quality of life (Browder, Gibbs et al., 2008). Despite historical

low expectations and systemic failures (OHRC, 2002), research has identified effective

strategies that can significantly enhance literacy instruction for this population.

Barriers such as cognitive function, behavioral challenges, and communication

difficulties hinder literacy acquisition (Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020). Additionally, the

variability in teacher preparation and attitudes towards the capabilities of students with

IDD further complicates effective instruction (Conner et al., 2005). However,

differentiated instruction, explicit instruction, and the use of assistive technology have

shown promise in addressing these challenges (Tomlinson, 2024; Gauthier et al., 2013;

Erickson & Koppenhaver, 2020).

Differentiated instruction caters to individual learning needs, while direct

instruction ensures students gain fluency and mastery of concepts and skills. Assistive

technology, although underused, offers significant benefits in supporting literacy

acquisition. By fostering an inclusive environment and employing these evidence-based

strategies, educators can improve literacy outcomes for students with IDD, more closely

aligning their educational experiences with those of their neurotypical peers.

 Access to adequate special education and embracing these effective

instructional strategies is essential. Literacy is not a luxury, but a fundamental right that

ensures all students, regardless of their disabilities, can access and benefit from

education (OHRC, 2002). Future efforts should focus on enhancing teacher training,

increasing access to assistive technology, and maintaining high expectations for all

students to ensure that literacy becomes an achievable goal for everyone.

 References

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Browder, D. M., Gibbs, S. L., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Courtade, G. R., Mraz, M., &

Flowers, C. (2008). "Literacy for students with severe developmental disabilities: What

should we teach and what should we hope to achieve?" Remedial and Special

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